%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Precious Metal Mining in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3767--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3767.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold_%28Dixie_Mine%2C_Idaho_Springs%2C_Colorado%2C_USA%29_3_%2817030135106%29_0.jpg?itok=RpPwBrd-" width="1090" height="757" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gold Taken from Colorado Mine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>During the raising of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> millions of years ago, superheated fluids rose from deep within the Earth and pushed minerals such as gold and silver up through the Earth's crust. Erosion brought pieces of gold downstream in creeks (placer gold), while the deeper deposits (lode gold) could only be recovered by skilled labor and technology.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3768--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3768.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/argo-tunnel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/6210103088_252254fdb0_k_0.jpg?itok=DjskRzJC" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/argo-tunnel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Argo Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Argo Tunnel was part of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>precious metal minin</strong></a>g operations in <a href="/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a> and <a href="/article/clear-creek-county"><strong>Clear Creek County</strong></a> during the late nineteenth century. At more than four miles long, it connected a host of gold mines between <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a> and <strong>Idaho Springs</strong> before it was shuttered following an accident in 1943.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-08-09T11:55:06-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 9, 2022 - 11:55" class="datetime">Tue, 08/09/2022 - 11:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado" data-a2a-title="Precious Metal Mining in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprecious-metal-mining-colorado&amp;title=Precious%20Metal%20Mining%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From the 1850s to the 1920s, gold and silver mining drove Colorado’s economy, making it into an urbanized, industrial state. The rapid development of Colorado’s mineral resources had political, social, and environmental consequences. The mining of gold and silver in Colorado began in earnest during the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. The state’s first miners used metal pans to sift gold nuggets out of riverbeds. Prospecting these streams quickly outlined a mineral belt stretching diagonally across the state from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Colorado’s principal towns and mines were developed within this belt. Industrial mining followed, allowing for deeper extraction of gold and silver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining spurred many events in Colorado history, including the removal of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/person/native-americans"><strong>Indigenous people</strong></a>, the development of commercial agriculture, the organization of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>territory</strong></a> and state of Colorado, the <strong>Civil War</strong> in the West, the development of <strong>railroads,</strong> and heavy industry such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal mining</strong></a>, precious- and base-metal <strong>smelting</strong>, and<strong> steel production</strong>. Most of the state’s influential political figures from the late nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries had connections to the metal industry. That industry attracted immigrants, ideas, and technology from all over the world. Mining and smelting also led to the development of unions, strikes, and labor conflicts in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it no longer underwrites the state economy, precious metal mining continues in Colorado today, the ongoing legacy of discoveries made more than 150 years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology of Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s precious metals were embedded into the rocks of the northeastern <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> tens of millions of years ago. Superheated fluids transported dissolved minerals into fractures in pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks and into soluble Paleozoic limestone. As the solutions cooled, free metals and metallic compounds were deposited in the rock. Gold is generally found throughout veins of quartz-rich igneous rocks called “pegmatites” or compounded with another element called tellurium into “gold telluride.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silver, meanwhile, is rarely found on its own. It is usually associated with lead, zinc, iron, and <strong>other metals,</strong> as well as non-metallic sulfur, carbonate, and chloride in minerals such as galena, cerussite, and sphalerite. These minerals formed the heavy, dark gray silver-lead ore found in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> during the 1870s. And as the iron sulfide (also called pyrite or “fool’s gold”) was exposed to air, it was altered to form weak sulfuric acid that leaks out of mines and into local water sources, a phenomenon known as <strong>acid mine drainage</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the northeastern Colorado mineral belt, the mountains were uplifted at the end of the Cretaceous Period (65–70 million years ago). Fast-flowing water and glacial ice eroded these rocks and deposited the metals in the gravel and sand of stream channels, sand bars, and terraces. These streams were the first locations where gold was found in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southwestern portion of the mineral belt was formed very differently. Around 25–35 million years ago, a long episode of volcanic eruptions deposited thick lava flows over the entire region. Some of these were super-sized, explosive volcanoes that created calderas similar to the Yellowstone caldera, only smaller. Superheated fluids containing dissolved metals, similar to the geysers in Yellowstone, flowed into fractures in these volcanic rocks and precipitated the metals as they cooled. These calderas—including the Silverton, Lake City, Creede, Bonanza, La Garita, and others—are now the locations of the principal San Juan mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Types of Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Placer Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Panning gold from stream and terrace gravels is called <em>placer </em>mining, derived from the Spanish word <em>placer</em> or “pleasure”—the gold is available at one’s pleasure. Between 1858 and 1867, Colorado placer miners took out more than $14 million in gold (when gold was valued at about $20 per troy ounce) from creeks and streambeds. The early Colorado prospectors needed only a large pan that looked like a pie pan, a pick, and a shovel to pan for gold. Being denser than the sand around it, the gold settled to the bottom of the pan as the water and lighter sand swirled away.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A strong magnet could then separate heavy black iron (magnetite) that would settle to the pan's bottom. A problem in some parts of Colorado was the presence of another heavy black mineral that was non-magnetic. During the early gold rush, this mineral was assayed as a lead compound, which was worthless to gold miners. Only later would it be found to contain silver as well as lead, zinc, and other metals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To process more gold-bearing sand than an individual with a pan, miners began working in teams using rockers, a cradle-like wooden box, and sluices—long, high-sided wooden flumes with numerous cross-pieces nailed to the bottom. Both techniques emulated the natural stream-sorting of the denser gold nuggets, flakes, and dust while carrying off the gravel and sand. Because a considerable flow of water was needed to separate the gold, this technology was little used in areas with seasonal stream flows.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hydraulic Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>When placer deposits ran out, miners in places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a> turned to hydraulic mining, in which highly pressurized water was used to blast thick terrace gravel away from hillsides, sending the metal-containing debris down into a series of sluices. However, the relative lack of water and hose materials, as well as the fact that many gulches had already been placer-mined to exhaustion, meant that hydraulic mining did not become as prevalent in Colorado as it had in California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hard-Rock Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Instead of hydraulic mining, most of Colorado’s gold and silver were taken out by mining the bedrock. Miners started using this method in the early 1860s. Lode or hard-rock mining required digging shafts and tunnels into the mountains, following the veins downward from the surface. Recoverable gold and silver in the lodes is called <em>ore</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first, hard-rock miners used hand drills, sharpened pieces of steel like long chisels, that were hit with hammers to drill holes for black powder. The explosive would blow apart the ore-bearing rock, allowing the ore to be shoveled into ore cars for the trip to the surface. By the 1890s, when the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> gold rush and silver booms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/creede">Creede</a> </strong>were in full swing, hand drills began to be replaced by steam-powered or compressed-air drills.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Processing Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early days of the Colorado Gold Rush, placer miners borrowed the Spanish process of using mercury to extract gold; the two heavy metals were bound together in an amalgam and would sink to the bottom of the sluice. The amalgam was then heated in a retort until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold and retorted mercury to be collected.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1860s, before successful smelting in Colorado, ore was taken from a mine to a stamp mill, where it was crushed into sand and then washed over copper plates embedded with mercury, or simply into sluice boxes to recover the gold. The use of mercury posed a threat to miners, mill workers, and local wildlife, as documented by the gold seeker-turned-naturalist <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/edwin-carter"><strong>Edwin Carter</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early stamp milling was relatively inefficient, with as little as 25 percent of the gold content recovered. The inefficiency came because milling is only a physical separation process and does not break the chemical bonds between the rock and gold. As mines became deeper, lower-grade ore and ore laden with sulfides made profitable milling difficult. The result was the first “bust” in Colorado’s gold “boom.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Advent of Smelting</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1860s, entrepreneurial chemistry professor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathaniel-p-hill"><strong>Nathaniel P. Hill</strong></a> applied a process he learned in Wales to build the state’s first successful smelter in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>. Smelters use heat to melt milled ore and chemically separate the precious metals. The advent of smelting not only revived the struggling mining industry in Colorado but also launched the potential extraction of silver from complex ores.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Smelting also galvanized the <a href="file:///C:/Users/yongli/Downloads/coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal industry</strong></a>, as large amounts of coke—an industrial fuel derived from coal—were needed to fuel the smelters. By 1890 Leadville had fourteen smelters, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and Denver had three, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>, Aspen, and <strong>Durango</strong> each had one.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A new gold-extraction process gained traction in Colorado during the Cripple Creek gold boom of the 1890s. Using cyanide to separate gold was, as mining historian Jay Fell writes, “far more efficient than stamp milling and far less expensive than smelting.” Like earlier stamp milling, the process involved crushing the gold ore into sand, but instead of running it over copper plates or through sluices, the cyanide mills sent the sand into vats of a cyanide solution which dissolved gold for extraction.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like smelting, cyanide milling was developed overseas; it was used extensively in South Africa during the 1880s before being implemented in Colorado mining operations at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crestone"><strong>Crestone</strong></a> and Cripple Creek. Despite the success of cyanide in gold processing, silver-lead-zinc ores still had to be smelted. Many Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters operated until the 1920s, and one each in Denver and Leadville operated until the 1960s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Timeline of Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Early History</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1849 California Gold Rush set off the search for precious metals across the American West. On their way to California, various groups traveling across the Rockies began finding small amounts of gold in <strong>Cherry Creek</strong> and other streams near present-day Denver. These early findings attracted little attention after the 1851 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> made the area more accessible to non-Natives and an economic depression in 1857 led many eastern Americans to seek their fortunes in the West. In 1858 the party of <strong>William Green Russell</strong>, prospectors with experience from gold rushes in Georgia and California, made a minor gold discovery in Cherry Creek.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The ensuing Colorado Gold Rush saw thousands of people cross the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> to newly established towns such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, Cañon City, and Golden; by 1860, the non-Native population of Colorado—which was then still controlled mainly by Indigenous people and officially part of western Kansas Territory—numbered over 34,000. The following year, with the Civil War looming, Congress organized Colorado Territory in part to safeguard the gold-producing region from the emerging Confederacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s population swiftly declined in the early 1860s, as many of the most popular gold streams were panned out and hard rock mining began. People left the area to join the Union or Confederate armies and to seek their fortunes in the Idaho and Montana gold rushes that began in 1862.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Spread Across the Rockies</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the mid-to-late 1860s, the violent removal of the <strong>Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, as well as treaties with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of the Rocky Mountains and the importing of stamp milling and smelting, revived Colorado’s gold-mining industry. This was followed in the 1870s by the development of railroads in the mining districts and discoveries of gold and silver in the San Juan Mountains, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison Valley</strong></a>, and Leadville. The forced removal of much of Colorado’s Ute population in 1881 made industrial mining possible in places such as Aspen (silver) and the San Juan Mountain towns of <strong>Ouray</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> (gold and silver).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Silver’s Rise and Fall</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The fates of Colorado’s gold and silver mining industries were always bound to national events. Beginning in the late 1850s, during the Colorado Gold Rush, the rapid development of the Comstock Lode, a massive silver deposit in Nevada, sent the price of silver tumbling. The price drop continued when Colorado’s silver industry came alive in Leadville in the late 1870s, prompting those invested in western silver to lobby Congress for support. The Bland-Allison Act, passed in 1878, compelled the government to purchase a set amount of silver each year and was a boon for Colorado mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 increased the government’s silver-buying obligation and further stimulated silver production in Colorado. During the ensuing debate over which precious metals would back US currency, most Coloradans supported silver because Colorado’s silver mines, anchored by booming Leadville and Aspen, were producing some $20 million in silver each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The overproduction of silver had already caused its price to drop by about a quarter when another <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>economic depression hit in 1893</strong>.</a> That year, the US government sought to protect its diminishing gold reserves by halting its silver purchases. After the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, the price of silver dropped even further, to about sixty-three cents per ounce by 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the repeal was intended to stimulate the national economy, it devastated Colorado’s. Of the silver mining towns, Leadville suffered the most, with ninety mines closed and 2,500 unemployed. Aspen’s silver boom effectively ended, and the town later had to reinvent itself as a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski</strong></a> destination to survive. Altogether, more than 9,500 jobs dried up in mining towns across the state. Colorado’s silver industry never recovered, with production dwindling to below $10 million per year after the turn of the century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Cripple Creek and Consolidation</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the bane of Colorado’s silver industry, repealing the Sherman Act was a boon for mining gold and other metals. Many out-of-work silver miners flocked to new discoveries in the Cripple Creek gold mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cripple Creek district was on the western flank of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, where local rancher Bob Womack found gold in 1890. With the repeal of the Sherman Act, the value of gold in Colorado increased by about $4 million (40 percent) from 1894 to 1895 and reached a peak of $28 million in 1900, due primarily to Cripple Creek production.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As in other industries—such as railroads, steel, and petroleum—the precious metals industry began to consolidate in the 1890s. This led to the creation of large companies that controlled both mines and smelters. Formed in 1899, the <strong>American Smelting and Refining Company</strong> (ASARCO) was the most significant of these companies in Colorado, operating the <strong>Globe smelter</strong> in Denver, the Arkansas Valley smelter in Leadville, and the <strong>Colorado smelter</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, as well as dozens of mines across the state. Several years later, ASARCO also acquired the Guggenheim family’s smelters at those locations, creating a near-monopoly in Colorado’s smelting industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Twentieth Century</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thereafter, the amount of gold produced in Colorado began to taper off, dropping from 20 million ounces in 1900 to 8.5 million by 1910, then down to 5.4 million ounces in 1920. Gold’s value, however, remained steady throughout the 1910s, hovering around $20 million for the better part of the decade. Its value declined as English investors pulled out of Colorado mines to support their home nation during <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1910s, dredging provided hope for gold mining outfits in five Colorado counties. Dredging used a mechanical chain of buckets attached to a boom on a huge flat-bottom barge floating on a self-dug pond. The dredge buckets scooped large volumes of riverbed gravel into an onboard sluice, where gold was separated. The “waste” gravel was then stacked by a conveyor belt in huge dredge piles still visible along the Blue River near Breckenridge and southeast of <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>. Although it did not bring gold mining back to its heyday, dredging yielded modest gold production in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a> Counties through the early 1940s, when the federal government halted gold mining during <strong>World War II</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, with mine production continuing to fall, most Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters had been shut down by the late 1920s, leaving only one Leadville and one Denver facility in operation. Fewer smelters meant higher costs for transporting ore, making it even harder to turn a profit on the lower-grade ore that remained. Gold and silver production and values dwindled. To compensate, the US Mint stopped coining gold in 1933 and raised the price from $20 per troy ounce to $35 per troy ounce, where it remained until 1972.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war, gold and silver became mere nuggets in the state’s mining stream, which was dominated by <strong>molybdenum </strong>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/uranium-mining"><strong>uranium</strong></a>. The last underground mine in the Cripple Creek District shut down in 1964. By 1975, when US citizens could again own gold bullion, Colorado still produced some $5.4 million in gold annually. However, along with silver, gold was primarily a by-product of mining for other, more profitable metals. Colorado’s molybdenum production, for instance, was $183 million that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Labor Strife</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the precious-metal mining industry consolidated in the late nineteenth century, the era of the individual prospector rushing to strike it rich came to an end, replaced by the grueling drudgery of workers mining for a company. Hard-rock mining was dangerous, with daily hazards including rock falls, injuries from drills and other equipment, and dynamite blasts. As mining historian Duane Smith put it, many accidents and injuries stemmed from “general rashness and lack of care” on behalf of the companies and fellow workers. In addition, many miners developed silicosis, a deadly lung disease caused by inhaling tiny rock particles all day. By 1900 miners braved all these risks for an average of about three dollars per eight-hour day, paltry earnings compared to those of the company bosses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Disgruntled hard-rock miners joined the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners</strong></a> (WFM), which lobbied for better pay and working conditions and organized strikes in such places as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896%E2%80%9397"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <strong>Cripple Creek</strong>, and <strong>Telluride</strong>. The tensions that stemmed from the miners’ exploited condition sometimes boiled over into outright labor conflict, such as when WFM members in Cripple Creek blew up a train platform where strikebreakers arrived in 1894 or when striking miners shot at and bombed strikebreakers in Leadville in 1896. For all their organizing and sacrifice, miners’ gains in this period were relatively small; slight pay increases, as well as the state’s implementation of an eight-hour workday in 1899, were among their victories—although subsequent strikes proved necessary to get mine owners to follow the law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Production</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it is far from being as profitable as it was in the nineteenth century, gold and silver mining continues in Colorado today. After a brief hiatus in the 1960s, gold and silver mining resumed at the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine in the late 1970s. Today the mine produces about 322,000 ounces of gold and silver each year. While this is nothing compared to the 25 million ounces pulled out of Colorado mines in 1893, its value—some $580 million at a rate of roughly $1,800 per troy ounce—is still substantial.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mine operators still use milling technology to crush the ore to a usable size. From there, the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine now use a process called <em>heap-leaching </em>to recover gold from ore instead of cyanide vats. In heap-leaching, the ore is crushed into sand, piled up, and dripped with a cyanide solution that causes the metals to dissolve and leach into a catchment pond, where the gold can be recovered, and the cyanide reused.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Legacy</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining played an essential role in the development of modern Colorado, but it also touched off a statewide environmental crisis that is ongoing today. Acid mine drainage—the breakdown and leaching of sulfide metals from mine workings, mine waste rock, and mill tailings into local water sources—became a concern in the late twentieth century due to the Clean Water Act and similar environmental laws. This has resulted in lawsuits against mining companies and the creation of several <strong>Superfund sites in Colorado</strong> where the US <strong>Environmental Protection Agency</strong> (EPA) has worked to contain and treat contaminated water from mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the EPA is tasked with cleaning up mines with acidic drainage, the agency has sometimes caused further damage. In 2015, EPA crews <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-king-mine-spill"><strong>accidentally released</strong></a> some 3 million gallons of metal-contaminated water into the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>. That spill, originating from the <strong>Gold King Mine</strong> north of Durango, demonstrated the risk of modern environmental disasters arising from nineteenth-century gold and silver mining in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the mines themselves, processing precious metals also produced environmental problems. Emissions from smelters caused localized acid rain; the emissions, as well as the waste material from smelting called <em>slag</em>, contained high levels of arsenic and lead, both harmful to human health. Multiple smelter locations across the state, including in Denver’s <strong>Globeville</strong> neighborhood and in Pueblo, became Superfund cleanup sites in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with the EPA and in some cases, the smelting company working to remove contaminated soil and slag piles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, the legacy of Colorado’s precious-metal mines also continues in other, more positive ways. As a result of its durability and malleability, much of the gold mined in Colorado during the 1800s is still in use today, whether in jewelry, electronics, space probes, or the treasury reserves of nations across the globe. And the silver, used in US coins until 1972 and in film processing until the 1990s, is now found in jewelry and high-conductivity electronic circuits. Although more than 160 years have passed since the Colorado Gold Rush began, the sun’s gleam off the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>State Capitol</strong></a>’s gold dome continues to reflect the state’s mining heritage.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/hart-steve" hreflang="und">Hart, Steve</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/fell-james-e" hreflang="und">Fell, James E.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">gold mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">silver mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/metal-mining" hreflang="en">metal mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/acid-mine-drainage" hreflang="en">acid mine drainage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-hawk" hreflang="en">Black Hawk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cripple-creek" hreflang="en">Cripple Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smelter" hreflang="en">smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/breckenridge" hreflang="en">Breckenridge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hosa" hreflang="en">hosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brunot-agreement" hreflang="en">Brunot Agreement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>American Museum of Natural History, “<a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions">Forming Deposits</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vladimir Basov, “<a href="https://www.mining.com/heap-leach-minings-breakthrough-technology/">Heap Leach: Mining’s breakthrough technology</a>,” Mining.com, August 20, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.asarco.com/about-us/company-history/">Company History</a>,” ASARCO, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.newmont.com/operations-and-projects/global-presence/north-america/cripple-creek-victor-us/default.aspx">Cripple Creek &amp; Victor</a>,” Newmont Mining, updated 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell and Eric Twitty, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2017/651.pdf">The Mining Industry in Colorado</a>,” National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Documentation Form, OMB No. 1024-0018 (March 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Henderson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0138/report.pdf">Mining in Colorado: A History of Discovery, Development and Production</a>,” USGS Professional Paper 138 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hobart M. King, “<a href="https://geology.com/minerals/silver.shtml">Silver</a>,” Geology.com, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terry Norgate and Nawshad Haque, “Using life cycle assessment to evaluate some environmental impacts of gold production,” <em>Journal of Cleaner Production</em> 29-30 (July 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1860/population/1860a-38.pdf">Population of the United States in 1860: Territory of Colorado</a>,” US Census Bureau, 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/coloradoslag.html#:~:text=The%20waste%20materials%20were%20then,the%20only%20ones%20at%20risk.">Pueblo, CO Exposure Investigation Success Story</a>,” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, updated April 11, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Shunk, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/restaurants/globeville-was-a-superfund-site-could-we-garden-there-10767357">Here’s the Dirt on Gardening in Globeville</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, September 12, 2018. Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold &amp; Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/case-summary-epa-funded-sites-and-communities-asarco-bankruptcy-settlement">Case Summary: EPA Funded Sites and Communities in the ASARCO Bankruptcy Settlement</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://semspub.epa.gov/work/08/312995.pdf">Fact Sheet: Yak Tunnel Cleanup—California Gulch Superfund Site</a>,” April 1989.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.cleanup&amp;id=0802700">Superfund Site: Colorado Smelter—Pueblo, CO—Cleanup Activities</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell, <em>Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Henry Jackson and John Fielder, <em>Colorado: 1870–2000 </em>(Silverthorne, CO: John Fielder Publishing, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Aug 2022 17:55:06 +0000 yongli 3721 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lena Stoiber http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lena-stoiber <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lena Stoiber</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-28T11:36:58-06:00" title="Thursday, October 28, 2021 - 11:36" class="datetime">Thu, 10/28/2021 - 11:36</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lena-stoiber" data-a2a-title="Lena Stoiber"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flena-stoiber&amp;title=Lena%20Stoiber"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Lena Alma Allen Webster Stoiber Rood Ellis (1862–1935) was the “Bonanza Queen” of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>. Known as “Captain Jack” or “Jack Pants” to the miners who worked for her, she was a tough boss who worked in conjunction with her second husband, Edward G. Stoiber, at the Silver Lake Mine. He managed the mine and she managed the miners, outswearing them and ruling with an iron first. She has become a mythicized figure in Colorado history, often sensationalized for her four marriages and her colorful life, which did not correspond with cultural expectations for elite women at the time.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Lena Alma Allen was born on April 2, 1862, to Mary Jane and George Washington Allen in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Little is known about her childhood. Lena Allen’s first husband was Frederick Charles Webster, a Yale graduate and successful lawyer. They married in Minneapolis on August 7, 1877. The Websters moved west to Colorado after their marriage and settled in <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville">Leadville</a></strong>, then at the start of its silver boom, where Frederick Webster served as city attorney. The marriage did not last, and the couple divorced on April 9, 1887. Frederick Webster moved to Montana, while Lena remained in Colorado, supporting herself for a time by working at <strong>Joslin’s Dry Goods</strong> in <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver">Denver</a></strong>.</p> <h2>Edward Stoiber</h2> <p>After relocating to Silverton, Lena Webster met Edward George Stoiber, a <a href="/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> engineer. The couple wed on March 29, 1888, in Illinois. Stoiber was originally from New York, where he was born to German immigrant parents in 1855. After attending Columbia College in New York, he began working in the mining industry by the late 1870s. He relocated first to Leadville, then to <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county">San Juan County</a></strong>. By 1885 he was working there with his brother, Gustavus. Around that time, the brothers purchased the Silver Lake mine near Silverton. About two years later, the brothers had a disagreement and divided their mutual assets. Edward retained ownership of the Silver Lake mine.</p> <h2>Marriage and Mining</h2> <p>Edward and Lena Stoiber spent their honeymoon at the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hotel-de-paris">Hotel de Paris</a></strong> in <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/georgetown%E2%80%93silver-plume-historic-district">Georgetown</a></strong>. The couple then settled in Silverton. It was in this first residence that Lena Stoiber became known for constructing “spite fences.” She had disagreements with her Silverton neighbors, and to spite them she built a two-story fence around her house to obstruct her neighbors’ views.</p> <p>Her neighbors were probably not surprised to learn that Stoiber was also a tough mining boss. While her husband managed the Silver Lake mine, she managed the miners. There are many outlandish stories about her time overseeing the Silver Lake miners. Some of the tales are myths, but Stoiber was in fact notorious for going from bar to bar to round up her miners and send them back to work. She also held parties and arranged entertainment for them, managed their boardinghouse, and helped look after their families. Owing to her impressive work in the mining industry, in 1894 Stoiber was named an associate member of the American Society of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers—a high honor, particularly for a woman of her time. The Stoibers were tough bosses, but they were respected by their employees and their mining interests saw great success.</p> <p>During the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893">Panic of 1893</a></strong>, which shuttered many mines, the Stoibers approached the crisis with clear heads and were able to survive by reducing the cost per ton and continuing to produce profitable low-grade ores. Thanks to their frugality and business savvy, the Stoibers retained their mine and their wealth. In the late 1890s, they decided to build a new house near their mine. Their three-story brick residence, called Waldheim, was completed in 1897 and had all the modern conveniences: electricity, plumbing, and a furnace.</p> <h2>Philanthropy</h2> <p>When Lena Stoiber wasn’t busy managing the Silver Lake miners, she was actively involved in the Silverton community. During the holiday season, she would deliver presents to every child in town. In 1898 she hosted a group from the <strong>Denver Woman’s Club </strong>at Waldheim as part of their biennial meeting.</p> <p>Around 1901 Edward Stoiber sold Silver Lake to the <strong>American Smelting and Refining Company</strong>. After the sale, the Stoibers relocated to Denver and began to travel the world. Lena Stoiber remained active in local charitable organizations after the move to Denver. She furnished rooms at the YWCA home and was a trustee and incorporator of the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association in 1900. She played a major role in the <strong>movement</strong> to establish <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park">Mesa Verde</a></strong> as a national park in 1906.</p> <h2>Edward’s Death</h2> <p>In Denver the Stoibers planned a large mansion at Tenth and Humboldt Streets, next to <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cheesman-park">Cheesman Park</a></strong>. Edward Stoiber never saw it completed, as he passed away suddenly after contracting typhoid fever while abroad in Paris. After his death, Lena Stoiber continued with the existing plans and her new mansion, <strong>Stoiberhof</strong>, was finished in 1907. Later, the property boasted another spite fence. To honor her late husband, in 1906 Lena Stoiber established the Edward Stoiber Prize at the <strong>Colorado School of Mines</strong> to honor the best senior thesis involving the concentration of ores and the separation of metals. The prize was awarded annually until at least 1916.</p> <h2>Rood Marriage</h2> <p>Stoiber continued to live alone at Stoiberhof until January 1909, when she married Hugh Roscoe Rood in Vancouver, Washington. A lumber baron from Seattle, Rood was president of the Pacific Coast Creosoting Company. After their marriage, the Roods split their time between Washington and Colorado.</p> <p>In 1912 the couple was in Europe when Hugh Rood decided to sail back to the United States. Lena decided to stay behind in Europe, while her husband booked passage home on the <em>Titanic</em>. He perished when it sank on April 14, 1912. Apparently in disbelief that her third husband had died, Lena Stoiber Rood placed advertisements in newspapers searching for her husband. Rumors swirled that he had survived the sinking, but he was never found.</p> <h2>Fourth Marriage</h2> <p>After the death of her third husband, Lena Stoiber Rood sold Stoiberhof to <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/verner-zevola-reed">Verner Z. Reed</a></strong> and spent some time in Paris. In 1918 she married for a fourth time to Commander Mark St. Clair Ellis of the US Navy. The couple did not have a happy marriage and separated after only a year. After their separation, Lena began spending most of her time in Europe. She bought a villa in Stresa, Italy, and remained there for the rest of her life.</p> <h2><strong>Legacy</strong></h2> <p>Lena Alma Allen Stoiber Rood Ellis passed away on March 27, 1935 in Stresa, Italy. Her body was brought back to Colorado and buried with her second husband, Edward Stoiber, in his mausoleum at <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fairmount-cemetery">Fairmount Cemetery</a></strong>. Her name is not inscribed on the mausoleum.</p> <p>Stoiber left a large estate upon her death and had no direct heirs. In her will, she named her siblings, nephews, Stoiber family members, employees, and friends as inheritors. Shortly after her death, a woman named Magdalena Domínguez came forward with a claim that Stoiber had adopted her and that she was therefore heir to the Stoiber estate. According to Domínguez’s story, Lena Stoiber agreed to adopt Dominguez as a child and to bequeath Domínguez a share of her estate upon her death. Domínguez took her claims to court, but in the end there was no evidence of an adoption and her claims were dismissed.</p> <p>Myths have surrounded the life of Lena Stoiber since her death. Supposedly, she once refused an offer to become the Queen of Serbia. She has also been painted as a “black widow” since two of her husbands died and many believed that her first husband also died or disappeared instead of relocating to Montana. The truth seems to be that Lena Stoiber stood apart from her contemporaries as a modern woman who pushed the boundaries of what was considered appropriate for a woman of her time.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/carr-shelby" hreflang="und">Carr, Shelby</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lena-stoiber" hreflang="en">Lena Stoiber</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edward-stoiber" hreflang="en">Edward Stoiber</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-lake-mine" hreflang="en">Silver Lake mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/frederick-webster" hreflang="en">Frederick Webster</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“Death of E. G. Stoiber,” <em>Las Animas Leader</em>, April 27, 1906.</p> <p><em>“</em>Frederick Charles Webster,” <em>Obituary Record of Graduates Deceased During the Year Ending July 1, 1927 </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1927).</p> <p>Larry Goodwin, “Silver Lake Basin: A Mining Chronicle,” <em>Mining History Association Journal </em>(2016).</p> <p>Lena Stoiber Papers, Mss. 3121, History Colorado Center, Denver, n.d..</p> <p>“Magnitude of Disaster Shocks Whole World: Hugh Rood of Denver Lost, Mrs. J.J. Brown Is Rescued,” <em>Rocky Mountain News, </em>April 17, 1912.</p> <p>Constance Merrill Primus, <em>Victorian Visitors at the Hotel de Paris in Georgetown, Colorado </em>(Virginia Beach: Donning Company, 2014).</p> <p>Agnes Wright Spring, “Silver Queen of the San Juans,” <em>Frontier Times</em>, January 1967.</p> <p>Karen A. Vendl and Mark A. Vendl with the San Juan County Historical Society, <em>Mines Around Silverton</em> (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2015).</p> <p>“Widow of Colorado Mining Magnate Dies,” <em>Daily Oklahoman</em>, March 28, 1935.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Thomas J. Noel and Nicholas J. Wharton, <em>Denver Landmarks and Historic Districts, </em>2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2016).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Oct 2021 17:36:58 +0000 yongli 3624 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Gold King Mine Spill http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-king-mine-spill <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gold King Mine Spill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-06-18T17:06:56-06:00" title="Friday, June 18, 2021 - 17:06" class="datetime">Fri, 06/18/2021 - 17:06</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-king-mine-spill" data-a2a-title="Gold King Mine Spill"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgold-king-mine-spill&amp;title=Gold%20King%20Mine%20Spill"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Around 10:30 am on August 5, 2015, an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) crew ruptured a plug of rock and soil at the Gold King Mine north of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, releasing an estimated 3 million gallons of contaminated wastewater. This water ran into Cement Creek, a tributary of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>, and was washed downstream through <strong>Durango</strong> to the <strong>San Juan River</strong> and eventually to Lake Powell. The contaminated runoff turned the normally green waters of the Animas River a bright orange-brown and brought national attention to southwest Colorado and the hazardous legacy of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <h2>The Spill</h2> <p>In the summer of 2015, the EPA was working to divert water contained within the Gold King Mine, an abandoned mine about ten miles north of Silverton. Contractors had advised the EPA that accessing the mine could result in a blowout, and the EPA’s on-scene coordinator, Steve Way, had postponed the job until the site could be inspected by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a>. While Way was away on vacation, his acting replacement, Hays Griswold, ordered the work resumed.</p> <p>On the morning of August 5, a contracting crew ruptured a plug of rock and soil while using heavy equipment to access the mine, causing the contaminated water within to pour out. It is believed that the water had accumulated in the Gold King Mine after the Sunnyside Gold Corporation inserted a series of bulkheads in the nearby American Tunnel Mine between 1996 and 2003. As natural runoff flowed into the plugged mine, it began to spill into adjacent mines, including the Gold King. Sunnyside Gold maintains that its mines are not connected to the Gold King, but the federal government still considers the company as a potentially responsible party.</p> <p>Three million gallons of wastewater poured from the mine into nearby Cement Creek. The wastewater contained high levels of lead, iron, arsenic, aluminum, cadmium, copper, and calcium, equivalent of what is released by the hundreds of mining sites around Silverton over a typical 300-day span. The spillage caused the water in the Animas River to rapidly become more acidic, dropping from 7.8 to 5.8 on the pH scale.</p> <p>The bright orange wastewater took roughly twenty-four hours to reach the Animas River valley, just north of the city of Durango. At this point Durango and surrounding <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a> ordered the river closed to public use and stopped pumping water for city use. The river’s pH returned to near normal levels about a day later, but the water remained a bright orange color due to sediment that had been deposited along the river and was still leaking into the river; the mine was still draining contaminated water into Cement Creek at an estimated rate of 800 gallons per minute.</p> <h2>Immediate Response</h2> <p>The EPA held its first public meeting about the accident on August 7 in Durango. The agency accepted responsibility for the disaster and explained its initial plan for containment. It would build settling ponds where sediment could settle to the bottom and water could be treated before it ran into the Animas River.</p> <p>The EPA opened an interim water treatment plant eight miles north of Silverton on October 19, 2015. Designed to treat runoff from Gold King and other mining sites in the area, the plant cost $1.5 million to open and more than $2.4 million per year to operate. As of January 2021, the interim treatment plant is still in operation and filters the estimated 300 gallons per minute of contaminated water that still drains from the Gold King Mine.</p> <p>An internal investigation at the EPA, published on August 26, 2015, identified a lack of analysis of the water pressure within the Gold King Mine as the critical factor that led to the spill. Rather than drill directly into the blockage, the crew should have drilled vertically into the access tunnel from a different location to ascertain the water pressure. The report stated that proper drilling and testing could have prevented the sudden release.</p> <h2>Effects</h2> <p><em>Environmental</em></p> <p>In the days immediately following the disaster, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a> placed cages of fish into the Animas River to assess the potential damage to aquatic life. Somewhat surprisingly, few of the fish in the cages died. In fact, studies of the waterway have shown that the spill had little to no long-term effect on the river, largely because it already contained high levels of heavy metals from thousands of old mines in the region. This contamination causes stretches of the river to be virtually devoid of aquatic life and renders the fish populations inhabiting the river near Durango incapable of reproducing.</p> <p>The disaster provided the impetus for the creation of the Bonita Peak Mining District Superfund Site, which facilitates access to federal funding and resources, to help deal with the problem of mine drainage. Silverton had previously opposed attempts to create a Superfund site, which it feared would dissuade companies from reopening mines that had been the foundation of the town's early economy, but this time the Silverton City Council and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a> Commission unanimously approved the designation in February 2016. The Superfund designation focuses on forty-eight mining sites in the mountains surrounding Silverton, with the goals of improving downstream water quality, stabilizing sites that contribute contaminants, and minimizing risks of future blowouts. As of August 5, 2020, more than $75 million had been spent on the site, but there were still no meaningful improvements to the Animas River’s water quality or aquatic life because the sources of contamination are so widespread.</p> <p>Future remediation options in the Bonita Peak Mining District include the placement of additional plugs in discharging mines or the creation of a permanent water-treatment facility. Locals are concerned that the placement of additional plugs will only postpone the problem, potentially leading to another large discharge if a plugged mine becomes overly pressurized.</p> <p><em>Tourism</em></p> <p>Local rafting companies in the Durango area were forced to close down for eight days while the contaminated water worked its way downstream. Regional politicians quickly tried to restore public confidence in the safety of the water and restore tourism to the affected communities. On August 12, 2015, Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-hickenlooper"><strong>John Hickenlooper</strong></a> famously drank from the Animas River in an attempt show that the water was safe. "If that shows that Durango is open for business, I'm happy to help," Hickenlooper said.</p> <p>Even after the water was cleared for public use, tourists were hesitant to return to the river and its communities. Local businesses filed millions of dollars’ worth of lost-income claims and lawsuits. None of these claims has been paid out, because the EPA claimed governmental immunity, but several lawsuits are still pending in federal court.</p> <p><em>Navajo</em></p> <p>The contaminated runoff from the Gold King Mine spill reached the <strong>Navajo</strong> Nation, which flanks the San Juan River in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, in the middle of the growing season. It caused both physical damage (lost crops) and cultural damage, as the waters of the Animas carry a spiritual significance. The federal government provided tanker trucks filled with potable water for use by affected farmers, but for many this came too late as crops had already dried up without access to clean water for irrigation.</p> <p>Some Indigenous communities, such as in Shiprock, New Mexico, refused to use irrigation water from the Animas River for the following year even after it had been cleared by federal officials. They harbored a long-standing distrust of the federal government owing to its history of mistreating the land and breaking treaties with Native Americans. Consumers also showed reluctance to purchase produce grown in the area. The Shiprock Farmers Market was shuttered for three years after the disaster. Upon its reopening, the market showcased flyers with both local and EPA-sponsored data demonstrating the safety of the crops.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The Gold King Mine Spill provided a graphic, high-profile reminder of the problem of acid mine drainage, an ongoing process that annually leaks more contaminants into the Animas River than were released by the disaster. The forty-eight sites designated in the Bonita Peak Mining District are the primary culprits. Five years after the disaster, the EPA is still studying the area and proposing remediation efforts. Cleanup remains years away. Across Colorado, many other waterways are similarly affected by this toxic legacy of the state’s largely unregulated nineteenth-century rush for mineral wealth.</p> <p>In January 2021, Sunnyside Gold reached “no fault” settlements with New Mexico and the Navajo Nation for $11 million and $10 million, respectively. The cases were filed under the assumption the Gold King Mine was filled with overflow water from the American Tunnel Mine, and Sunnyside Gold settled to avoid the cost of ongoing litigation. Cases against the EPA and its contractor are pending in federal court and are expected to go to trial in 2022. New Mexico is seeking $130 million and the Navajo Nation $162 million. A similar case was settled between the state of Utah and the EPA for $3 million in clear water projects and $360 million in abandoned-mine remediation projects.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/perkins-luke" hreflang="und">Perkins, Luke</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-king-mine" hreflang="en">gold king mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cement-creek" hreflang="en">Cement Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river-spill" hreflang="en">animas river spill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/acid-mine-drainage" hreflang="en">acid mine drainage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/epa" hreflang="en">EPA</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Dan Elliot, "<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzIzNTI2NS0zLXllYXJzLWFmdGVyLWdvbGQta2luZy1taW5lLXNwaWxsLXZpY3RpbXMtYXdhaXRpbmctcGF5bWVudA%3D%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3Nl">3 Years After Gold King Mine Spill, Victims Awaiting Payment</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 5, 2018.</p> <p>“<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzE0NzQtaW50ZXJpb3ItZGVwYXJ0bWVudC10by1pbnZlc3RpZ2F0ZS1nb2xkLWtpbmctbWluZS1hY2NpZGVudA%3D%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJj">Interior Department to Investigate Gold King Mine Accident</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 18, 2015.</p> <p>Peter Marcus, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzE1MjctZXBhLXRha2VzLWJsYW1lLWZvci1hbmltYXMtcml2ZXItY29udGFtaW5hdGlvbg%3D%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJjaCUzRnV0ZjglM0Ql">EPA Takes Blame for Animas River Contamination</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 7, 2015.</p> <p>Peter Marcus, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzk0Njc4LWdvbGQta2luZy1taW5lLXdhdGVydHJlYXRtZW50LXBsYW50LW9wZXJhdGlvbmFs&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJjaCUzRnV0ZjglM0QlMjVF">Gold King Mine Water-Treatment Plant Operational</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, October 19, 2015.</p> <p>Peter Marcus, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzk0MDM0LWhpY2tlbmxvb3Blci1kcmlua3MtYW5pbWFzLXJpdmVyLXdhdGVyLXRvLW1ha2UtYS1wb2ludA%3D%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJjaCUz">Hickenlooper Drinks Animas River Water to Make a Point</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 12, 2015.</p> <p>Peter Marcus, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzIwMjQtaW5zdWZmaWNpZW50LXBsYW5uaW5nLWNpdGVkLWluLWVwYS1pbnZlc3RpZ2F0aW9uLW9mLWdvbGQta2luZy1taW5lLXNwaWxs&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQu">‘Insufficient’ Planning Cited in EPA Investigation of Gold King Mine Spill</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 26, 2015.</p> <p>Chase Olivarius-Mcallister, Mary Shinn, and Shane Benjamin, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzE1MjgtY2F0YXN0cm9waGUtb24tdGhlLWFuaW1hcw%3D%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJjaCUzRnV0ZjglM0QlMjVFMiUyNTlDJTI1OTMlMjZxdWVy">Catastrophe on the Animas</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 6, 2015.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzMzNDIzNi1maXZlLXllYXJzLWFmdGVyLWdvbGQta2luZy1taW5lLXNwaWxsLXdhdGVyLXF1YWxpdHktcmVtYWlucy1hLWNvbmNlcm4%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbG">Five Years After Gold King Mine Spill, Water Quality Remains a Concern</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 5, 2020.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzM2MDQzMS1uZXctbWV4aWNvLXJlYWNoZXMtMTEtbWlsbGlvbi1zZXR0bGVtZW50LXdpdGgtbWluaW5nLWNvbXBhbnktb3Zlci1nb2xkLWtpbmctc3BpbGw%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2">New Mexico Reaches $11 Million Settlement With Mining Company Over Gold King Spill</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, January 13, 2021.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzMxMTU5MS1vd25lci1vZi1nb2xkLWtpbmctbWluZS1ub3QtaGFwcHktd2l0aC1wcm9wb3NlZC1jbGVhbnVwLXNvbHV0aW9u&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3Nl">Owner of Gold King Mine Not Happy With Proposed Cleanup Solution</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, January 24, 2020.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzI2NTE2Mi1zdW5ueXNpZGUtZ29sZC1zYXlzLWVwYS1zaG91bGQtYmUtcmVjdXNlZC1mcm9tLWxlYWRpbmctc2lsdmVydG9uLXN1cGVyZnVuZC1jbGVhbnVw&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1">Sunnyside Gold Says EPA Should Be Recused From Leading Silverton Superfund Cleanup</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, February 25, 2019.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzI4NTAzMS1zdW5ueXNpZGUtZ29sZC1zYXlzLW5vLXRvLWVwYXMtd29yay1vcmRlci1hdC1zdXBlcmZ1bmQ%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL3NlYXJjaCUzRn">Sunnyside Gold Says 'No' to EPA's Work Order at Superfund</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, July 10, 2019.</p> <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/lms/loading.html#rotftwetu=aHR0cHMlM0EvL3d3dy5nb29nbGUuY29tLw%3D%3D&amp;ibothsahtrtd=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY29tL2FydGljbGVzLzI2NzY0Ni13aGF0LWFyZS10aGUtdWx0aW1hdGUtZ29hbHMtZm9yLXN1cGVyZnVuZC1jbGVhbnVwLWFyb3VuZC1zaWx2ZXJ0b24%3D&amp;shtlp=aHR0cHMlM0EvL2R1cmFuZ29oZXJhbGQuY2">What Are the Ultimate Goals for Superfund Cleanup Around Silverton?</a>” <em>Durango Herald</em>, March 13, 2019.</p> <p>Jonathan Thompson, “<a href="https://www.google.com/url?client=internal-element-cse&amp;cx=016503085263777864607:rznav6saqcq&amp;q=https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.7/silvertons-gold-king-reckoning&amp;sa=U&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj6v56mgMLuAhXXB80KHUIJAV4QFjAAegQIABAC&amp;usg=AOvVaw3lhAEB0W9QxJl999iWRXkj">Silverton’s Gold King Reckoning</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, May 2, 2016.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Teresa Montoya, “Yellow Water: Rupture and Return One Year After the Gold King Mine Spill,” <em>Anthropology Now</em> 9, no. 3 (2017).</p> <p>Kelly Roberts, “A Legacy That No One Can Afford to Inherit: The Gold King Disaster and the Threat of Adbandoned Hardrock Legacy Mines,” <em>Journal of the National Association of Administrative Law Judiciary</em> 36 (2016).</p> <p>Jonathan Thompson, <em>River of Lost Souls: The Science, Politics, and Greed Behind the Gold King Mine Disaster</em> (Salt Lake City: Torrey House Press, 2018).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 18 Jun 2021 23:06:56 +0000 yongli 3575 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Panic of 1893 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Panic of 1893</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-02-16T14:16:07-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 16, 2021 - 14:16" class="datetime">Tue, 02/16/2021 - 14:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893" data-a2a-title="Panic of 1893"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpanic-1893&amp;title=Panic%20of%201893"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Panic of 1893 touched off a nationwide economic depression that lasted for at least three years, threw millions out of work, and caused banks and businesses to fail across the country. In Colorado and other <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>silver-mining</strong></a> states, the panic was tied to the abrupt collapse of the silver industry after two decades of explosive growth. When silver prices dropped, not only did mines close, so did the businesses that supplied them. The farmers who grew food for mining towns also suffered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Panic of 1893 hit Colorado’s mining industry hard, throwing many miners out of work in places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>. The nationwide depression of agricultural prices also hurt Colorado’s farmers. Overall, the Panic of 1893 was a major inflection point in Colorado’s long history of boom-and-bust economic cycles, which began with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the early 1800s and continued through the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, the Panic of 1893, and sporadic <strong>oil </strong>and <strong>real estate</strong> booms in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Background</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the late nineteenth century, Americans engaged in a national debate over which metal—gold, silver, or both—should back US currency. Support was largely sectional: northerners for gold, southerners and westerners for silver. Most Coloradans, awash in silver booms from Leadville to Aspen and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juans</strong></a>, wanted silver coinage. After the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 required the federal government to buy a certain amount of silver each month, Colorado’s annual production of the metal remained steadily above 10 million ounces. By contrast, the state’s gold production was only one-third as valuable (or less) throughout the 1880s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>But the West’s silver boom undermined itself. A glut in the silver market sent prices crashing—down 25 percent at the end of the 1880s—and worried mine owners appealed to Congress for help. The result was the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which required the government to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver each month. This increased the government’s silver purchase by 50 percent and was a boon to Colorado and other silver-mining states.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silver also had the strong backing of the People’s Party of the USA, commonly known as the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/populism-colorado"><strong>Populist</strong></a> Party, which emerged during an agricultural depression in the late 1880s. Populists sought to put farmers and working-class people on a more equal political footing with banks and other large businesses. They supported backing the US dollar with silver because it would expand the money supply and result in inflation, yielding farmers higher prices for their crops while reducing the value of debts owed to banks and other creditors. This made the party popular not only in the South and Midwest but also in silver states like Colorado; in 1892 Coloradans elected a Populist governor, <strong>Davis Waite</strong>, the biggest political victory for the new party anywhere in the nation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the support of Colorado and several other silver-mining states, third-party Populists lost the presidential election of 1892. After a four-year absence, Democrat Grover Cleveland returned to office for a second term, and he took over a nation on the brink of economic collapse. Years of agricultural depression, the draining of gold in the US treasury (due in part to increased mandatory silver purchases since 1890), and reduced international trade due to the McKinley Tariff of 1890 all contributed to the Panic of 1893.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Devastation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with most other states, Colorado’s depression began in earnest that spring. By July 1893, some 45,000 Coloradans were out of work, as banks closed and railroad companies teetered on the edge of bankruptcy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While there were multiple causes of the Panic, the reduction of gold reserves in the US treasury got the most attention from lawmakers and the Cleveland Administration. Unlike many in his party, the president was no fan of silver and believed that mandatory silver buying hurt the US economy. Cleveland eventually overcame his own party’s objections, and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was repealed in October 1893, adding to the economic panic in Colorado and across the silver-mining West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the repeal of the Sherman Act, the price of silver dropped by about one-third. Although the repeal was intended to stimulate the national economy, it devastated Colorado’s. Of the silver mining towns, Leadville suffered the most, with ninety mines closed and 2,500 unemployed. Altogether, more than 9,500 jobs dried up in mining towns across the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The free-falling economy affected rich and poor alike. Mining millionaires such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a> lost their fortunes, while real estate tycoon <strong>Henry Brown</strong>, could not pay his debts on the new <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brown-palace-hotel"><strong>Brown Palace Hotel</strong></a> and was eventually forced to sell the building. Twelve banks failed in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> alone. Real estate prices plummeted and the population grew restless, traveling around the state looking for any kind of work. Colorado’s suffering was not unique; by December 1893, some 3 million people had lost jobs nationwide, with some trades losing up to 80 percent of their workforces. National unemployment stood at 12.3 percent by 1894 and did not drop below 10 percent until 1899.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Governor Waite could do little to provide relief, as his policies drew substantial opposition from the main parties and Populists held minorities in both chambers of the state legislature. Local communities did what they could. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-soldiers%E2%80%99-and-sailors%E2%80%99-home"><strong>State Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home</strong></a>, built in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> in 1889 to house aging Civil War veterans, took in more veterans who were now unemployed. Out-of-work silver miners flocked to the booming <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> gold district, where mine owners took advantage of the labor shortage; tensions with workers eventually reached a fever pitch during a <strong>strike in 1894</strong>. Leadville built a large and elaborate <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-ice-palace"><strong>Ice Palace</strong></a> in the winter of 1895–96 to attract tourists, even as the local mining industry was beginning to pick back up.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The effects of the economic depression caused by the Panic of 1893 did not fade until 1897, even though mining had somewhat recovered in Leadville and other places. Consolidation helped revive the silver-mining industry. In Colorado, for example, only the largest mining companies were able to make the capital investments necessary to survive the depression, while most smaller outfits went out of business. The large companies then bought up their failing competitors, further solidifying control over the industry. This trend increased corporate power nationwide and eventually led to the famous antimonopoly campaigns of President Theodore Roosevelt in the early 1900s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Panic of 1893 produced the worst economic depression in US history to that point. It was known as the Great Depression until that moniker was earned by the economic rupture of the 1930s. Colorado’s mining industry recovered, but the state became less dependent on it than before, as manufacturing and agriculture emerged as important economic pillars. On the plains, agriculture underwent shifts, as the depression forced more farmers to raise cattle and pushed others off their land entirely and into Denver and other cities (the new <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a> eventually revived Colorado agriculture after 1900). The panic even had an effect on Colorado architecture; buildings built after the crash tended to be simpler than the ornate edifices built during the silver boom, perhaps reflecting a newfound humility among the state population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The memory of the Panic of 1893 eventually faded, as the early 1900s brought the booming sugar beet and manufacturing industries, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a>’s statewide coal empire, and a surge in agricultural demand during <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>. Still, the Panic of 1893 holds lessons for the state that are not always heeded. For instance, by the early 1980s, Colorado’s economy was nearly as dependent on oil shale as it was on silver during the 1890s. When ExxonMobil and other oil companies abruptly abandoned shale production in 1982, Colorado’s economy went into a free fall, suggesting that the state had learned little from past boom-and-bust cycles. Colorado’s economy has since diversified, but the Panic of 1893 still reminds Coloradans that they cannot afford to take any booming industry for granted—whether it is silver in the 1890s, oil in the 1980s, or the current real estate boom along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/panic-1893" hreflang="en">panic of 1893</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/depression" hreflang="en">depression</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boom-and-bust" hreflang="en">boom and bust</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-economy" hreflang="en">colorado economy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oil-and-gas" hreflang="en">oil and gas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/real-estate" hreflang="en">real estate</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-rush" hreflang="en">gold rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver" hreflang="en">silver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-mining" hreflang="en">silver mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cripple-creek" hreflang="en">Cripple Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smelter" hreflang="en">smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining-history" hreflang="en">mining history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soldiers-and-sailors-home" hreflang="en">soldiers and sailors home</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John M. Cunningham, “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1892/additional-info#history">United States Presidential Election of 1892</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia Britannica</em>, updated November 1, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Brandon R. DuPont, “Panic in the Plains: Agricultural Markets and the Panic of 1893,” <em>Cliometrica</em> 3, no. 1 (2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oscar Handlin, “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia Britannica</em>, updated December 8, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Henderson, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0138/report.pdf"><em>Mining in Colorado: A History of Discovery, Development, and Production</em></a> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=TAV18931230-01.2.5&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=--1893---1895--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22out+of+work%22-------0-----">Millions out of Work</a>,” <em>The Avalanche </em>(Glenwood Springs, CO), December 30, 1893.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom Noel and Duane Smith, <em>Colorado: The Highest State </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold and Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard White, <em>The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David O. Whitten, “<a href="https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-depression-of-1893/">The Depression of 1893</a>,” Economic History Association, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Amy Zimmer, “<a href="https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/resource-sharing/state-pubs-blog/the-crash-of-1893/">The Crash of 1893</a>,” Colorado State Publications Blog, Colorado Virtual Library, </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Stephen J. Leonard and Tom Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 16 Feb 2021 21:16:07 +0000 yongli 3549 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org 416 Fire http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/416-fire <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">416 Fire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-25T14:14:03-07:00" title="Monday, January 25, 2021 - 14:14" class="datetime">Mon, 01/25/2021 - 14:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/416-fire" data-a2a-title="416 Fire"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2F416-fire&amp;title=416%20Fire"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Ignited by embers from a coal-fueled passenger train on June 1, 2018, the 416 Fire burned 54,130 acres of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>San Juan</strong> <strong>National Forest</strong></a> in southwest Colorado. By the time it was fully contained on July 31, it had become the sixth-largest <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a> in Colorado history. Although the fire briefly threatened the communities of <strong>Hermosa</strong> and <strong>Durango</strong>, nobody was hurt and no structures were damaged.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, the size and intensity of the 416 Fire dealt a huge blow to the area’s recreation-based economy and raised the potential for flooding afterward. These effects, in addition to large firefighting costs, prompted lawsuits against the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad"><strong>Durango &amp; Silvertown Narrow Gauge Railroad</strong></a>, the operator of the train that started the fire. Despite the economic hit and dire ecological predictions, tourism rebounded in Durango the following year, and researchers found excellent forest recovery in the San Juan National Forest by 2020. Litigation against the railroad is ongoing.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>2018 Fire Season</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado experienced severe drought in the spring and summer of 2018. In June, the National Weather Service reported “well above normal temperatures” across the state, combined with “well below normal precipitation.” These conditions were similar to the 2002 fire season—the worst season in state history—when some 4,600 fires burned more than 926,000 acres across Colorado. The 2018 season saw some 1,500 fires burn more than 475,000 acres—the state’s second-worst on record.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early in the season, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a>, in the southwest part of the state, was declared to be in “exceptional drought” and was among the hottest places in Colorado. In addition to the weather, the Forest Service noted, “mature timber and thick understory” in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> contributed to heightened fire risk that summer.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ignition</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Durango, the largest city in southwest Colorado and the La Plata County seat, was no stranger to devastating fires; in 2002 the <a href="/article/missionary-ridge-fire"><strong>Missionary Ridge Fire</strong></a> scorched about 73,000 acres north of the city, killed one person, and destroyed eighty-three buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The burn scar of the Missionary Ridge blaze was still visible in May 2018, when the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad began another season of transporting tourists through the picturesque San Juan Mountains. The railroad, which once took gold and silver ore from the mines of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> to smelters in Durango, had been remade into a passenger line that was one of the area’s most popular tourist attractions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neighbors who lived near the tracks north of Durango had been concerned about the risk of fire since 2017, when consecutive seasonal droughts prompted them to clear their properties of fuels and look out for fires started by passing trains. The railroad, too, seemed to acknowledge the risk; in spring 2018, as its coal-fired engines steamed through the drought-stricken San Juans, fire crews trailed behind the vintage locomotives to put out small fires started by embers shot from the smokestacks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On a hot and windy June 1, one of these embers ignited a fire about ten miles north of Durango on the west side of US Highway 550. Neighbors noticed the fire immediately after the train passed and tried to put it out, but high winds quickly pushed the flames beyond their reach. The conflagration was quickly named the 416 Fire, as it was the 416th incident (not all were fires) reported to the Columbine Ranger District in the San Juan National Forest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Race for Containment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Two days later, the fire was at 2,255 acres and 825 houses were evacuated, with hundreds more on notice. Already, more than 200 firefighters were fighting the blaze, but containment was still at a modest 10 percent. About eight miles of US Highway 550, a major thoroughfare and gateway to the San Juans, were shut down.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the next three weeks, as unrelenting dry and windy conditions pushed the 416 Fire to more than 30,000 acres, responders focused on protecting the community of Hermosa, just north of Durango and mere miles from the fire. More than 1,200 houses were evacuated by June 7, followed by 750 more over the next several days.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By mid-June, more than 1,000 firefighters were battling the 416 Fire. Rainstorms over the weekend of June 16 gave crews a welcome reprieve and allowed hundreds of firefighters to be reassigned to other fires across the country; later that week, the number of involved firefighters dropped to 548. Containment reached 37 percent by June 21, with protective lines dug out to shield Hermosa from the blaze. By that point, firefighting costs had already topped $20 million.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A return of dry and windy conditions in July caused the fire to expand to more than 50,000 acres, though it no longer threatened communities. Crews achieved 100 percent containment by July 31; the fire itself was not extinguished until November 30, six months after it started.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the 416 Fire burned, residents of Hermosa and Durango already suspected that the Durango &amp; Silverton Railroad was to blame. When a Forest Service investigation confirmed as much in July 2019, the US District Attorney’s Office in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> immediately filed suit against the railroad, seeking $25 million to cover the government’s firefighting costs. In 2019 a federal judge rejected the railroad’s motion to dismiss the case. In addition to the federal lawsuit, the railroad faces more than two dozen civil lawsuits from plaintiffs in Durango and Silverton seeking to recoup money lost when tourists were shut out of the area during the fire.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the efforts of firefighters ensured that no lives or property were lost in the 416 Fire, the blaze’s ecological effects were tremendous. In July and September 2018, heavy rains washed ash-filled sediment down the Hermosa Creek drainage into the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>, resulting in an 80 percent reduction in fish population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, rehabilitation crews began surveying the risk of floods in the burned area, which included steep slopes and multiple watersheds. Wildfires typically heighten the potential for severe <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a> afterward because they burn plants and other material that would otherwise soak up water and hold down soils. Without plants and roots, soils fall into and raise riverbeds, making them more prone to flooding. After the 416 Fire, flood damage prompted the majority of civil lawsuits against the railroad. Loose soils also increase the risk of mudslides. Rains after the 416 Fire caused multiple mudslides that closed parts of US 550 for several days.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To guard against the threat of flooding in Hermosa, La Plata County and other local and state partners spent $7 million building catchment ponds and channels to collect excess water and debris and direct it away from properties and irrigation ditches. In addition, a local foundation in Durango raised more than $500,000 by the end of 2018 to provide relief for individuals and families who had lost income or were otherwise hurt financially by the fire.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Within the forest itself, researchers at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-lewis-college"><strong>Fort Lewis College</strong></a> in Durango were initially concerned that badly burned soil would stunt recovery, but a series of studies have since concluded that such soils comprise only a small amount of the burned area, and much of the affected forest is healthily regenerating.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Durango economy rebounded in 2019, with hotel occupancy reaching 90 percent during peak season and the Durango &amp; Silverton Railroad taking about as many passengers as it did in 2017, before the fire. The railroad has since purchased ten diesel engines that it now runs in place of coal-powered locomotives during droughts. Local residents welcomed the change, which reduced the risk of fire and improved the air quality. Local support for the railroad remains high, though many residents want to see it adopt more eco-friendly operations in the wake of the fire.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/416-fire" hreflang="en">416 fire</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-plata-county" hreflang="en">la plata county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildire" hreflang="en">wildire</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fires" hreflang="en">colorado fires</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flooding" hreflang="en">flooding</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildfire-history-colorado" hreflang="en">wildfire history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hermosa" hreflang="en">hermosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango-and-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad" hreflang="en">durango and silverton narrow gauge railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroad" hreflang="en">Railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/10/07/416-wildfire-durango-controlled/">416 Wildfire Near Durango Declared ‘Controlled,’</a>” <em>Associated Press</em>, October 7, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ludy Bond and Lorena Williams, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/sanjuan/news-events/?cid=FSEPRD590715">The Fire That Wasn’t</a>,” US Forest Service, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dan Boyce, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/06/17/620775174/drought-and-fire-threat-lead-to-forest-closings">Drought and Fire Threat Lead to Forest Closings</a>,” NPR, June 17, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey A. Coe, Erica R. Bigio, Robert W. Blair, Jr., Michael Burke, Susan H. Cannon, Victor G. deWolfe, John Ey, Joseph E. Gartner, Mary L. Gillam, N. D. Knowlton, Paul M. Santi, and William H. Schulz, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1289/pdf/OF07-1289_508.pdf">Mass Wasting Following the 2002 Missionary Ridge Fire Near Durango, Colorado, a Field Trip Guidebook</a>,” US Geological Survey, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/11/30/colorado-wildfire-declared-extinguished/">Colorado Wildfire Declared Extinguished by US Forest Service</a>,” <em>Associated Press</em>, November 30, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://apnews.com/600c3d3c5a2234ae09fed302558e22d8">Durango Railroad Purchases 4 Oil-Powered Locomotives</a>,” <em>Associated Press</em>, April 17, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/10/26/416-wildfire-victims-relief-fund/">Foundation Raises, Spends $400k to Aid 416 Wildfire Victims</a>,” <em>Associated Press</em>, October 26, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kirk Mitchell, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/07/12/what-caused-416-wildfire-durango/">As Investigators Probe the Origin of the 416 Fire, Durango Wonders Whether Its Coal-Fired Train Was to Blame</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July 12, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kirk Mitchell, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/08/18/colorado-worst-wildfire-season-2018/">Colorado’s 2018 Wildfire Season Is One of the Worst on Record, and It’s Not over Yet</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 18, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kirk Mitchell, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/18/416-wildfire-update-monday-2/">Weekend Rains Slow but Don’t Extinguish 416 Fire North of Durango</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 18, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kirk Mitchell and Kieran Nicholson, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/07/evacuations-durango-416-fire/">Nearly 500 Homes Evacuated Thursday as 416 Fire near Durango Grows</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 7, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Weather Service, “<a href="https://www.weather.gov/pub/climate2018SummerReviewFallPreview#:~:text=Summary%20in%20Alamosa)-,The%20preliminary%20average%20temperature%20for%20the%20Summer%20of%202018%20in,on%20record%20in%20Colorado%20Springs.&amp;text=Colorado%20Springs%20recorded%209.14%20inches,is%200.46%20inches%20above%20normal.">Summer of 2018 Climate Review</a>,” Weather Forecast Office, Pueblo, Colorado, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Next with Kyle Clark, “<a href="https://www.9news.com/article/news/local/next/next-question-how-did-the-416-fire-get-its-name/73-563870940#:~:text=The%20number%20416%20comes%20from,the%20San%20Juan%20National%20Forest.">Next Question: How Did the 416 Fire Get Its Name?</a>” 9News, June 12, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/336800-416-fire-turned-out-to-be-a-healthy-burn-for-the-forest-new-studies-find">416 Fire Turned Out to Be a Healthy Burn for the Forest, New Studies Find</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, August 27, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/294816-animas-river-suffered-80-dieoff-after-416-fire-ash-flows">Animas River Suffered 80% Die-Off After 416 Fire Ash flows</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, September 23, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2020/02/24/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad-coal-oil/">Coal-Fired Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad Converting to Oil</a>,” <em>Durango Herald </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), February 24, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/12/31/durango-wildfire-train-lawsuit-ruling-outcome/">Judge: Federal Government’s Lawsuit Against Durango Railroad Over 2018 Wildfire Should Proceed</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em> (via <em>Colorado Sun</em>), December 31, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/324015-millions-spent-to-control-runoff-from-416-fire-burn-area">Millions Spent to Control Runoff From 416 Fire Burn Area</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, May 8, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Romeo, "<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/279378" target="_blank">Trial Date Set in Lawsuit Accusing Durango Train of Starting 416 Fire</a>," <em>The Durango Herald</em>, May 31, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hayley Sanchez, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2019/10/17/colorado-wildfires-are-burning-weirdly-late-this-year-and-theyll-probably-be-around-for-a-little-longer/">Colorado Wildfires Are Burning Weirdly Late This Year, And They’ll Probably Be Around for a Little Longer</a>,” CPR, October 17, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alex Semadeni, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/229247">Fire Crews Begin Rehab Along Eastern Perimeter of 416 Fire</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, June 21, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ben Warwick, “<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/tourism-up-durango-mesa-verde-416-fire/">Tourists Are Returning to Southwest Colorado After 416 Fire</a>,” CBS4 Denver, July 15, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Danika Worthington, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/03/416-fire-sunday-update/">La Plata’s 416 Fire Has Grown to 2,255 acres With Only 10 Percent Containment</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 3, 2018.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.mountainstudies.org/416fire">416 &amp; Burro Fire</a>,” Mountain Studies Institute.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Diane Carman, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/08/10/fire-breathing-coal-train-must-adapt-as-climate-changes/">Fire-Breathing Coal Train Must Adapt as Climate Change</a>s,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 10, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.durangotrain.com/">Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad and Museum</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>Fire: A Brief History</em>, 2nd ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>The Interior West: A Fire Survey </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2018).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 25 Jan 2021 21:14:03 +0000 yongli 3483 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Animas Canyon Toll Road http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-canyon-toll-road <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Canyon Toll Road</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-07-06T16:38:36-06:00" title="Monday, July 6, 2020 - 16:38" class="datetime">Mon, 07/06/2020 - 16:38</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-canyon-toll-road" data-a2a-title="Animas Canyon Toll Road"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fanimas-canyon-toll-road&amp;title=Animas%20Canyon%20Toll%20Road"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Animas Canyon Toll Road was built in 1876–78 to connect the mining town of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> to the coal beds and agricultural produce of the Animas Valley near what is now <strong>Durango</strong>. The roughly thirty-mile wagon road operated for about five years before it was overtaken by the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway</strong> line through the Animas Canyon (now the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad"><strong>Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</strong></a>) in 1881–82. The road was largely destroyed by the railroad, which used the road’s right-of-way, as well as by the creation of Electra Lake in the early twentieth century. In 2017 four miles of surviving road segments in the San Juan <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>National Forest</strong></a> were listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A Southern Route to Silverton</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Significant mining activity in the remote <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> started in the early 1870s, especially after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> removed the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indians</strong></a> in 1873. By that time, mining towns were already taking shape all along the upper <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>. After 1874 Silverton quickly developed into the region’s political, economic, and social capital. The main problem was that Silverton and all the other San Juan mining camps were isolated from the rest of the world, their development hampered by the extreme difficulty and expense of transportation to and from the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Starting in 1872, the best route to the San Juans was a rough road that connected the upper Animas River mining camps to <strong>Del Norte</strong> via Stony Pass. But Silverton residents yearned for a southern route out of the mountains that would give them better access to the Animas Valley’s agriculture and coal. Before 1876 a couple of trails headed south from Silverton in that direction, but they were not suitable for wagon travel because they used steep grades to cross the flank of Sultan Mountain. Starting in 1873, several different companies tried to establish a southern route to Silverton, but they built nothing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The company that finally forged a southern route from Silverton was the Animas Canyon Toll Road Company, which formed in July 1876. Headed by James Wightman, the company invested about $23,000 to build a road south through the Animas Canyon to the new town of <strong>Animas City</strong>. Wightman’s team started construction on October 15, 1876, and worked quickly, completing somewhere between eight and fifteen miles of road south from Silverton before winter set in. In the spring, two crews worked from each end toward the center. By August 1877 the road was close enough to completion for traffic to start using it, and by the summer of 1878 it was fully finished.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Traveling Along the Animas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Animas Canyon Toll Road was in operation from 1877 to 1882. The Stony Pass Road to Del Norte remained the main route to the San Juans during these years—it was much shorter—but the Animas Canyon road had enough traffic to give rise to several settlements and rest stops along the way. Starting in 1880, Fred Steineger ran a daily mail and stage route along the road, charging six dollars one way. At the beginning and end of the summer season, when travel to and from Silverton was at its peak, Steineger could make up to $100 per day.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Heading south from Silverton, the road crossed Mineral Creek before entering the Animas Canyon and quickly crossing to the east side of the Animas River. The toll house at this end of the road stood just south of the bridge. From there, the road remained on the east side of the river until it reached Elk Park, where the canyon widened slightly about seven and a half miles south of Silverton. The road crossed back to the west side of the river, where it stayed until it left the canyon about thirteen miles later at Cascade Creek to avoid the canyon’s narrowest and most treacherous section. A series of switchbacks brought the road up Cascade Hill to Little Cascade Creek, where the road cut through a notch between Papose and Aspaas Lakes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The top of Cascade Hill was the site of one of the road’s most important and longest-lived stops. In 1874 Sam Smith had built a one-and-a-half story log house there, and it quickly developed into a station where travelers could sleep, rest their horses, and get a meal. In 1880 Smith leased his station to a Swiss couple, Theodore and Lusette Schoch. In April 1881, however, they moved to Needleton, down in the Animas Canyon, and started a post office there. Needleton soon became the main settlement in the central portion of the Animas Canyon.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From Cascade Hill the toll road turned south (through what is now Electra Lake) toward Elbert Creek, which it followed until rejoining the Animas River. By July 1878 settlers in the area had established a small community called Rockwood. Road owner James Wightman moved there to live with his daughter and son-in-law and to have easy access to the road’s southern toll house, which stood not far south at Bakers Bridge. From there, the broad Animas Valley allowed easy access to Animas City.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Replaced by the Railroad</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Animas Canyon Toll Road marked an important advance in Silverton’s transportation history by providing a route that offered relatively reliable access throughout the year. But Wightman also recognized that his route had even greater potential as a railroad line to Silverton. In October 1878, Wightman organized the Baker’s Park &amp; Lower Animas Railroad Company to pursue that goal, but it never laid any track.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Instead, in late 1879 Wightman sold the Animas Canyon Toll Road to <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a>’s Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway (D&amp;RG). Soon the D&amp;RG started to build west from the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, forging a route through northern New Mexico to the Animas Valley. In 1880 the railroad established its own town, called Durango, just south of Animas City, and the first trains arrived there in July 1881. During this period the toll road remained in operation, with the D&amp;RG probably leasing it to someone (perhaps Wightman) for toll collections and maintenance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 1881, railroad workers started building north from Durango. The rail route departed from the toll road at Rockwood, where it entered the Animas Canyon early and forged a path along the canyon’s narrow stone walls to avoid the steep grades of the toll road’s Cascade Hill section. After Cascade Creek, the railroad largely followed the path already blazed by the toll road. The first train reached Silverton in July 1882 and immediately transformed the region by improving transportation, decreasing the cost of living, attracting new investments, and making large-scale mining profitable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The railroad made the stage stations along the toll road obsolete. The only permanent settlement that survived in the Animas Canyon was Needleton, which Theodore Schoch and his wife had established in 1881. Needleton became a water stop for the railroad, and it also developed into a small supply depot for mines in the nearby <strong>Needle Mountains</strong>. In fact, in 1896 the Cascade Hill section of the Animas Canyon Toll Road was revived as part of a new wagon road to Needleton, but activity in the area eventually dried up and the Needleton post office closed in 1910.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since the start of the D&amp;RG line to Silverton in 1882, most of the Animas Canyon Toll Road has disappeared. Construction of the railroad claimed the roadbed from Silverton to Cascade Creek. Three more miles of road were lost in 1904, when Electra Lake was created as a storage reservoir for the Tacoma Power Plant. Much later, in the 1980s, the construction of a residential development and golf course near Rockwood destroyed some of the southernmost sections of the toll road.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>More residential development claimed another old toll road segment in 2010, spurring efforts to preserve the few surviving parts of the road. In 2012–13 Alpine Archaeological Consultants conducted a detailed inventory of the toll road’s remaining cultural resources, and in 2014 the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>Forest Service</strong></a> stabilized part of the road’s original retaining wall near Cascade Creek. Today about four miles of the toll road still exist in sixteen short segments, primarily along Cascade Hill and just south of Electra Lake, including a one-and-a-half-mile segment now used as a hiking trail. In 2017 the surviving segments of the Animas Canyon Toll Road were listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango-silverton-railroad" hreflang="en">durango silverton railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-canyon" hreflang="en">Animas Canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-city" hreflang="en">Animas City</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/james-wightman" hreflang="en">James Wightman</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-canyon-toll-road" hreflang="en">Animas Canyon Toll Road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-rio-grande-railroad" hreflang="en">denver &amp; rio grande railroad</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Andrew Gulliford, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/articles/6013">History at a Price</a>,” <em>Durango Herald</em>, September 11, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Allen Nossaman, <em>Many More Mountains</em>, 3 vols. (Denver: Sundance Books, 1989–98).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Doris B. Osterwald, <em>Cinders and Smoke: A Mile by Mile Guide for the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</em>, 8th ed. (Hugo, CO: Western Guideways, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lynn Robinson and Julie Coleman, “Animas Cañón Toll Road,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (January 23, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge: A Quick History</em> (Ouray, CO: Western Reflections, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Rob Blair, ed., <em>The Western San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cathy E. Kindquist, <em>Stony Pass: The Tumbling and Impetuous Trail</em> (Silverton, CO: San Juan County Book Company, 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Song of the Hammer and Drill: The Colorado San Juans, 1860–1914</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 06 Jul 2020 22:38:36 +0000 yongli 3365 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hardrock-hundred-endurance-run <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3203--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3203.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/hardrock-100-mile-endurance-run"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Hardrock%20Hundred%20Endurance%20Run%20Media%204_0.jpg?itok=xBMyyYky" width="833" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/hardrock-100-mile-endurance-run" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Hardrock 100 Mile Endurance Run</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Runner at Grant Swamp Pass.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3205--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3205.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/hardrock-race-headquarters"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Hardrock%20Hundred%20Endurance%20Run%20Media%205_0.jpg?itok=5ARiKEkO" width="1024" height="768" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/hardrock-race-headquarters" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Hardrock Race Headquarters</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Hardrock Hundred Race headquarter tent.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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<time datetime="2020-04-10T10:10:13-06:00" title="Friday, April 10, 2020 - 10:10" class="datetime">Fri, 04/10/2020 - 10:10</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hardrock-hundred-endurance-run" data-a2a-title="Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fhardrock-hundred-endurance-run&amp;title=Hardrock%20Hundred%20Endurance%20Run"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run is a famously difficult and beautiful 100-mile trail race held annually in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. First organized in 1992, soon after the <strong>Sunnyside Mine</strong> shut down, the event honors the region’s mining history and its fragile high-alpine environment by taking participants on a loop course through <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a>, <a href="/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, and a host of ghost towns and mine ruins. As ultrarunning became more popular and commercialized in the early 2000s, Hardrock’s organizers have tried to maintain the event’s familial atmosphere and environmental focus.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Gordon Hardman first hatched the idea for a 100-mile trail-running race through the San Juan Mountains in 1991. That November, <em>UltraRunning</em> magazine published a letter from Hardman seeking supporters to start such a race. He received a response from John Cappis, who volunteered to help plot the course. The original plan was to chart a loop linking the San Juans’ four main towns—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-city-0"><strong>Lake City</strong></a>, Ouray, Silverton, and Telluride—with the start and finish, rotating annually among the towns. Because Lake City lies much farther east than the other three towns, the course was routed through gulches above the town but not through the town itself. After a tentative course map was completed in January 1992, Charlie Thorn helped secure permits and plan the event. In June, after snow started to melt from the high-altitude course, Cappis and Thorn went over the whole loop on foot to make sure it was feasible, often scouting sections in the company of mountain runners <strong>Rick Trujillo</strong>, David Horton, and Nancy and Rick Hamilton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the course measured and flagged, the first Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run was held July 10–12, 1992. It started and finished in Silverton. The run had forty-two starters, including six women, and eighteen runners finished the loop within the forty-eight-hour cutoff. David Horton finished first with a time of 32 hours, 34 minutes, while Nancy Hamilton was the first of two female finishers in 45 hours, 47 minutes. Silverton showed much more interest in the event than shown by the other towns, in part because local economic activity had just taken a hit with the closure of the Sunnyside Mine. Organizers decided that the run would always start and finish there but that the direction would alternate each year: clockwise one year, counterclockwise the next.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Course</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Hardrock course is prized among ultrarunners for its beauty, difficulty, and thoughtful design, which takes runners through drainages and over passes to connect Silverton, Telluride, Ouray, and numerous mining ghost towns on a mix of trails and dirt roads. Runners do a total of 66,000 feet of climbing and descending during the run, including an ascent of a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteener</strong></a>, Handies Peak. The course’s average altitude is about 11,000 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In clockwise years, runners start by heading west from Silverton to the former mining town of <strong>Ophir</strong> and then on to Telluride at about mile 28. From Telluride, a lengthy climb and then a long dirt-road descent take runners into Ouray, which is both the lowest point on the course (7,870 feet) and a rough halfway marker (44 miles). Embarking on the second half of the course, runners head southeast on the Bear Creek National Recreation Trail. After passing through the ghost town of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-forks"><strong>Animas Forks</strong></a>, runners climb to the summit of Handies Peak (mile 64), the high point on the course at 14,048 feet. They then cross the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> three times before finally heading down to the Animas River and passing near the old <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shenandoah-dives-mill"><strong>Shenandoah-Dives Mill</strong></a> as they make their way back into Silverton to finish the 100-mile loop.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Hardrock course traverses extreme terrain and is subject to extreme weather. Summer thunderstorms often force runners to huddle at tree line or risk being struck by lightning. There is usually some snow on the course, even in mid-July, but exceptionally heavy snowfall canceled the run in 1995. At the other end of the spectrum, abnormally dry conditions canceled the run in 2002 because of extreme <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>fire</strong></a> danger. In 2019 the run was canceled because heavy snowfall had caused significant <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> damage along the course.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Notable Performances</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Hardrock bills itself as a run, not a race, and focuses on fostering a community of support for all participants attempting to complete the strenuous loop. Nevertheless, records are kept and winners recorded. In 2001 Hardrock entered a new competitive era when Karl Meltzer won the run in 26:39, lowering the course record by nearly three hours. After Meltzer returned to win several more times over the next few years, Scott Jurek won in 2007, lowering Meltzer’s course record to 26:08. The very next year, twenty-three-year-old Kyle Skaggs trained specifically for Hardrock and accomplished what many ultrarunners consider among the finest performances in the sport. Winning in a time of 23:23, Skaggs became the first person to complete Hardrock in under twenty-four hours, besting the previous record by nearly three hours and outpacing that year’s second place by more than six hours.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 2010s, Hardrock attracted an increasing number of elite European entrants, most notably the Catalan mountain runner Kilian Jornet, generally regarded as the best of his generation. Jornet first came to the run in 2014 and promptly set a new course record of 22:41. Jornet returned each of the next three years and recorded three more wins. He has four of the run’s top eight times and three of the six times under twenty-four hours.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In general, Hardrock has been less competitive on the women’s side because of the small number of female entrants. Betsy Kalmeyer dominated the run’s first fifteen years, recording five wins as well as the first women’s time under thirty hours in 2001. Since the mid-2000s, the women’s run has seen several winning streaks: Diana Finkel won four years in a row, then Darcy Piceu recorded a “threepeat,” and Anna Frost repeated as winner in 2015–16. In 2009 Finkel recorded the top women’s time of 27:18.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As trail running and ultrarunning became more popular in the early 2000s, Hardrock faced a conundrum common to many events of its kind—how would a run that prized its familial feel and environmental ethic handle exploding interest and increased commercialism? Sponsors became more prominent at Hardrock in the 2010s, but the run’s remote location and purposefully small field of only about 145 starters—chosen to limit the event’s environmental impact—impose stringent constraints on future growth and change.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indeed, perhaps the most controversial aspect of Hardrock today is the lottery process by which it selects starters from a pool of more than 2,000 applicants. Two-thirds of the entry slots are reserved for runners who have completed Hardrock before, including more than thirty slots for runners who have completed the race at least five times. This process is intended to promote continuity and community, but it has the practical effect of making it difficult for the large number of people who have never run the race to ever get in. As a result, some see the run as an insular old-boys’ club. The lottery’s preference for previous participants also perpetuates the extreme gender imbalance that has long characterized the field, which typically includes about 125 men and only 20 women.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hardrock" hreflang="en">Hardrock</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hardrock-100" hreflang="en">Hardrock 100</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/running" hreflang="en">Running</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trail-running" hreflang="en">Trail Running</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ultrarunning" hreflang="en">Ultrarunning</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p><a href="https://hardrock100.com/index.php">Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hardrock Hundred Endurance Run, “<a href="https://hardrock100.com/files/manuals/HR100-2018-Hardrock-Runners-Manual-Part3.pdf">2018 Runners Manual</a>,” July 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Leon Lutz, “<a href="https://www.irunfar.com/2014/07/between-a-hardrock-and-a-place.html">Between a Hardrock and a Place</a>,” <em>iRunFar</em>, July 8, 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Meghan Hicks, “<a href="https://www.irunfar.com/2016/07/hardrocking-sharing-the-lode.html">Hardrocking: Sharing the Lode</a>,” <em>iRunFar</em>, July 14, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.sanjuancountyhistoricalsociety.org/">San Juan County Historical Society</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Song of the Hammer and Drill: The Colorado San Juans, 1860</em><em>–</em><em>1914</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Karen A. Vendl and Mark A. Vendl with the San Juan County Historical Society, <em>Mines Around Silverton</em> (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 10 Apr 2020 16:10:13 +0000 yongli 3201 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Otto Mears http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Otto Mears</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3152--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3152.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/otto-mears"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Otto%20Mears%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=LLze-ujR" width="932" height="1208" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/otto-mears" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Otto Mears</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Originally from Russia, Otto Mears arrived in Colorado in the 1860s. Over a long career, he helped establish Saguache, served as a merchant and Indian trader, built a large network of roads and railroads in southwestern Colorado, and played a key role in state politics.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3326--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3326.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mears-and-ouray"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Otto-Mears-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=tFHFJE3g" width="600" height="766" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mears-and-ouray" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mears and Ouray</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the 1860s, Mears became the official trader with the Ute Indians. He learned to speak Ute, became friends with Ute leader Ouray (pictured here with Mears), and in the 1870s helped negotiate several agreements that kept the peace in Colorado but resulted in the removal of the Utes.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3328--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3328.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/million-dollar-highway"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Otto-Mears-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=SFk-0-xP" width="600" height="853" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/million-dollar-highway" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Million Dollar Highway</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Today Mears is most often remembered for the large network of toll roads he built through the San Juan Mountains in the 1870s and 1880s. His most famous roads connected Silverton and Ouray to the mining district at Red Mountain in between the two towns. The road, pictured here above Ouray, is now known as the "Million Dollar Highway."</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-16T16:13:20-07:00" title="Thursday, January 16, 2020 - 16:13" class="datetime">Thu, 01/16/2020 - 16:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears" data-a2a-title="Otto Mears"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fotto-mears&amp;title=Otto%20Mears"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Otto Mears (1840–1931) was a Colorado businessman who played a key role in the removal of the Nuche&nbsp;(<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/.../northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a>)&nbsp;people&nbsp;and is best known for building more than 450 miles of toll roads and railroads on the Utes’ former lands in the southern and southwestern parts of the state. Called the “Pathfinder of the San Juan,” Mears established the routes that became the basis for much of the region’s highway system, including the famed “<strong>Million Dollar Highway</strong>” between <a href="/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>. His roads facilitated the development of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan</strong></a> mining region by enabling cheaper and quicker transportation of people and ores.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Otto Mears was born in Kurland, Russia, on May 3, 1840, to an English father and a Russian mother. His parents were both Jewish, but otherwise little is known about them. They died when he was young, and he bounced from relative to relative until the early 1850s, when he wound up in San Francisco in search of an uncle who lived there. Arriving at the height of the California Gold Rush, the young Mears tried his hand as a prospector, a tinsmith, a merchant, and a speculator in mining stocks.</p> <p>In 1861, at the outbreak of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>, Mears joined the First Regiment of California Volunteers. He served with the regiment at Fort Craig, New Mexico, where the soldiers were responsible for patrolling the Texas–New Mexico border after the Union victory at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Along with the rest of his regiment, Mears also participated in the army’s campaign against the Navajo, which was led by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> in 1863–64.</p> <h2>Coming to Colorado</h2> <p>After mustering out of the Army on August 31, 1864, Mears became a merchant in Santa Fé. A year later he moved to <strong>Conejos</strong> in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, where he had a store, a gristmill, and a sawmill. He moved again a year later, this time starting a farm, a mill, and a store at the site of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-0"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>, which Mears helped to establish and develop in the late 1860s.</p> <p>Since his year in Conejos, Mears had been selling lumber and wheat to the army outpost at <a href="/article/fort-garland"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>. When the price of flour dropped in the late 1860s, he looked north for new markets in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining camps</strong></a> of the upper <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> valley. To get there from the San Luis Valley, however, required traveling over <strong>Poncha Pass</strong> on a rough path. Mears improved the path to a wagon road, made a tidy profit on his flour, and proceeded to partner with an Arkansas Valley mill owner named Charles Nachtrieb to start the Poncha Pass Wagon Road Company in November 1870. The company’s toll road, which ran north from Poncha Pass to Nachtrieb’s mill in Nathrop and beyond, formed the first easily accessible connection between the San Luis Valley and the Arkansas Valley.</p> <p>As the Poncha Pass company started its operations in November 1870, Mears felt financially secure enough to marry Mary Kampfshulte, a young German immigrant whom he had met in the Arkansas Valley town of Granite. The couple had four children, only two of whom—Laura May, born in 1872, and Cora, born in 1879—survived infancy.</p> <h2>Clearing Paths in the San Juans</h2> <p>The Poncha Pass road marked the start of Mears’s extensive road empire. He soon turned west to the San Juan Mountains, where he played a key role in both clearing the region for white settlement and clearing paths along which those immigrants could travel. Since Mears had arrived in Colorado, he had been developing ties with the Ute Indians, who had lived in the region for more than 400 years. Already in the 1860s, he became the tribe’s official trader, with a government contract to supply food to the Utes at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Indian Agency</strong></a>. He also learned to speak Ute—one of the few white men to do so—and became friends with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, the Tabeguache leader who often negotiated treaties with the US government. As a result of these close ties, Felix Brunot consulted Mears during the negotiation of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873. By suggesting that Brunot promise Ouray an annual salary of $1,000 for ten years, Mears helped smooth the way for the Ute cession of the San Juan Mountains.</p> <p>Like most men of his time and station, Mears saw no clear line between his business interests and his government service. As Ute territory became more restricted, the Indians became more reliant on the government for their survival, and Mears was happy to snatch up government contracts to provide them with trade goods. He was also happy to build and profit from the infrastructure that made white settlement possible on former Ute land. In 1873, the same year he greased the wheels for the Brunot Agreement, Mears acquired an interest in the Saguache and San Juan Toll Road Company, which was building a route from Saguache to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-city-0"><strong>Lake City</strong></a> via Cochetopa Pass. By August 1874, Mears had taken control of the company and completed the road.</p> <p>As he expanded his growing toll road empire, Mears followed the market to new mining camps in need of better transportation. When necessary, he also took time away from his businesses to secure a stable environment for economic growth. Most notably, he secured Ute support for the treaty that removed the Utes to a smaller reservation. With the treaty on its way to ratification, Mears worked to ensure that the new Ute reservation would be located in Utah, not in western Colorado’s potentially fertile <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Grand River</strong></a> Valley, which he already envisioned as an agricultural paradise full of white farmers who would pay to use his roads.</p> <p>In his work with the Utes, Mears did what he thought was necessary to avert a war that could have resulted in the annihilation of the Utes. But he also did what was best for his own bottom line. In the years after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>, he earned a small fortune in toll fees from soldiers traveling his roads, helped open vast new regions in western Colorado to white settlement, and secured the contracts to build and supply the Utes’ new reservation in Utah.</p> <p>Over the next five years, Mears worked tirelessly to expand his San Juan road network to about 450 miles. The most significant of these projects were the roads he built to the Red Mountain mining district between Ouray and Silverton, which boomed after the discovery of the Yankee Girl mine in 1882. First, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray County</strong></a> asked Mears in 1883 to construct a toll road south from town up Uncompahgre Canyon. He completed the road to Red Mountain in September 1883, at a cost of almost $10,000 per mile. The new road worried residents of Silverton, who feared that all Red Mountain ores would now flow through Ouray. They, too, hired Mears to build from their town to Red Mountain. Construction on the Silverton–Red Mountain Toll Road started in July 1884 and was completed that November, linking Silverton not only to Red Mountain but also on to Ouray via Mears’s earlier road.</p> <p>Mears’s work on Ute removal also gained him the publicity to launch his own bid for public office. Starting in the 1870s, he had already become a de facto Republican Party boss for the San Luis Valley and southwest Colorado. He served as a state presidential elector in 1876 and engineered the nomination of <strong>Frederick Pitkin</strong> for governor in 1878. After his work on Ute removal, he ran for office himself, serving a single term in the state legislature in 1883. His brief political experience was enough to convince him that he preferred to focus on making money and then using it to influence politics. Over the next few decades, Mears’s main official political role was as a member of the Board of Capitol Managers, to which he was appointed in 1889. Mears helped speed completion of a new <strong>state capitol</strong>, whose construction had dragged on for years, and he characteristically ensured that a stained-glass portrait of himself would adorn the building’s second floor. Today Mears is often remembered for his suggestion that the capitol dome be covered in gold leaf as a symbol of the state’s mining heritage.</p> <h2>Railroad Baron</h2> <p>Building toll roads eventually drew Mears into railroad development. After connecting Silverton to the mines at Red Mountain, he started the Mears Transportation Company to carry ore along the route. His company soon became the largest freighting firm in Colorado, but at the same time he saw firsthand that slow wagons could not keep up with the mines’ production. To enable faster and cheaper transportation to the Red Mountain mines, he decided in 1887 to replace his toll road with a railroad. When the Silverton Railroad was completed to Red Mountain in 1889, it was a triumph of engineering, maintaining a grade of less than 5 percent thanks to two loops and four switchbacks along the route. Red Mountain mines boomed because cheaper railroad transportation allowed them to ship lower-grade ores at a profit. Silverton boomed, too, as a supply center for Red Mountain, as did <strong>Durango</strong> as a source of coal and a smelting center.</p> <p>Enjoying the profits and stature that went along with being a nineteenth-century railroad president, Mears dreamt up grander rail projects that had the potential to make him a national figure. The first step was the Rio Grande Southern (RGS), which Mears incorporated in 1889. His goal with the line was to bridge a gap in <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande</strong> (D&amp;RG) service between the northern and southern San Juans. With heavy investment from the D&amp;RG, Mears established the new railroad town of <strong>Ridgway</strong> in 1890 and laid track from there to <a href="/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> by the end of the year. In 1891 he continued the line southwest past <strong>Ophir</strong>, where he had to negotiate a treacherous passage from valley floor to canyon walls, and on through <strong>Rico</strong>, Dolores, and Hesperus to reach Durango on December 20. On the other side of the state, the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> described the completion of the Rio Grande Southern as “the most important railroad event of the year.”</p> <p>In the early 1890s, Mears used the record profits from the Rio Grande Southern to support his ambitious plans. In a bid to become a national railroad baron, he proposed extending the Rio Grande Southern to Phoenix and on to the Pacific Coast. But before he could set that plan in motion, larger economic forces intervened; the combined hit of the <strong>Panic of 1893</strong> and the repeal of the <strong>Sherman Silver Purchase Act</strong> later that year caused economic chaos throughout Colorado. Not only did many mines close, drastically reducing revenues for Mears’s railroads, but so did the bank where he kept his money, making his suddenly precarious financial position even more difficult. Luckily for Mears, the Silverton Railroad continued to prosper because it shipped plenty of copper, but in 1895 he was forced to sell the Rio Grande Southern to the Denver &amp; Rio Grande. Convinced that silver (and the San Juans) would rebound, he invested the money from the sale into a new railroad, the Silverton Northern, which he had completed along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> from Silverton to Eureka by June 1896.</p> <p>William Jennings Bryan’s defeat in the 1896 presidential election signaled that the silver market would not recover anytime soon, so Mears left Colorado to try to recoup his fortune. He built railroads in Maryland (with fellow Coloradan <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/david-h-moffat"><strong>David Moffat</strong></a>) and Louisiana, but in 1905 he decided to return to Colorado when the Louisiana railroad failed to secure a right-of-way into New Orleans.&nbsp;</p> <p>Mears had remained involved in his Colorado business and political interests during his decade away. In 1902 his Silverton Northern line to Eureka had started to show a profit, so in 1903 he decided to extend the track to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-forks"><strong>Animas Forks</strong></a>. When he returned to Colorado a few years later, he hoped to continue expanding his San Juan rail network to forge direct connections between Silverton, Ouray, and Lake City. But it was not to be; the treacherous mountain terrain made construction difficult and expensive, and adequate funding was not forthcoming.</p> <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2> <p>After his planned railroad extensions around Silverton fizzled, Mears shifted in the 1910s to a focus on mining investments in the San Juans. His shrewd investments in the Iowa Tiger, <strong>Gold King</strong>, and Mayflower mines, as well as in flotation mills to process low-grade ores, soon made him a millionaire again after his setbacks in the 1890s and 1900s.</p> <p>With his wife Mary in ill health, however, Mears was starting to spend more time in the milder climate of Pasadena, California, where the couple often wintered. After <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>, with Mary’s health on edge and metals markets in a tailspin, Mears decided to retire to Pasadena. He sold his Silverton house in 1919, resigned from the Board of Capitol Managers in 1920, and terminated his mining leases in 1920. He retained ownership of his railroads in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>, but they fared poorly as San Juan mining declined. In 1922 Mears shut down the Silverton Railroad, and the Silverton, Gladstone &amp; Northerly ended regular service a year later. The Silverton Northern continued to turn a profit through the 1920s but operated intermittently after 1931; its rails were removed in 1942. By that time Mears, too, was gone, having died in Pasadena on June 24, 1931, at the age of ninety-one.</p> <p>Mears dreamed of becoming a major railroad baron, but today the railroads he built—the Rio Grande Southern, the Silverton, and the Silverton Northern—have all disappeared. Yet his legacy is readily apparent on every map of the San Juan Mountains, where he facilitated Ute removal from the region and then opened access for white settlers to what was left behind. In the late nineteenth century, his toll road network made it faster and easier to transport miners, supplies, and metals, allowing the area’s mining towns to prosper. A generation later, his well-built wagon roads were converted for automobile use, providing the basic blueprint for the highway system that knits together the San Juans today.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/trump-thomas-james" hreflang="und">Trump, Thomas-James </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otto-mears" hreflang="en">Otto Mears</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/toll-roads" hreflang="en">toll roads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/saguache" hreflang="en">saguache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/red-mountain" hreflang="en">Red Mountain</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/million-dollar-highway" hreflang="en">Million Dollar Highway</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Michael Kaplan, “Otto Mears and the Silverton Northern Railroad,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 48, no. 3 (Summer 1971).</p> <p>Michael Kaplan, <em>Otto Mears: Paradoxical Pathfinder</em> (Silverton, CO: San Juan County Book Company, 1982).</p> <p>Michael D. Kaplan, “The Toll Road Building Career of Otto Mears, 1881–1887,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 52, no. 2 (Spring 1975).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George F. Burtch, “Otto Mears: The Pathfinder of the Southwest,” <em>Illustrated Rocky Mountain Globe</em> 7, no. 45 (October 18, 1900).</p> <p>Josie Moore Crum,<em> Three Little Lines: Silverton Railroad, Silverton, Gladstone &amp; Northerly, Silverton Northern</em> (Durango, CO: Durango Herald News, 1960)<em>.</em></p> <p>Robert Ormes, <em>Railroads and the Rockies: A Record of Lines in and Near Colorado</em> (Denver: Sage, 1963).</p> <p>Robert Ormes, <em>Tracking Ghost Railroads in Colorado</em> (Colorado Springs, CO: Century One, 1975).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>Grace Zirkelbach, <em>Otto Mears: Pathfinder of the San Juan Mountains</em> (Palmer Lake, CO: Filter Press, 2013).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Otto Mears (1840–1931) was a Colorado businessman. He played a key role in the removal of the state’s Ute Indians. He is best known for building more than 450 miles of toll roads and railroads on the Utes’ former lands. Mears created the routes that became the basis for much of the region’s highway system. This includes the famed “Million Dollar Highway” between Ouray and Silverton. His roads helped the development of the San Juan mining region. They enabled cheaper and quicker shipment of people and ores.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Otto Mears was born in Kurland, Russia, on May 3, 1840. His parents were both Jewish. Otherwise, little is known about them. They died when he was young. Mears bounced from relative to relative until the early 1850s. He wound up in San Francisco in search of an uncle who lived there. He arrived at the height of the California Gold Rush. The young Mears tried his hand as a prospector and a merchant.</p> <p>At the outbreak of the Civil War, Mears joined the First Regiment of California Volunteers. He served with the regiment at Fort Craig, New Mexico. The soldiers were responsible for patrolling the Texas–New Mexico border after the Union victory at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Mears participated in the army’s campaign against the Navajo. The campaign was led by Kit Carson in 1863–64.</p> <h2>Coming to Colorado</h2> <p>After mustering out of the Army on August 31, 1864, Mears became a merchant in Santa Fé. A year later he moved to Conejos in the San Luis Valley. He had a store, a gristmill, and a sawmill. He moved again a year later. This time he started a farm, a mill, and a store at the site of present-day Saguache. Mears helped to establish and develop Saguache in the late 1860s.</p> <p>Since his year in Conejos, Mears had been selling lumber and wheat to the army outpost at Fort Garland. When the price of flour dropped in the late 1860s, he looked for new markets in the mining camps of the upper Arkansas Valley. Getting there required traveling over Poncha Pass on a rough path. Mears improved the path to a wagon road. He partnered with an Arkansas Valley mill owner to start the Poncha Pass Wagon Road Company in November 1870. The company’s toll road ran north from Poncha Pass to Nathrop and beyond. It formed the first easily accessible connection between the San Luis Valley and the Arkansas Valley.</p> <p>The Poncha Pass company started its operations in November 1870. Mears felt financially secure enough to marry Mary Kampfshulte. She was a young German immigrant. He met her in the Arkansas Valley town of Granite. The couple had four children. Only two survived infancy.</p> <h2>Clearing Paths in the San Juans</h2> <p>The Poncha Pass road marked the start of Mears’s road empire. He turned west to the San Juan Mountains. Mears played a key role in clearing the region for white settlement. He cleared paths along which immigrants could travel. Since Mears had arrived in Colorado, he had been developing ties with the Ute Indians. The Utes had lived in the region for more than 400 years. In the 1860s, he became the tribe’s official trader. Mears had a government contract to supply food to the Utes at the Los Piños Indian Agency. He learned to speak Ute. Mears also became friends with Ouray, the Tabeguache leader who often negotiated treaties with the US government. As a result of these close ties, Felix Brunot consulted Mears during the negotiation of the Brunot Agreement in 1873. Mears suggested that Brunot promise Ouray an annual salary of $1,000 for ten years. This helped smooth the way for the Ute cession of the San Juan Mountains.</p> <p>Mears saw no clear line between his business interests and his government service. As Ute territory became more restricted, the Indians became more reliant on the government for their survival.&nbsp; Mears was happy to snatch up government contracts to provide them with trade goods. He was also happy to build and profit from the infrastructure that made white settlement possible on former Ute land. In 1873, Mears acquired an interest in the Saguache and San Juan Toll Road Company. The company was building a route from Saguache to Lake City via Cochetopa Pass. By August 1874, Mears had taken control of the company and completed the road.</p> <p>Mears followed the market to new mining camps in need of better transportation. He also took time away from his businesses to secure a stable environment for economic growth. He secured Ute support for the treaty that moved the Utes to a smaller reservation. Mears worked to ensure that the new Ute reservation would be located in Utah, not in western Colorado’s potentially fertile Grand River Valley. He envisioned the valley as a paradise full of white farmers who would pay to use his roads.</p> <p>Mears did what he thought was necessary to avoid a war that could have resulted in the death of the Utes. But he also did what was best for his own bottom line. In the years after the Meeker Incident, he earned a small fortune in toll fees from soldiers traveling his roads. He helped open vast new regions in western Colorado to white settlement. Mears also secured the contracts to build and supply the Utes’ new reservation in Utah.</p> <p>Over the next five years, Mears worked to expand his San Juan road network to about 450 miles. The most significant of these projects were the roads he built to the Red Mountain mining district between Ouray and Silverton. The area boomed after the discovery of the Yankee Girl mine in 1882. In 1883, Ouray County asked Mears to build a toll road south from town up Uncompahgre Canyon. He completed the road to Red Mountain in September 1883. The road cost almost $10,000 per mile. The new road worried residents of Silverton. They feared that all Red Mountain ores would now flow through Ouray. They hired Mears to build from their town to Red Mountain. Construction on the Silverton–Red Mountain Toll Road started in July 1884. It was completed that November. The road linked Silverton not only to Red Mountain but also on to Ouray via Mears’s earlier road.</p> <p>Mears launched his own bid for public office. Starting in the 1870s, he had become a de facto Republican Party boss for the San Luis Valley and southwest Colorado. He served as a state presidential elector in 1876. Mears engineered the nomination of Frederick Pitkin for governor in 1878. After his work on Ute removal, he ran for office himself. Mears served a single term in the state legislature in 1883. His brief political experience was enough to convince him that he preferred to focus on making money and then using it to influence politics. Over the next few decades, Mears’s main official political role was as a member of the Board of Capitol Managers. He was appointed to the position in 1889. Mears helped speed completion of a new state capitol. The construction had dragged on for years.&nbsp; Mears ensured that a stained-glass portrait of himself would adorn the building’s second floor. Mears is remembered for his suggestion that the capitol dome be covered in gold leaf as a symbol of the state’s mining heritage.</p> <h2>Railroad Baron</h2> <p>Building toll roads drew Mears into railroad development. After connecting Silverton to the mines at Red Mountain, he started the Mears Transportation Company to carry ore along the route. His company became the largest freighting firm in Colorado. Mears saw firsthand that slow wagons could not keep up with the mines’ production. He decided to replace his toll road with a railroad. The Silverton Railroad was completed to Red Mountain in 1889. It was a triumph of engineering. The railroad maintained a grade of less than 5 percent thanks to two loops and four switchbacks along the route. Red Mountain mines boomed because cheaper railroad transportation allowed them to ship lower-grade ores at a profit. As a supply center for Red Mountain, Silverton boomed, too. Durango also profited as a source of coal and a smelting center.</p> <p>Mears dreamt up grander rail projects that had the potential to make him a national figure. The first step was the Rio Grande Southern (RGS), which Mears incorporated in 1889. His goal with the line was to bridge a gap in Denver &amp; Rio Grande (D&amp;RG) service between the northern and southern San Juans. With heavy investment from the D&amp;RG, Mears established the new railroad town of Ridgway in 1890. He laid track from there to Telluride by the end of the year. In 1891 he continued the line southwest past Ophir. Mears had to negotiate a treacherous passage from valley floor to canyon walls to reach Durango on December 20. The Rocky Mountain News described the completion of the Rio Grande Southern as “the most important railroad event of the year.”</p> <p>Mears used the record profits from the Rio Grande Southern to support his plans. He proposed extending the Rio Grande Southern to Phoenix and on to the Pacific Coast. Before he could set that plan in motion, larger economic forces intervened. The combined hit of the Panic of 1893 and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act later that year caused economic chaos in Colorado. Many mines closed. This reduced revenues for Mears’s railroads. The bank where Mears kept his money also closed. This made his financial position even more difficult. Luckily for Mears, the Silverton Railroad continued to prosper because it shipped copper. In 1895 Mears was forced to sell the Rio Grande Southern to the Denver &amp; Rio Grande. Mears was convinced that silver would rebound. He invested the money from the sale into a new railroad, the Silverton Northern. Mears completed the line along the Animas River from Silverton to Eureka by June 1896.</p> <p>William Jennings Bryan’s defeat in the 1896 presidential election signaled that the silver market would not recover anytime soon. Mears left Colorado to try to recoup his fortune. He built railroads in Maryland and Louisiana. In 1905 he decided to return to Colorado when the Louisiana railroad failed to secure a right-of-way into New Orleans.</p> <p>Mears had remained involved in his Colorado business and political interests during his decade away. In 1902 his Silverton Northern line to Eureka had started to show a profit. In 1903 he decided to extend the track to Animas Forks. He hoped to continue expanding his San Juan rail network to forge direct connections between Silverton, Ouray, and Lake City. It was not to be. The treacherous mountain terrain made construction difficult and expensive. Adequate funding was not forthcoming.</p> <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2> <p>Mears shifted to a focus on mining investments in the San Juans. His shrewd investments in mines and flotation mills to process low-grade ores soon made him a millionaire again.</p> <p>Mears' wife Mary in ill health.&nbsp; He started to spend more time in the milder climate of Pasadena, California. After World War I, Mears decided to retire to Pasadena. He sold his Silverton house in 1919. He resigned from the Board of Capitol Managers in 1920 and terminated his mining leases. He retained ownership of his railroads in San Juan County. They fared poorly as San Juan mining declined. In 1922 Mears shut down the Silverton Railroad. The Silverton, Gladstone &amp; Northerly ended regular service a year later. The Silverton Northern continued to turn a profit through the 1920s. It operated occasionally after 1931. Its rails were removed in 1942. By that time Mears was gone. He died in Pasadena on June 24, 1931, at the age of ninety-one.</p> <p>Mears dreamed of becoming a major railroad baron. Today the railroads he built have all disappeared. Yet his legacy is apparent on every map of the San Juan Mountains. He facilitated Ute removal from the region. Mears opened access for white settlers to what was left behind. His toll road network made it faster and easier to transport miners, supplies, and metals. This allowed the area’s mining towns to prosper. A generation later, his well-built wagon roads were converted for automobile use. Mears' roads provided the basic blueprint for the highway system that knits together the San Juans today.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Otto Mears (1840–1931) was a Colorado businessman who played a key role in the removal of the state’s Ute Indians. He is best known for building more than 450 miles of toll roads and railroads on the Utes’ former lands in the southern and southwestern parts of the state. Called the “Pathfinder of the San Juan,” Mears established the routes that became the basis for much of the region’s highway system. This includes the famed “Million Dollar Highway” between Ouray and Silverton. His roads facilitated the development of the San Juan mining region. They enabled cheaper and quicker transportation of people and ores.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Otto Mears was born in Kurland, Russia, on May 3, 1840, to an English father and a Russian mother. His parents were both Jewish. Otherwise, little is known about them. They died when he was young. Mears bounced from relative to relative until the early 1850s, when he wound up in San Francisco in search of an uncle who lived there. Arriving at the height of the California Gold Rush, the young Mears tried his hand as a prospector, a tinsmith, a merchant, and a speculator in mining stocks.</p> <p>In 1861, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Mears joined the First Regiment of California Volunteers. He served with the regiment at Fort Craig, New Mexico. The soldiers were responsible for patrolling the Texas–New Mexico border after the Union victory at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Mears participated in the army’s campaign against the Navajo. The campaign was led by Kit Carson in 1863–64.</p> <h2>Coming to Colorado</h2> <p>After mustering out of the Army on August 31, 1864, Mears became a merchant in Santa Fé. A year later he moved to Conejos in the San Luis Valley. He had a store, a gristmill, and a sawmill. He moved again a year later. This time he started a farm, a mill, and a store at the site of present-day Saguache. Mears helped to establish and develop Saguache in the late 1860s.</p> <p>Since his year in Conejos, Mears had been selling lumber and wheat to the army outpost at Fort Garland. When the price of flour dropped in the late 1860s, he looked north for new markets in the mining camps of the upper Arkansas Valley. Getting there required traveling over Poncha Pass on a rough path. Mears improved the path to a wagon road. He made a tidy profit on his flour, and partnered with an Arkansas Valley mill owner Charles Nachtrieb to start the Poncha Pass Wagon Road Company in November 1870. The company’s toll road ran north from Poncha Pass to Nachtrieb’s mill in Nathrop and beyond. It formed the first easily accessible connection between the San Luis Valley and the Arkansas Valley.</p> <p>The Poncha Pass company started its operations in November 1870. Mears felt financially secure enough to marry Mary Kampfshulte. She was a young German immigrant whom he had met in the Arkansas Valley town of Granite. The couple had four children, only two of whom—Laura May, born in 1872, and Cora, born in 1879—survived infancy.</p> <h2>Clearing Paths in the San Juans</h2> <p>The Poncha Pass road marked the start of Mears’s extensive road empire. He turned west to the San Juan Mountains. Mears played a key role in clearing the region for white settlement and clearing paths along which those immigrants could travel. Since Mears had arrived in Colorado, he had been developing ties with the Ute Indians. The Utes had lived in the region for more than 400 years. In the 1860s, he became the tribe’s official trader. Mears had a government contract to supply food to the Utes at the Los Piños Indian Agency. He learned to speak Ute and became friends with Ouray, the Tabeguache leader who often negotiated treaties with the US government. As a result of these close ties, Felix Brunot consulted Mears during the negotiation of the Brunot Agreement in 1873. By suggesting that Brunot promise Ouray an annual salary of $1,000 for ten years, Mears helped smooth the way for the Ute cession of the San Juan Mountains.</p> <p>Mears saw no clear line between his business interests and his government service. As Ute territory became more restricted, the Indians became more reliant on the government for their survival.&nbsp; Mears was happy to snatch up government contracts to provide them with trade goods. He was also happy to build and profit from the infrastructure that made white settlement possible on former Ute land. In 1873, Mears acquired an interest in the Saguache and San Juan Toll Road Company. The company was building a route from Saguache to Lake City via Cochetopa Pass. By August 1874, Mears had taken control of the company and completed the road.</p> <p>As he expanded his growing toll road empire, Mears followed the market to new mining camps in need of better transportation. He also took time away from his businesses to secure a stable environment for economic growth. He secured Ute support for the treaty that moved the Utes to a smaller reservation. Mears worked to ensure that the new Ute reservation would be located in Utah, not in western Colorado’s potentially fertile Grand River Valley. He envisioned the valley as an agricultural paradise full of white farmers who would pay to use his roads.</p> <p>Mears did what he thought was necessary to avert a war that could have resulted in the annihilation of the Utes. But he also did what was best for his own bottom line. In the years after the Meeker Incident, he earned a small fortune in toll fees from soldiers traveling his roads. He helped open vast new regions in western Colorado to white settlement. Mears also secured the contracts to build and supply the Utes’ new reservation in Utah.</p> <p>Over the next five years, Mears worked to expand his San Juan road network to about 450 miles. The most significant of these projects were the roads he built to the Red Mountain mining district between Ouray and Silverton. The area boomed after the discovery of the Yankee Girl mine in 1882. In 1883, Ouray County asked Mears to build a toll road south from town up Uncompahgre Canyon. He completed the road to Red Mountain in September 1883. The road cost almost $10,000 per mile. The new road worried residents of Silverton. They feared that all Red Mountain ores would now flow through Ouray. They hired Mears to build from their town to Red Mountain. Construction on the Silverton–Red Mountain Toll Road started in July 1884. It was completed that November. The road linked Silverton not only to Red Mountain but also on to Ouray via Mears’s earlier road.</p> <p>Mears’s work on Ute removal also gained him the publicity to launch his own bid for public office. Starting in the 1870s, he had already become a de facto Republican Party boss for the San Luis Valley and southwest Colorado. He served as a state presidential elector in 1876. Mears engineered the nomination of Frederick Pitkin for governor in 1878. After his work on Ute removal, he ran for office himself. Mears served a single term in the state legislature in 1883. His brief political experience was enough to convince him that he preferred to focus on making money and then using it to influence politics. Over the next few decades, Mears’s main official political role was as a member of the Board of Capitol Managers. He was appointed to the position in 1889. Mears helped speed completion of a new state capitol. The construction had dragged on for years.&nbsp; Mears ensured that a stained-glass portrait of himself would adorn the building’s second floor. Mears is remembered for his suggestion that the capitol dome be covered in gold leaf as a symbol of the state’s mining heritage.</p> <h2>Railroad Baron</h2> <p>Building toll roads drew Mears into railroad development. After connecting Silverton to the mines at Red Mountain, he started the Mears Transportation Company to carry ore along the route. His company became the largest freighting firm in Colorado. Mears saw firsthand that slow wagons could not keep up with the mines’ production. To enable faster and cheaper transportation to the Red Mountain mines, he decided to replace his toll road with a railroad. When the Silverton Railroad was completed to Red Mountain in 1889, it was a triumph of engineering. The railroad maintained a grade of less than 5 percent thanks to two loops and four switchbacks along the route. Red Mountain mines boomed because cheaper railroad transportation allowed them to ship lower-grade ores at a profit. As a supply center for Red Mountain, Silverton boomed, too. Durango also profited as a source of coal and a smelting center.</p> <p>Mears dreamt up grander rail projects that had the potential to make him a national figure. The first step was the Rio Grande Southern (RGS), which Mears incorporated in 1889. His goal with the line was to bridge a gap in Denver &amp; Rio Grande (D&amp;RG) service between the northern and southern San Juans. With heavy investment from the D&amp;RG, Mears established the new railroad town of Ridgway in 1890. He laid track from there to Telluride by the end of the year. In 1891 he continued the line southwest past Ophir. Mears had to negotiate a treacherous passage from valley floor to canyon walls, and on through Rico, Dolores, and Hesperus to reach Durango on December 20. On the other side of the state, the Rocky Mountain News described the completion of the Rio Grande Southern as “the most important railroad event of the year.”</p> <p>In the early 1890s, Mears used the record profits from the Rio Grande Southern to support his plans. In a bid to become a national railroad baron, he proposed extending the Rio Grande Southern to Phoenix and on to the Pacific Coast. Before he could set that plan in motion, larger economic forces intervened. The combined hit of the Panic of 1893 and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act later that year caused economic chaos throughout Colorado. Many mines closed. This reduced revenues for Mears’s railroads. The bank where Mears kept his money also closed. This made his financial position even more difficult. Luckily for Mears, the Silverton Railroad continued to prosper because it shipped plenty of copper. In 1895 Mears was forced to sell the Rio Grande Southern to the Denver &amp; Rio Grande. Convinced that silver (and the San Juans) would rebound, he invested the money from the sale into a new railroad, the Silverton Northern. Mears completed the line along the Animas River from Silverton to Eureka by June 1896.</p> <p>William Jennings Bryan’s defeat in the 1896 presidential election signaled that the silver market would not recover anytime soon. Mears left Colorado to try to recoup his fortune. He built railroads in Maryland (with fellow Coloradan David Moffat) and Louisiana. In 1905 he decided to return to Colorado when the Louisiana railroad failed to secure a right-of-way into New Orleans.</p> <p>Mears had remained involved in his Colorado business and political interests during his decade away. In 1902 his Silverton Northern line to Eureka had started to show a profit. In 1903 he decided to extend the track to Animas Forks. When he returned to Colorado, he hoped to continue expanding his San Juan rail network to forge direct connections between Silverton, Ouray, and Lake City. It was not to be. The treacherous mountain terrain made construction difficult and expensive. Adequate funding was not forthcoming.</p> <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2> <p>After his planned railroad extensions around Silverton fizzled, Mears shifted to a focus on mining investments in the San Juans. His shrewd investments in the Iowa Tiger, Gold King, and Mayflower mines, as well as in flotation mills to process low-grade ores, soon made him a millionaire again.</p> <p>With his wife Mary in ill health, Mears was starting to spend more time in the milder climate of Pasadena, California. After World War I, with Mary’s health on edge and metals markets in a tailspin, Mears decided to retire to Pasadena. He sold his Silverton house in 1919, resigned from the Board of Capitol Managers in 1920, and terminated his mining leases in 1920. He retained ownership of his railroads in San Juan County. They fared poorly as San Juan mining declined. In 1922 Mears shut down the Silverton Railroad. The Silverton, Gladstone &amp; Northerly ended regular service a year later. The Silverton Northern continued to turn a profit through the 1920s. It operated occasionally after 1931. Its rails were removed in 1942. By that time Mears was gone. He died in Pasadena on June 24, 1931, at the age of ninety-one.</p> <p>Mears dreamed of becoming a major railroad baron. Today the railroads he built—the Rio Grande Southern, the Silverton, and the Silverton Northern—have all disappeared. Yet his legacy is apparent on every map of the San Juan Mountains. He facilitated Ute removal from the region and then opened access for white settlers to what was left behind. In the late nineteenth century, his toll road network made it faster and easier to transport miners, supplies, and metals. This allowed the area’s mining towns to prosper. A generation later, his well-built wagon roads were converted for automobile use. Mears' roads provided the basic blueprint for the highway system that knits together the San Juans today.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Otto Mears (1840–1931) was a Colorado businessman who played a key role in the removal of the state’s Ute Indians. He is best known for building more than 450 miles of toll roads and railroads on the Utes’ former lands in the southern and southwestern parts of the state. Called the “Pathfinder of the San Juan,” Mears established the routes that became the basis for much of the region’s highway system. This includes the famed “Million Dollar Highway” between Ouray and Silverton. His roads facilitated the development of the San Juan mining region. They enabled cheaper and quicker transportation of people and ores.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Otto Mears was born in Kurland, Russia, on May 3, 1840, to an English father and a Russian mother. His parents were both Jewish. Otherwise, little is known about them. They died when he was young. Mears bounced from relative to relative until the early 1850s, when he wound up in San Francisco in search of an uncle who lived there. Arriving at the height of the California Gold Rush, the young Mears tried his hand as a prospector, a tinsmith, a merchant, and a speculator in mining stocks.</p> <p>In 1861, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Mears joined the First Regiment of California Volunteers. He served with the regiment at Fort Craig, New Mexico. The soldiers were responsible for patrolling the Texas–New Mexico border after the Union victory at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Mears participated in the army’s campaign against the Navajo. The campaign was led by Kit Carson in 1863–64.</p> <h2>Coming to Colorado</h2> <p>After mustering out of the Army on August 31, 1864, Mears became a merchant in Santa Fé. A year later he moved to Conejos in the San Luis Valley. He had a store, a gristmill, and a sawmill. He moved again a year later. This time he started a farm, a mill, and a store at the site of present-day Saguache. Mears helped to establish and develop Saguache in the late 1860s.</p> <p>Since his year in Conejos, Mears had been selling lumber and wheat to the army outpost at Fort Garland. When the price of flour dropped in the late 1860s, he looked north for new markets in the mining camps of the upper Arkansas Valley. Getting there required traveling over Poncha Pass on a rough path. Mears improved the path to a wagon road. He made a tidy profit on his flour, and partnered with an Arkansas Valley mill owner Charles Nachtrieb to start the Poncha Pass Wagon Road Company in November 1870. The company’s toll road ran north from Poncha Pass to Nachtrieb’s mill in Nathrop and beyond. It formed the first easily accessible connection between the San Luis Valley and the Arkansas Valley.</p> <p>The Poncha Pass company started its operations in November 1870. Mears felt financially secure enough to marry Mary Kampfshulte. She was a young German immigrant whom he had met in the Arkansas Valley town of Granite. The couple had four children, only two of whom—Laura May, born in 1872, and Cora, born in 1879—survived infancy.</p> <h2>Clearing Paths in the San Juans</h2> <p>The Poncha Pass road marked the start of Mears’s extensive road empire. He turned west to the San Juan Mountains. Mears played a key role in clearing the region for white settlement and clearing paths along which those immigrants could travel. Since Mears had arrived in Colorado, he had been developing ties with the Ute Indians. The Utes had lived in the region for more than 400 years. In the 1860s, he became the tribe’s official trader. Mears had a government contract to supply food to the Utes at the Los Piños Indian Agency. He learned to speak Ute and became friends with Ouray, the Tabeguache leader who often negotiated treaties with the US government. As a result of these close ties, Felix Brunot consulted Mears during the negotiation of the Brunot Agreement in 1873. By suggesting that Brunot promise Ouray an annual salary of $1,000 for ten years, Mears helped smooth the way for the Ute cession of the San Juan Mountains.</p> <p>Mears saw no clear line between his business interests and his government service. As Ute territory became more restricted, the Indians became more reliant on the government for their survival.&nbsp; Mears was happy to snatch up government contracts to provide them with trade goods. He was also happy to build and profit from the infrastructure that made white settlement possible on former Ute land. In 1873, Mears acquired an interest in the Saguache and San Juan Toll Road Company. The company was building a route from Saguache to Lake City via Cochetopa Pass. By August 1874, Mears had taken control of the company and completed the road.</p> <p>As he expanded his growing toll road empire, Mears followed the market to new mining camps in need of better transportation. When necessary, he also took time away from his businesses to secure a stable environment for economic growth. Most notably, he secured Ute support for the treaty that removed the Utes to a smaller reservation. With the treaty on its way to ratification, Mears worked to ensure that the new Ute reservation would be located in Utah, not in western Colorado’s potentially fertile Grand River Valley, which he already envisioned as an agricultural paradise full of white farmers who would pay to use his roads.</p> <p>In his work with the Utes, Mears did what he thought was necessary to avert a war that could have resulted in the annihilation of the Utes. But he also did what was best for his own bottom line. In the years after the Meeker Incident, he earned a small fortune in toll fees from soldiers traveling his roads, helped open vast new regions in western Colorado to white settlement, and secured the contracts to build and supply the Utes’ new reservation in Utah.</p> <p>Over the next five years, Mears worked tirelessly to expand his San Juan road network to about 450 miles. The most significant of these projects were the roads he built to the Red Mountain mining district between Ouray and Silverton, which boomed after the discovery of the Yankee Girl mine in 1882. First, Ouray County asked Mears in 1883 to construct a toll road south from town up Uncompahgre Canyon. He completed the road to Red Mountain in September 1883, at a cost of almost $10,000 per mile. The new road worried residents of Silverton, who feared that all Red Mountain ores would now flow through Ouray. They, too, hired Mears to build from their town to Red Mountain. Construction on the Silverton–Red Mountain Toll Road started in July 1884 and was completed that November, linking Silverton not only to Red Mountain but also on to Ouray via Mears’s earlier road.</p> <p>Mears’s work on Ute removal also gained him the publicity to launch his own bid for public office. Starting in the 1870s, he had already become a de facto Republican Party boss for the San Luis Valley and southwest Colorado. He served as a state presidential elector in 1876 and engineered the nomination of Frederick Pitkin for governor in 1878. After his work on Ute removal, he ran for office himself, serving a single term in the state legislature in 1883. His brief political experience was enough to convince him that he preferred to focus on making money and then using it to influence politics. Over the next few decades, Mears’s main official political role was as a member of the Board of Capitol Managers, to which he was appointed in 1889. Mears helped speed completion of a new state capitol, whose construction had dragged on for years, and he characteristically ensured that a stained-glass portrait of himself would adorn the building’s second floor. Today Mears is often remembered for his suggestion that the capitol dome be covered in gold leaf as a symbol of the state’s mining heritage.</p> <h2>Railroad Baron</h2> <p>Building toll roads eventually drew Mears into railroad development. After connecting Silverton to the mines at Red Mountain, he started the Mears Transportation Company to carry ore along the route. His company soon became the largest freighting firm in Colorado, but at the same time he saw firsthand that slow wagons could not keep up with the mines’ production. To enable faster and cheaper transportation to the Red Mountain mines, he decided in 1887 to replace his toll road with a railroad. When the Silverton Railroad was completed to Red Mountain in 1889, it was a triumph of engineering, maintaining a grade of less than 5 percent thanks to two loops and four switchbacks along the route. Red Mountain mines boomed because cheaper railroad transportation allowed them to ship lower-grade ores at a profit. Silverton boomed, too, as a supply center for Red Mountain, as did Durango as a source of coal and a smelting center.</p> <p>Enjoying the profits and stature that went along with being a nineteenth-century railroad president, Mears dreamt up grander rail projects that had the potential to make him a national figure. The first step was the Rio Grande Southern (RGS), which Mears incorporated in 1889. His goal with the line was to bridge a gap in Denver &amp; Rio Grande (D&amp;RG) service between the northern and southern San Juans. With heavy investment from the D&amp;RG, Mears established the new railroad town of Ridgway in 1890 and laid track from there to Telluride by the end of the year. In 1891 he continued the line southwest past Ophir, where he had to negotiate a treacherous passage from valley floor to canyon walls, and on through Rico, Dolores, and Hesperus to reach Durango on December 20. On the other side of the state, the Rocky Mountain News described the completion of the Rio Grande Southern as “the most important railroad event of the year.”</p> <p>In the early 1890s, Mears used the record profits from the Rio Grande Southern to support his ambitious plans. In a bid to become a national railroad baron, he proposed extending the Rio Grande Southern to Phoenix and on to the Pacific Coast. But before he could set that plan in motion, larger economic forces intervened; the combined hit of the Panic of 1893 and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act later that year caused economic chaos throughout Colorado. Not only did many mines close, drastically reducing revenues for Mears’s railroads, but so did the bank where he kept his money, making his suddenly precarious financial position even more difficult. Luckily for Mears, the Silverton Railroad continued to prosper because it shipped plenty of copper, but in 1895 he was forced to sell the Rio Grande Southern to the Denver &amp; Rio Grande. Convinced that silver (and the San Juans) would rebound, he invested the money from the sale into a new railroad, the Silverton Northern, which he had completed along the Animas River from Silverton to Eureka by June 1896.</p> <p>William Jennings Bryan’s defeat in the 1896 presidential election signaled that the silver market would not recover anytime soon, so Mears left Colorado to try to recoup his fortune. He built railroads in Maryland (with fellow Coloradan David Moffat) and Louisiana, but in 1905 he decided to return to Colorado when the Louisiana railroad failed to secure a right-of-way into New Orleans.</p> <p>Mears had remained involved in his Colorado business and political interests during his decade away. In 1902 his Silverton Northern line to Eureka had started to show a profit, so in 1903 he decided to extend the track to Animas Forks. When he returned to Colorado a few years later, he hoped to continue expanding his San Juan rail network to forge direct connections between Silverton, Ouray, and Lake City. But it was not to be; the treacherous mountain terrain made construction difficult and expensive, and adequate funding was not forthcoming.</p> <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2> <p>After his planned railroad extensions around Silverton fizzled, Mears shifted in the 1910s to a focus on mining investments in the San Juans. His shrewd investments in the Iowa Tiger, Gold King, and Mayflower mines, as well as in flotation mills to process low-grade ores, soon made him a millionaire again after his setbacks in the 1890s and 1900s.</p> <p>With his wife Mary in ill health, however, Mears was starting to spend more time in the milder climate of Pasadena, California, where the couple often wintered. After World War I, with Mary’s health on edge and metals markets in a tailspin, Mears decided to retire to Pasadena. He sold his Silverton house in 1919, resigned from the Board of Capitol Managers in 1920, and terminated his mining leases in 1920. He retained ownership of his railroads in San Juan County, but they fared poorly as San Juan mining declined. In 1922 Mears shut down the Silverton Railroad, and the Silverton, Gladstone &amp; Northerly ended regular service a year later. The Silverton Northern continued to turn a profit through the 1920s but operated intermittently after 1931; its rails were removed in 1942. By that time Mears, too, was gone, having died in Pasadena on June 24, 1931, at the age of ninety-one.</p> <p>Mears dreamed of becoming a major railroad baron, but today the railroads he built—the Rio Grande Southern, the Silverton, and the Silverton Northern—have all disappeared. Yet his legacy is readily apparent on every map of the San Juan Mountains, where he facilitated Ute removal from the region and then opened access for white settlers to what was left behind. In the late nineteenth century, his toll road network made it faster and easier to transport miners, supplies, and metals, allowing the area’s mining towns to prosper. A generation later, his well-built wagon roads were converted for automobile use, providing the basic blueprint for the highway system that knits together the San Juans today.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 16 Jan 2020 23:13:20 +0000 yongli 3146 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Western Slope http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Western Slope</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-23T16:14:24-07:00" title="Monday, January 23, 2017 - 16:14" class="datetime">Mon, 01/23/2017 - 16:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope" data-a2a-title="Western Slope"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwestern-slope&amp;title=Western%20Slope"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>“A Fantasy land,” “a mystique,” “a state of mind”—these are only some of the expressions used to describe the Western Slope of Colorado, commonly defined as the roughly one-third of the state that lies west of the <a href="/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>. The serpentine divide forms the region’s eastern boundary, running 276 miles from the Wyoming border to New Mexico and separating the Western Slope from Colorado’s more populous <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and the broad <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it is home to 10 percent of Colorado’s residents, the Western Slope contains 33 percent of the state’s land, some of the state’s most popular tourist and recreation areas, and about 70 percent of its <a href="/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a>. The fact that most of the state’s natural resources lie on Colorado’s west side while most of its residents live in the east has led to tension and conflict, especially over the topic of water diversion.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Those who live west of the divide might say that they feel different from other Coloradans due, in part, to their unique relationship with the area’s rugged terrain, numbing cold, heavy <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a>, and stark isolation. Some residents of the Western Slope feel as though their needs and desires are overlooked by a distant state government that does not understand their needs and concerns. Yet, Coloradans are increasingly linked together by shared economic interests as well as a common desire to conserve the landscapes and resources that make the state such a special place to live.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Western Slope has been inhabited for more than 10,000 years. From <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> occupation around 12,000 BC to the era of the <a href="/search/google/Ute"><strong>Ute people</strong></a> (c. AD 1300–1880), the area’s early inhabitants were mostly nomadic hunter-gatherers, who followed large game on seasonal routes between the region’s many elevation zones. Evidence at the <a href="/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer Archaeological Site</strong></a> near <strong>Gunnison</strong> indicates that Paleo-Indian peoples occupied the Western Slope as early as 12,000 BC. During the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic Period</strong></a> (6,500 BC–AD 200), <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> peoples occupied parts of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a> and <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a> basins. Perhaps the most well-known of the Western Slope’s early inhabitants were the Ancestral Puebloan peoples, who lived in the <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> and the Four Corners regions from about 350 BC until approximately AD 1300.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Ancestral Puebloans were the first of many farmers in Colorado, relying on crops of maize to supplement their hunting and gathering economies. Their extensive use of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> showed an awareness and understanding of the challenges of farming in an arid environment, but in the late thirteenth century, a period of crippling drought appears to have dealt the decisive blow to a society already suffering from violence due to religious, economic, and political strife. Nevertheless, the lessons these people learned about living in an arid and isolated land would prove instructive to those who followed, particularly the Ute people who moved to the Western Slope after AD 1300.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes came to western Colorado from the Great Basin, in what is now eastern California and southern Nevada. Unlike the Ancestral Puebloans, who inherited a rich agricultural tradition, the Utes brought with them to Colorado the hunting-and-gathering way of life known as the Mountain Tradition. As it turned out, that way of life suited them well in the arid parts of the Western Slope, and especially well in the Rocky Mountains’ resource-rich river valleys. Ute people hunted buffalo, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, jackrabbit, and <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and collected a wide assortment of seeds, nuts, roots, and berries from the landscape. Over centuries they carved well-worn trails throughout the mountains, many of which later became the routes of stage lines, railroads, and highways. Many of the Utes’ favored wintering grounds featuring hot springs, including the areas of present-day <strong>Glenwood Springs</strong>, <a href="/article/pagosa-springs"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>, and <strong>Steamboat Springs</strong>. Over time, Colorado became home to nine distinct bands of Utes, each of which laid claim to various parts of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Utes held dominion over much of western Colorado until 1880, when most were expelled by the United States government. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> left the Utes most of their land west of the Continental Divide in exchange for land along the Front Range and in the San Luis Valley. But several years later, significant gold discoveries in the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> compelled the federal government to negotiate the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, which brought the San Juans under the jurisdiction of the Colorado Territory. Many Utes were displeased with both agreements, as they were signed by leaders who did not necessarily represent the wishes of each band. In 1879 Utes at the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> near present-day <a href="/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a> revolted against <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a> <a href="/article/nathaniel-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a>, who had attempted to force them into an agricultural life. The incident prompted calls for the Utes’ removal across the state, and in 1880 the government forced the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Northern Ute</strong></a> bands to a new reservation in Utah. The <strong>Southern</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Utes</strong></a>, who did not participate in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>, retained a narrow strip of land near the New Mexico border, where they live today.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Exploration and Fur Trade</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first Europeans to visit Colorado’s Western Slope were the <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> of the mid-eighteenth century, beginning with <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in 1765 and Fathers Silvestre Escalante and Francisco Domínguez in 1776. The Spanish never made a concerted effort to extend their dominion very far into the Ute homeland, but they did leave a legacy on the Western Slope, including the name for the ruddy river that drained and formed large swathes of the region—the “Rio <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The next wave of foreigners to venture into the Ute lands of western Colorado consisted of European, Canadian, and Anglo-American fur trappers. With thousands of <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> living along the many streams that flowed out of the high mountains, western Colorado offered a bonanza for mountain men during the second quarter of the nineteenth century. In 1828 the St. Louis trapper <strong>Antoine Robidoux</strong> built <a href="/article/fort-uncompahgre"><strong>Fort Uncompahgre</strong></a>, a <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> near the confluence of the Gunnison and <strong>Uncompahgre</strong> Rivers. The fort was the first of its kind on the Western Slope and served as a supply and trading center for fur trappers in the vicinity. It was also a link between Santa Fé to the south and the beaver-rich country around the Green River to the north.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The center of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> on the Western Slope, however, was <strong>Brown’s Hole</strong> in the extreme northwestern corner of Colorado. The valley got little snow compared to surrounding areas, so it was lush with grass and aspen stands and made a perfect place for suppliers and fur trappers to conduct business in Colorado’s short summers. From the late 1820s to 1840, the annual rendezvous at Brown’s Hole was the scene of extensive trading. In 1836 three trappers built <a href="/article/fort-davy-crockett"><strong>Fort Davy Crockett</strong></a> on the Green River in Brown’s Hole. Isolated and constantly threatened by Native Americans, the fort was referred to as “Fort Misery” by those who traded there. By the early 1840s, the fur trade was all but finished in Western Colorado, due in part to the over-trapping of beaver and a change in fashion tastes abroad. Both Fort Uncompahgre and Fort Davy Crockett were abandoned, marking the end of one of the most colorful eras in Western Colorado’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early American Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Though the fur trade era in this part of Colorado was relatively brief, the trappers who participated in it were among the first Anglo-Americans to truly become familiar with the Western Slope. <strong>Jim Bridger</strong>, <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, and other former trappers later served as guides for official US expeditions into the region, such as those led by <a href="/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> (1843–53), <a href="/article/john-w-gunnison"><strong>John W. Gunnison</strong></a> (1853), and <strong>John Wesley Powell</strong> (1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Collectively, the expeditions of the mid-nineteenth century demonstrated that the terrain of western Colorado was simply far too rugged to allow for a transcontinental railroad route, but each venture helped shed light on major natural features and resources. The <strong>Hayden expedition</strong> of 1872–73 proved especially useful in that regard. Working with telescopes, barometers, and glass-plate cameras, Hayden’s team peered into nearly every nook and cranny of the Western Slope. The maps produced by these surveying expeditions would soon lure mining engineers, road and railroad builders, cattle barons, investors, town builders, and loggers—the drivers of industrialized, expansionist America—to western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> along the Front Range in 1858–59 prompted the organization of <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. Around this time, several Western Slope areas became hotbeds of placer mining—a process that involves sifting out gold from gravel, mostly in streambeds. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a> became one of the great mining towns in western Colorado history, while other mining districts sprang up in the Elk Mountains near present-day <a href="/article/crested-butte"><strong>Crested Butte</strong></a>, in the Gunnison River Valley, and in the San Juan Mountains of southwest Colorado. These deposits were quickly panned out, but new discoveries over the next several decades would make mining a hallmark industry of the Western Slope.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike the earliest discoveries, most of the gold found on the Western Slope in the 1870s did not lie conveniently at the bottom of streams but was lodged deep within the earth, bonded to quartz and other rock. Nonetheless, as the Ute Indians continued to cede territory in western Colorado, thousands of miners filtered into the <strong>Sawatch</strong>, <strong>Elk</strong>, and San Juan Mountains. Seemingly overnight, mining camps such as <strong>Ouray</strong>, <a href="/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a>, <a href="/article/lake-city-0"><strong>Lake City</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/silverton"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> became boom towns. The Gunnison country caught gold fever in 1879, with Crested Butte, Irwin, <strong>Tin Cup</strong>, Gothic, White Pine, and Pitkin becoming booming mining camps. <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> on the <strong>Roaring Fork River</strong> became one of the greatest silver camps in the United States, while <a href="/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit County</strong></a> continued to churn out both gold and silver.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Booms and Busts in Mining Country</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s early miners found out, cycles of boom and bust have been a fact of life on the Western Slope since the area became part of the United States. Of the subsequent mining booms, coal lasted the longest, as the fuel provided essential energy for other industries, as well as heat, bricks, and electricity for Colorado’s growing towns. Hardy miners, many of them immigrants from southeastern Europe, worked in company towns throughout western Colorado. The work was hard and dangerous, and there was not much value placed on human life. These conditions led to labor strikes and tragic disasters, such as the 1884<strong> Jokerville coal mine</strong> <strong>explosion</strong> near Crested Butte that killed sixty miners. Labor unrest plagued mining areas from the start, and the economic crisis that came with the collapse of silver markets in the early twentieth century hit the San Juan Mountain camps especially hard. In addition to gold, silver, and coal, other minerals had their day in Western Colorado. This included zinc from southeast <a href="/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a> and molybdenum, a steel-hardening element, from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/climax-molybdenum-mine"><strong>Climax Mine</strong></a> north of Leadville.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Compared to the earlier mining booms and the bloody labor disputes that accompanied them, the <a href="/article/uranium-mining"><strong>uranium</strong></a> boom of the mid-twentieth century might seem rather mundane, but it was certainly no less dangerous. An industry unique to the Western Slope, uranium mining was centered in the <strong>Paradox Valley</strong> near the town of <strong>Nucla</strong> in <a href="/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a>. Uranium, an essential element in nuclear weapons, was found in the valley during the late nineteenth century, and North America’s first radioactive metals mill was built on La Sal Creek in 1900. This boom peaked in the 1950s, when nuclear energy was considered by many to be a savior in a world seeking cheaper, more efficient fuel. As the uranium mining industry declined in the 1960s and 1970s, evidence of radioactive contamination in the bodies of industry workers and in the environments of former mine and mill sites began to mount. Today, many places in western Colorado still grapple with the environmental and health effects of uranium mining.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1970s, another brief boom period began when the federal government and private companies took steps to develop massive oil shale deposits in western Colorado. The deposits were located in the Piceance Basin near Meeker. In 1969 and 1973, as part of its <strong>Operation Plowshare</strong> program, the federal Atomic Energy Commission oversaw the subterranean detonation of nuclear devices near Rifle in an attempt to free deposits of oil and gas from surrounding rock. The blasts failed to free sufficient amounts of the resources, so no significant extraction occurred afterward. In general, extracting oil from subterranean rock proved to be more expensive than expected, and by the early 1980s world events and a drop in oil prices brought an abrupt end to the boom. Exxon and other oil companies pulled out of the region, taking thousands of jobs with them.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture and Tourism</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Following Ute removal in the early 1880s, farmers and ranchers joined miners on the Western Slope. <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>, <strong>Delta</strong>, and <strong>Montrose</strong> sprang up in 1881 and 1882, as did <strong>Glenwood Springs</strong> at the junction of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers. Above the Colorado River, northwestern Colorado remained unsettled except for ranchers. Here and there, small towns sprang up for a variety of reasons. Steamboat Springs, <strong>Craig</strong>, <strong>Gunnison</strong>, and <strong>Yampa </strong>became cattle towns, while to the south, <strong>Durango</strong> prospered as a center for transportation, ore smelting, and agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Irrigation was critical to the success of many towns on the Western Slope. Colorado’s aridity hampered farming and ranching from the outset, so farmers around Grand Junction, Montrose, and other early agricultural communities dug ditches to water their crops. By the turn of the century, the newly created federal <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> greatly expanded the amount of irrigated land on the Western Slope. The bureau’s Uncompahgre Project was the first major reclamation effort in Colorado and one of the earliest in the American West. In 1909 the bureau completed the project’s linchpin, the <strong>Gunnison Tunnel</strong>, a six-mile underground cavern that diverted Gunnison River water underneath Vernal Mesa to the Uncompahgre Valley near Montrose. With the help of irrigation, western Colorado soon became well known for its produce. The fruit industry—centering around <strong>Fruita</strong>, <strong>Palisade</strong>, <strong>Paonia</strong>, Cedaredge, and Hotchkiss—became world famous.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike the early years of agriculture, the early years of ranching on the Western Slope were contentious as conflict between the region’s cattle and sheep ranchers broke out in the northwest part of the state over which livestock could feed on the best grazing territory. Ranchers in southwest Colorado, meanwhile, complained of Ute Indians leaving the Southern and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations to butcher cattle. Tensions between cattlemen and Utes who left the reservation sometimes flared into violence, as demonstrated by the <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1885. Changes came to the region’s cattle industry in the twentieth century. In 1905 much of the land on the western slope came under the protection of the <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a>, which began charging grazing fees for cattle and sheep on the federal range. The furious stockmen fought the government to no avail, and in 1934 the <strong>Taylor Grazing Act</strong>, which later evolved into the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong>, further curtailed grazing on the public range. The involvement of the federal government proved to be an omen of things to come, as federal regulations ensured better conservation of federal lands even as it irked many ranchers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the removal of the Utes and the arrival of irrigation, there was one more ingredient needed to ensure the economic success of the Western Slope. In 1881 the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad </strong>arrived in Durango and Gunnison, followed in 1882 by <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evan</strong><strong>s</strong></a>’s Denver, South Park &amp; Pacific railroad, facilitating the transport of mineral ores and supplies. The railroads also brought tourists who flocked to the Western Slope during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Tourist dollars allowed former mining towns such as Aspen, Breckenridge, Crested Butte, and Telluride to rebuild their economies and evolve into the cultural and recreational hubs we know today. The advent of the automobile and the construction of high-quality paved roads during the mid-twentieth century made Western Slope mountain towns more accessible than ever, propelling the growth of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski industry</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Water Wars</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The ski industry and other recreational activities in western Colorado greatly depend on the region’s water supply. The Western Slope holds the source of the <a href="/article/yampa-river"><strong>Yampa</strong></a>, <strong>White</strong>, <strong>Dolores</strong>, <strong>San Juan</strong>, Gunnison, Eagle, Roaring Fork, Animas and Uncompahgre Rivers. Yet, as important as all these rivers are to their local environments and communities, they are all tributaries to the mighty Colorado River, the most important river in the southwestern United States. That designation has come at a high cost to the river; even though 70 percent of its water originates in Colorado’s Rocky Mountains, much of that water has been diverted to support urban growth and agriculture on Colorado’s Front Range as well as in Utah, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tensions between water users run high in the western United States, but perhaps nowhere do they run higher than in Colorado. Most of the state’s water is in the Western Slope, but the majority of the population lives on the eastern side of the mountains, so Coloradans have built major diversions projects such as the <strong>Moffat Tunnel</strong>, Roberts Tunnel, Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, and the <a href="/article/colorado%e2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado–Big Thompson Project</strong> </a>to move water underneath the Continental Divide to Boulder, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, Denver, and other cities. These and other transmountain diversion projects have been met with anger by residents of the Western Slope. They not only question the ecological wisdom of draining their watersheds but are also troubled by the fact that the economically and politically dominant urban corridor along the Front Range has unfairly used its influence to obtain the lion’s share of Colorado’s water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As author and photographer David Lavender wrote in his 1976 book <em>Colorado</em>, the Western Slope “is a human as well as a physiographic entity,” and residents “like to think that while shaping the land, they have been shaped by it: by its long vistas, its angularity, even its stubbornness.” Perhaps nowhere else in the state is the convergence of human culture and landscape more apparent than on Colorado’s Western Slope. As Coloradans continue to grapple with the unpredictable economic and ecological effects of a changing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>, the rugged heartiness of the Western Slope’s residents will certainly be tested. Yet, the region’s traditions of innovation and determination will serve it well, and its residents will continue to take pride in the good things they have managed to wrest from the land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>This article is an abbreviated and updated version of the author’s essay “A Land Apart,” distributed in 2006 as part of <strong>Colorado Humanities</strong>’ “Five States of Colorado” educational resource kit.</em></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/vandenbusche-duane" hreflang="und">Vandenbusche, Duane</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/river" hreflang="en">river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bureau-reclamation" hreflang="en">bureau of reclamation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/glenwood-springs" hreflang="en">Glenwood Springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/garfield-county" hreflang="en">Garfield County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-blanco-county" hreflang="en">rio blanco county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moffat-county" hreflang="en">Moffat County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/breckenridge" hreflang="en">Breckenridge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/summit-county" hreflang="en">Summit County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/eagle-county" hreflang="en">eagle county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-county" hreflang="en">san juan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-plata-county" hreflang="en">la plata county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gunnison-county" hreflang="en">gunnison county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray-county" hreflang="en">ouray county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dolores-county" hreflang="en">dolores county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uranium" hreflang="en">uranium</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/exxon" hreflang="en">exxon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oil-shale" hreflang="en">oil shale</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coal" hreflang="en">coal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/craig" hreflang="en">Craig</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/meeker" hreflang="en">meeker</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Arthur Chapman, <em>The Story of Colorado: Out Where the West Begins</em> (Chicago, New York: Rand, McNally and Company, 1924).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Lavender, <em>David Lavender’s Colorado</em> (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Energy, “<a href="http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph241/powell1/docs/rioblanco.pdf">Rio Blanco, Colorado Site Fact Sheet</a>,” 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Energy, “<a href="http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph241/powell1/docs/rulison.pdf">Rulison, Colorado Site Fact Sheet</a>,” 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane Vandenbusche, <em>The Gunnison Country </em>(Gunnison, CO: B&amp;B Printers, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane Vandenbusche and Duane Smith, <em>A Land Alone: Colorado’s Western Slope </em>(Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1981).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Greg Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/10-western-colorado-fly-fishing-spots">10 Western Colorado Fly-Fishing Spots</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter McBride and Jonathan Waterman, <em>The Colorado River: Flowing through Conflict </em>(Boulder, CO: Westcliffe, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Waterman, <em>Running Dry: A Journey from Source to Sea down the Colorado River </em>(Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2010).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 23 Jan 2017 23:14:24 +0000 yongli 2210 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Durango & Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2057--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2057.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-train"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Durango-and-Silverton-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=XOqCbpaU" width="1000" height="587" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-train" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Train</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Constructed by the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway in 1881–82, the narrow gauge line from Durango to Silverton climbs nearly 3,000 feet in 45 miles. It was built to carry ore from mines in the San Juan Mountains, but now the scenic route is a major tourist attraction.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2061--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2061.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/durango-depot"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Durango%20and%20Silverton%20Media%202_0_0.jpg?itok=dMR7-Za7" width="1024" height="612" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/durango-depot" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Durango Depot</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Instead of building a station at the existing town of Animas City along the Animas River, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande established its own town, called Durango, two miles to the south. Durango became the base for the railroad's final push to reach Silverton.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2063--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2063.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Durango-and-Silverton-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=UJSx2oDn" width="1090" height="833" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>To build the railroad through the Animas Canyon to Silverton, workers had to blast a shelf in the canyon wall high above the river.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2064--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2064.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/highline-above-animas-river"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Durango-and-Silverton-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=jkQcjjpo" width="1000" height="665" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/highline-above-animas-river" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Highline Above the Animas River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The shelf above the Animas River, known as the Highline, has been a favorite spot for photographs of the train since its earliest years.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2065--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2065.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/silverton-depot"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Durango-and-Silverton-Media-5_0.jpg?itok=On2ZI2pm" width="1000" height="665" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/silverton-depot" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Silverton Depot</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The first train rolled into Silverton in July 1882, less than a year after construction started north from Durango. Today the train remains vital to Silverton's economy, bringing in hundreds of thousands of tourists per year.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-18T15:13:02-07:00" title="Friday, November 18, 2016 - 15:13" class="datetime">Fri, 11/18/2016 - 15:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad" data-a2a-title="Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdurango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad&amp;title=Durango%20%26%20Silverton%20Narrow%20Gauge%20Railroad"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Rising about 2,800 feet over its famously scenic forty-five-mile route, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad was originally built in 1881–82 as part of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway</strong>’s effort to reach the mines of the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. For decades the line hauled ore from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a><strong> </strong>down to smelters in <strong>Durango</strong>, but after World War II its business shifted to tourism. Now operated by American Heritage Railways, it continues to be a major tourist attraction in southwest Colorado and has been named both a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining the San Juans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Large-scale mining began in the San Juan Mountains after the 1873 <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> removed the Ute Indians from the area. The remote and rugged region had rich ores but limited transportation access, making the shipment of those ores slow and expensive. To tap this potentially lucrative market, in 1880 <a href="/article/william-jackson-palmer-0"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a>’s Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway started to build the narrow gauge <strong>San Juan Extension</strong> west from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. At the time, narrow gauge lines were relatively common in the Colorado mountains because they had rails that were only three feet apart, allowing for tighter curves, cheaper construction, and more efficient operation than the standard gauge of four feet, eight and a half inches. The railroad forged a route over <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong> to Chama, New Mexico, and then west through the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong> to reach the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>, with the ultimate goal of reaching Silverton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Originally the Denver &amp; Rio Grande planned to have a station in Animas City, a small farming and ranching town that served as a supply depot for San Juan miners. When the railroad was approaching Animas City in 1880, however, the town rejected the railroad’s requests. Following a pattern that it had used elsewhere, the railroad decided to establish its own town, called Durango, two miles south of Animas City, and locate its station there. The town site was surveyed in September 1880. By the end of the year Durango had 2,000 residents—more than six times as many as Animas City, which became a small suburb of the booming railroad town until the two finally merged in 1948.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building from Durango to Silverton</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1881, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande reached Durango and almost immediately started building the final forty-five-mile stretch up the Animas River to Silverton. The railroad had already acquired the Animas Canyon Toll Road, built a few years earlier to connect Animas City to Silverton, and used parts of the road for its route. Grading started in August, and by October track was being laid north from Durango. The first eighteen miles to Rockwood were relatively easy and had been completed by late November.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Rockwood, however, the route left the wide valley and entered the steep, narrow Animas Canyon, making construction more difficult. It was also more expensive, with costs reportedly reaching tens of thousands of dollars per mile. In some places the crew had to blast the canyon walls to create a narrow rock shelf for the tracks. With 500 mostly Chinese and Irish workers rushing to complete the line, the grading operations reached Silverton in late spring 1882.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silverton eagerly anticipated its rail connection to the outside world, which promised to inaugurate a long boom in the local mining economy. On June 27, 1882, Silverton residents heard their first train whistle from a work train about three and a half miles away. A large celebration to welcome the railroad was held on July 4, even though the rails still fell two miles short of their goal. The first construction train finally rolled into Silverton on July 8, passenger service started on July 11, and trains hauled their first ore on July 13, less than a year after work on the line started in Durango.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Profits and Problems</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver &amp; Rio Grande line from Durango to Silverton lowered freight rates by more than half, which had its expected effect on the local economy. Silverton’s population soon doubled to 2,000. Mining boomed, with <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a> reaching $1 million in production in 1885. Over the next two decades, three other narrow gauge lines—the Silverton Line, the Silverton Northern, and the Silverton, Gladstone and Northerly—branched out from Silverton to nearby mining districts. These connections helped spur production in the Silverton area, which hit $3.6 million in 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A variety of natural disasters and human events have conspired to close the rail line from Durango to Silverton, but so far none have succeeded. The route’s remote location and rugged terrain make it susceptible to<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong> floods</strong></a>, avalanches, and rock slides. <a href="/article/snow"><strong>Snow</strong></a> damaged the line in 1905, 1916, and 1928; rocks slid onto the track in 1951; and floods wreaked havoc in 1909, 1911, and 1927. The October 1911 flood was especially severe, with the railroad losing much of its track. The Denver &amp; Rio Grande appealed to famed roadbuilder <a href="/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a> for help, and with his assistance the track was repaired before the onset of winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Ore to Tourists</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The railroad could afford to invest in maintenance and repairs as long as the San Juan mines continued their output, but production peaked in 1920 and declined thereafter. In the 1920s, the narrow gauge lines branching out from Silverton began to consolidate and close; all three were gone by 1941. Meanwhile, passenger rail travel began to drop off as people turned to automobiles and airplanes. By the 1930s, the construction of new highway routes and the 1929 opening of the Durango Municipal Airport meant the railroad was no longer the primary method of getting to and from Silverton. All these changes ate away at the profits of the Silverton line.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After World War II, the line started a slow transformation from hauling ore to hauling tourists. The line gained publicity in the 1940s and 1950s, when Hollywood studios used it to film Westerns such as <em>Across the Wide Missouri</em> (1951). At the same time, the line’s passenger traffic started to grow. Tourists and railroad enthusiasts increased passengers on the line from 3,500 in 1947 to more than 12,000 in 1953. In 1961 the Durango–Silverton line was named a National Historic Landmark, and in 1962 it attracted more than 37,000 passengers during the summer season.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the rise in traffic, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western (as the Denver &amp; Rio Grande was known after 1920) remained somewhat ambivalent about the tourist business because it was hoping to sell or abandon the costly and remote Silverton line. In 1962, when the Interstate Commerce Commission denied the railroad’s request to abandon the route, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western embraced tourism and started to remake the line to better accommodate tourists. Under the direction of Alexis McKinney, the line was modernized with heavier steel rails; trains added gondola cars for sightseeing, and baggage cars were converted to snack bars. In Durango, the depot was renovated and nearby blocks were turned into a Victorian-style shopping district. In Silverton the train started pulling straight into town instead of backing in, and the rails were extended to Blair Street to deliver tourists directly into town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the rest of the San Juan Extension from <strong>Antonito</strong> to Durango was abandoned in 1968, the isolated branch from Durango to Silverton kept running because of its strong tourist business. In fact, its success helped inspire the opening of the <strong>Cumbres &amp; Toltec Scenic Railroad</strong> in 1971 on a section of the old San Juan Extension route over Cumbres Pass. A flood in September 1970 destroyed more than five miles of the Silverton line’s track, but after repairs the line’s popularity continued to grow. By the late 1970s, it carried more than 120,000 passengers per year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Not wanting to keep running an orphaned line far from its other operations, in the late 1970s the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western started a serious search for a buyer. The company found the Florida businessman Charles Bradshaw Jr., who had the money, ability, and interest to acquire the Silverton line and maintain it at a high standard. In March 1981 the sale was announced during Durango’s centennial celebration. The line took on a new name, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, and added more trains in the summer as well as a few trains in the winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge has proved especially popular among railroad enthusiasts. The line is one of the only surviving narrow gauge routes in the US, and it is prized for keeping that piece of American railroading history alive. The Durango turntable, which dates to 1923, is among the oldest known narrow gauge turntables in the world. The Durango roundhouse, built in 1990 after a fire destroyed the original, is the only known narrow gauge roundhouse to be constructed since 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Silverton’s last remaining mine, the Sunnyside, closed in the early 1990s, the town became more dependent on tourism than ever before. Ironically, the train became just as important to the town’s economic survival as when it first arrived in 1882, except now it carried tourists instead of carting away ore.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1997 Bradshaw sold the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge to a Florida-based entertainment-rail company called First American Railways. First American’s ownership was rocky from the start, with rate increases and other changes provoking fear and distrust in Durango and Silverton. After one year, First American sold the Durango &amp; Silverton line to real estate developer and railroad enthusiast Allen Harper. Harper’s company, American Heritage Railways, continues to operate the railroad today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still one of southwest Colorado’s major tourist attractions, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge is often considered among the most scenic train rides in the country and even the world. It draws hundreds of thousands of passengers per year. Because of the railroad’s booming tourist business, more daily trains depart Durango today than at the height of the mining boom a century ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-rio-grande-railroad" hreflang="en">denver &amp; rio grande railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango-silverton-railroad" hreflang="en">durango silverton railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-jackson-palmer" hreflang="en">william jackson palmer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-railroads" hreflang="en">Colorado Railroads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/narrow-gauge-railroads" hreflang="en">narrow gauge railroads</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joseph S. Mendinghall, “Durango-Silverton Narrow Gauge Line,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form (May 7, 1976).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Doris B. Osterwald, <em>Cinders and Smoke: A Mile by Mile Guide for the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</em>, 8th ed. (Hugo, CO: Western Guideways, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert T. Royem, <em>An American Classic: The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</em> (Durango, CO: Limelight Press, 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge: A Quick History</em> (Ouray, CO: Western Reflections, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.durangotrain.com/">Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad &amp; Museum</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane Smith, <em>A Legendary Line: Silverton to Durango</em> (Ouray, CO: Western Reflections, 1999).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad was built in 1881–82. It was part of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway</strong>. For many years the railway line hauled ore from <strong>Silverton </strong>down to <strong>Durango</strong>. After World War II, its business shifted to tourism. It is now operated by American Heritage Railway and is a tourist attraction in southwest Colorado. It has been named both a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining in the San Juan Mountains</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Mining started in the San Juan Mountains after 1873. This area had rich ores—rock that contains valuable metals like gold and silver—but poor transportation made the shipment of those ores slow and costly. In 1880 <strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong>’s Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway started to build the narrow gauge <strong>San Juan Extension</strong> west from the <strong>San Luis Valley</strong>. The railroad built a route over <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong> to Chama, New Mexico, and then west through the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong> to reach the <strong>Animas River</strong>. The goal was to reach Silverton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first the Denver &amp; Rio Grande planned to have a station in Animas City. It was a small farming and ranching town that was a supply store for San Juan miners. When the railroad was approaching Animas City in 1880, the town turned down the railroad’s request. The railroad decided to start its own town, called Durango, two miles south of Animas City, and locate its station there. The town site was mapped out in September 1880. By the end of the year Durango had 2,000 residents. Animas City later became a small suburb of Durango until the two united in 1948.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building from Durango to Silverton</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1881, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande reached Durango. It then started building the final 45-mile tract up the Animas River to Silverton. The first eighteen miles to Rockwood were fairly easy and had been completed by late November.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Rockwood, the route entered the steep, narrow Animas Canyon. It made construction much more difficult. It also cost much more to build. Five hundred workers, mostly Chinese and Irish, rushed to complete the line.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On June 27, 1882, Silverton citizens heard their first train whistle from a work train about three and a half miles away. On July 4, the town held a large celebration to welcome the railroad. Passenger service started on July 11. Trains hauled their first ore on July 13.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Hauling Ore to Hauling Tourists</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1920s and after, the output from the mines dropped and hauling ore fell off. Modern forms of transportation cut passenger travel as well.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After World War II, the line started a slow change from hauling ore to hauling tourists. The line gained popularity in the 1940s and 1950s, when Hollywood studios used it to film Westerns. Tourists and railroad fans caused a rise in the number of riders from 3,500 in 1947 to more than 12,000 in 1953. In 1961 the Durango–Silverton line was named a National Historic Landmark. In 1962 it drew more than 37,000 passengers during the summer season.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The rest of the San Juan Extension from Antonito to Durango was left in 1968. The branch from Durango to Silverton kept running because of its strong tourist business. By the late 1970s, it carried more than 120,000 passengers each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1970s the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western sold the Silverton line to a Florida businessman, Charles Bradshaw, Jr. The sale was announced during Durango’s centennial celebration in March 1981. The line took on a new name, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad. It added more trains in the summer as well as a few trains in the winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge has proved very popular among railroad fans. The line is one of the only surviving narrow gauge routes in the United States. It is valued for keeping that piece of American railroad history alive. The Durango turntable was built in 1923 and is one of the oldest known narrow gauge turntables in the world. The Durango roundhouse was built in 1990 after a fire destroyed the original. It is the only known narrow gauge roundhouse to be built since 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1998 the Durango &amp; Silverton line was sold to real estate developer and railroad fan Allen Harper. Harper’s company is American Heritage Railways, and it operates the railroad today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge is believed to be among the most scenic train rides in the country and even the world. It draws hundreds of thousands of passengers each year. More daily trains depart Durango today than at the height of the mining boom a century ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad was originally built in 1881–82 as part of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway</strong>’s effort to reach the rich mines of the <strong>San Juan Mountains</strong>. For decades, the line hauled ore from <strong>Silverton </strong>down to <strong>Durango</strong>, but after World War II its business shifted to tourism. It continues to be a major tourist attraction in southwest Colorado and has been named both a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tapping the San Juan Mines</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Mining started in the San Juan Mountains after the 1873 <strong>Brunot Agreement</strong> opened the area to settlement. The region had rich ores but limited transportation access and no railroads. It made the shipment of those ores slow and expensive. In 1880 <strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong>’s Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway started to build the narrow gauge <strong>San Juan Extension</strong> west from the <strong>San Luis Valley</strong> to take advantage of a profitable market. At the time, narrow gauge lines were relatively common in the Colorado mountains because they had rails that were only three feet apart. This allowed for tighter curves, cheaper construction, and more efficient operation than the standard gauge. The railroad built a route over <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong> to Chama, New Mexico. It then went west through the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong> to reach the <strong>Animas River</strong>, with the goal of reaching Silverton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Originally, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande planned to have a station in Animas City, a small farming and ranching town that served as a supply depot for San Juan miners. But when the railroad was approaching Animas City in 1880, the town rejected the railroad’s requests. The railroad decided to establish its own town, called Durango, two miles south of Animas City, and locate its station there. The town site was surveyed in September 1880. By the end of the year Durango had 2,000 residents. Animas City became a small suburb of Durango until the two finally merged in 1948.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building from Durango to Silverton</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1881, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande reached Durango and almost immediately started building the final 45-mile stretch up the Animas River to Silverton. Grading started in August, and by October track was being laid north from Durango. The first eighteen miles to Rockwood were relatively easy and were completed by late November.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Rockwood, however, the route left the wide valley and entered the steep, narrow Animas Canyon, making construction much more difficult and expensive, with costs reportedly reaching tens of thousands of dollars per mile. In some places the crew had to blast the canyon walls to create a narrow rock shelf for the tracks. With 500 mostly Chinese and Irish workers rushing to complete the line, the grading operations reached Silverton in late spring 1882.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silverton eagerly awaited its rail connection to the outside world. On June 27, 1882, Silverton residents heard their first train whistle from a work train about three and a half miles away. The town held a large celebration to welcome the railroad on July 4, but even then the rails were still two miles short of their goal. The first construction train finally rolled into Silverton on July 8, and passenger service started on July 11. Trains hauled their first ore on July 13, less than a year after work on the line started in Durango.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Profits and Problems</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver &amp; Rio Grande line from Durango to Silverton lowered freight rates by more than half, which had a positive effect on the local economy. Silverton’s population soon doubled to 2,000. Mining boomed as <strong>San Juan County</strong> reached $1 million in production in 1885. Over the next two decades, three other narrow gauge lines—the Silverton Line, the Silverton Northern, and the Silverton, Gladstone and Northerly—branched out from Silverton to nearby mining districts. These connections helped spur production in the Silverton area, which hit $3.6 million in 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The rail line from Durango to Silverton has endured a variety of challenges from human as well as natural events. The route’s remote location and rugged terrain put it at risk for floods, avalanches, and rock slides. <strong>Snow</strong> damaged the line in 1905, 1916, and 1928; rocks slid onto the track in 1951; and floods caused disaster in 1909, 1911, and 1927. The October 1911 flood was especially harsh, wiping out much of the railroad’s track. The Denver &amp; Rio Grande asked the famous roadbuilder <strong>Otto Mears</strong> for help. With his assistance, the track was repaired before winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Hauling Ore to Hauling Tourists</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The railroad could afford to invest in maintenance and repairs as long as the San Juan mines continued their steady output. Production peaked in 1920 and declined thereafter. By 1941, the three narrow gauge lines branching out from Silverton were gone. Meanwhile, passenger rail travel began to drop off as people turned to automobiles and airplanes. All these changes lessened the profits of the Silverton line.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After World War II, the line started a slow change from hauling ore to hauling tourists. The line gained publicity in the 1940s and 1950s, when Hollywood studios used it to film Westerns such as <em>Across the Wide Missouri</em> (1951). At the same time, the line’s passenger traffic started to increase. Tourists and railroad fans contributed to a passenger increase from 3,500 in 1947 to more than 12,000 in 1953. In 1961 the Durango–Silverton line was named a National Historic Landmark. In 1962 it attracted more than 37,000 passengers during the summer season.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the rise in traffic, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western (as the Denver &amp; Rio Grande was known after 1920) remained somewhat unsure about the tourist business. It was hoping to sell or desert the costly and remote Silverton line. In 1962 the Interstate Commerce Commission denied the railroad’s request to abandon the route. After that, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western started to remake the line to offer tourists better service. The line was modernized with heavier steel rails, trains added tourist-friendly gondola cars for sightseeing, and baggage cars were converted to snack bars. In Durango the depot was renovated and nearby blocks were turned into a Victorian-style shopping district. In Silverton the train started pulling straight into town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the rest of the San Juan Extension from <strong>Antonito</strong> to Durango was abandoned in 1968, the isolated branch from Durango to Silverton kept running. Its success helped inspire the opening of the <strong>Cumbres &amp; Toltec Scenic Railroad</strong> in 1971 on a section of the old San Juan Extension route over Cumbres Pass. By the late 1970s, it carried more than 120,000 passengers per year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1970s the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western started a serious search for a buyer. The company found a Florida businessman, Charles Bradshaw, Jr. The sale was announced during Durango’s centennial celebration in March 1981. The line took on a new name, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, and added more trains in the summer as well as a few trains in the winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge has proved especially popular among railroad fans because it is one of the only surviving narrow gauge routes in the United States. The Durango turntable, which dates to 1923, is among the oldest known narrow gauge turntables in the world. The Durango roundhouse, built in 1990 after a fire destroyed the original, is the only known narrow gauge roundhouse to be built since 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Silverton’s last remaining mine closed in the early 1990s, the town became more dependent on tourism than ever before. The train became just as important to the town’s economic survival as when it first arrived in 1882, except now it carried tourists instead of ore.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1998 Bradshaw sold the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge to real estate developer and railroad supporter Allen Harper. Harper’s company, American Heritage Railways, continues to operate the railroad today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still one of southwest Colorado’s major tourist attractions, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge is often considered among the most scenic train rides in the country and even the world. It draws hundreds of thousands of passengers per year. Because of the railroad’s booming tourist business, more daily trains depart Durango today than at the height of the mining boom a century ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad was originally built in 1881–82 as part of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway</strong>’s effort to reach the rich mines of the <strong>San Juan Mountains</strong>. For decades, the line hauled ore from <strong>Silverton </strong>down to <strong>Durango</strong>, but after World War II its business shifted to tourism. It continues to be a major tourist attraction in southwest Colorado and has been named both a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tapping the San Juan Mines</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Mining started in the San Juan Mountains after the 1873 <strong>Brunot Agreement</strong> opened the area to settlement. The remote and rugged region had rich ores but limited transportation access and no railroads. This made the shipment of those ores slow and expensive. To tap this market, in 1880 <strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong>’s Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railway started to build the narrow gauge <strong>San Juan Extension</strong> west from the <strong>San Luis Valley</strong>. At the time, narrow gauge lines were relatively common in the Colorado mountains. They had rails that were only three feet apart, allowing for tighter curves, cheaper construction, and more efficient operation than the standard gauge. The railroad forged a route over <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong> to Chama, New Mexico, and then west through the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong> to reach the <strong>Animas River</strong>, with the goal of reaching Silverton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Originally, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande planned to have a station in Animas City, a small farming and ranching town that served as a supply depot for San Juan miners. But when the railroad was approaching Animas City in 1880, the town rejected the railroad’s requests. The railroad decided to establish its own town, called Durango, two miles south of Animas City, and locate its station there. The town site was surveyed in September 1880. By the end of the year Durango had 2,000 residents—more than six times as many as Animas City, which became a small suburb of the booming railroad town until the two finally merged in 1948.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building from Durango to Silverton</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1881, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande reached Durango and almost immediately started building the final forty-five-mile stretch up the Animas River to Silverton. Grading started in August, and by October track was being laid north from Durango. The first eighteen miles to Rockwood were relatively easy and had been completed by late November.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Rockwood, however, the route left the wide valley and entered the steep, narrow Animas Canyon, making construction much more difficult and expensive. Costs reportedly reached tens of thousands of dollars per mile. In some places the crew had to blast the canyon walls to create a narrow rock shelf for the tracks. With 500 workers—mostly Chinese and Irish—rushing to complete the line, the grading operations reached Silverton in late spring 1882.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silverton eagerly awaited its rail connection to the outside world, which promised to begin a long boom in the local mining economy. On June 27, 1882, Silverton residents heard their first train whistle from a work train about three and a half miles away. The town held a large celebration to welcome the railroad on July 4, but even then the rails still fell two miles short of their goal. The first construction train finally rolled into Silverton on July 8, and passenger service started on July 11. Trains hauled their first ore on July 13, less than a year after work on the line started in Durango.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Profits and Problems</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver &amp; Rio Grande line from Durango to Silverton lowered freight rates by more than half, which had a positive effect on the local economy. Silverton’s population soon doubled to 2,000. Mining boomed, with <strong>San Juan County</strong> reaching $1 million in production in 1885. Over the next two decades, three other narrow gauge lines—the Silverton Line, the Silverton Northern, and the Silverton, Gladstone and Northerly—branched out from Silverton to nearby mining districts. These connections helped spur production in the Silverton area, which hit $3.6 million in 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The rail line from Durango to Silverton has endured a variety of human as well as natural events. The route’s remote location and rugged terrain put it at risk for floods, avalanches, and rock slides. Snow damaged the line in 1905, 1916, and 1928; rocks slid onto the track in 1951; and floods wreaked havoc in 1909, 1911, and 1927. The October 1911 flood was especially severe, wiping out much of the railroad’s track. The Denver &amp; Rio Grande appealed to famed roadbuilder <strong>Otto Mears</strong> for help, and with his assistance, the track was repaired before winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Hauling Ore to Hauling Tourists</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The railroad could afford to invest in maintenance and repairs as long as the San Juan mines continued their steady output, but production peaked in 1920 and declined thereafter. The three narrow gauge lines branching out from Silverton were gone by 1941. Meanwhile, passenger rail travel began to drop off as people turned to automobiles and airplanes. By the 1930s, the construction of new highway routes and the 1929 opening of the Durango Municipal Airport meant that the railroad was no longer the primary method of getting to and from Silverton. All these changes ate away at the profits of the Silverton line.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After World War II, the line started a slow transformation from hauling ore to hauling tourists. The line gained publicity in the 1940s and 1950s, when Hollywood studios used it to film Westerns such as <em>Across the Wide Missouri</em> (1951). At the same time, the line’s passenger traffic started to increase. Tourists and railroad enthusiasts created an increase in passengers on the line from 3,500 in 1947 to more than 12,000 in 1953. In 1961 the Durango–Silverton line was named a National Historic Landmark, and in 1962 it attracted more than 37,000 passengers during the summer season.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the rise in traffic, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western (as the Denver &amp; Rio Grande was known after 1920) remained somewhat unsure about the tourist business because it was hoping to sell or abandon the costly and remote Silverton line. In 1962 the Interstate Commerce Commission denied the railroad’s request to abandon the route. After that, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western started to remake the line to better accommodate tourists. The line was modernized with heavier steel rails, trains added tourist-friendly gondola cars for sightseeing, and baggage cars were converted to snack bars. In Durango, the depot was renovated and nearby blocks were turned into a Victorian-style shopping district. In Silverton, the rails were extended to Blair Street so trains could unload tourists directly into town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the rest of the San Juan Extension from Antonito to Durango was abandoned in 1968, the isolated branch from Durango to Silverton kept running because of its strong tourist business. Its success helped inspire the opening of the <strong>Cumbres &amp; Toltec Scenic Railroad</strong> in 1971 on a section of the old San Juan Extension route over Cumbres Pass. By the late 1970s, it carried more than 120,000 passengers per year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1970s the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western started a serious search for a buyer. The company found the Florida businessman Charles Bradshaw, Jr., who had the money, ability, and interest to acquire the Silverton line and maintain it at a high standard. The sale was announced during Durango’s centennial celebration in March 1981. The line took on a new name, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, and added more trains in the summer as well as a few trains in the winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge has proved especially popular among railroad enthusiasts, as it is one of the only surviving narrow gauge routes in the United States. The Durango turntable, which dates to 1923, is among the oldest known narrow gauge turntables in the world. The Durango roundhouse, built in 1990 after a fire destroyed the original, is the only known narrow gauge roundhouse built since 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Silverton’s last remaining mine closed in the early 1990s, the town became more dependent on tourism than ever. Ironically, the train became just as important to the town’s economic survival as when it first arrived in 1882, except now it brought in tourists instead of carrying away ore.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1998 the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge was sold to real estate developer and railroad enthusiast Allen Harper. Harper’s company, American Heritage Railways, continues to operate the railroad today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still one of southwest Colorado’s major tourist attractions, the Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge is considered among the most scenic train rides in the country and even the world. It draws hundreds of thousands of passengers per year. Because of the railroad’s booming tourist business, more daily trains depart Durango today than at the height of the mining boom a century ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 18 Nov 2016 22:13:02 +0000 yongli 2058 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Shenandoah-Dives Mill http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shenandoah-dives-mill <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Shenandoah-Dives Mill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1776--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1776.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/shenandoah-dives-mill"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Shenandoah-Dives-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=eIXQKS0y" width="1000" height="765" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/shenandoah-dives-mill" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Shenandoah-Dives Mill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Constructed in 1929, the Shenandoah-Dives Mill near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton </strong></a>was in operation most years until 1991, making it the longest-running mill in the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-25T12:08:38-06:00" title="Thursday, August 25, 2016 - 12:08" class="datetime">Thu, 08/25/2016 - 12:08</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shenandoah-dives-mill" data-a2a-title="Shenandoah-Dives Mill"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fshenandoah-dives-mill&amp;title=Shenandoah-Dives%20Mill"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located two miles northeast of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, the Shenandoah-Dives Mill (also known as the Mayflower Mill) was constructed in 1929 and became the longest-running mill in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Operating most years from 1930 to 1991, the mill processed a total of nearly 10 million tons of rock and produced roughly 1.9 million ounces of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold</strong></a>, 30 million ounces of silver, and 1 million tons of base metals. Designated a National Historic Landmark in 2000, the mill is now owned by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a> Historical Society, which maintains the site and offers tours in the summer.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building the Mill</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1925 a syndicate from Kansas City, Missouri, bought mining claims covering 316 acres in the San Juan Mountains near Silverton and started the <a href="/article/shenandoah-dives-mining-company"><strong>Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company</strong></a>. With mining engineer <strong>Charles A. Chase</strong> serving as general manager, the company developed its holdings and started to plan a new mill to process its ore in the valley below the mines. In 1928 Chase presented a proposal to the syndicate outlining plans for a tunnel, tramway, and mill. The syndicate accepted the plan, and construction began in June 1929.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chase turned to colleagues in Denver to help him with the design and construction of the flotation mill—a mill that concentrates metals through a flotation process—which he planned to build at the base of the mountain. He hired a former colleague from the <strong>Colorado School of Mines</strong>, Arthur J. Weinig, as consulting metallurgist and engineer. The Denver-based company of Stearns-Roger Engineering designed the structure that was to become the Shenandoah-Dives Mill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laborers hitched the base of the four-story building to the side of the mountain. Then they poured the concrete floor of the mill. The heavy equipment for the mill arrived by train to be positioned as Weinig directed. Men and machines hoisted heavy boilers, synchronous motors, and two-ton ball mills into place. The mill building itself arrived as a pre-numbered kit. Carpenters pieced it together like a puzzle around the innards of the mill, which sat at the base of Arrastra Gulch looking up toward the mine.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Locals have always referred to the mill as the “Mayflower Mill” after the nearby Mayflower Mine portal. An aerial tramway connected the Mayflower Mine to the Shenandoah-Dives Mill. Carrying men as well as ore and equipment, the aerial tram was the lifeblood of the mining operation.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Depression-Era Developments</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1930 the Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company had invested $1.25 million in its Silverton operations. The syndicate’s initial reason for investing in the Shenandoah-Dives Mine was for precious metals—gold and silver—but base metals fast became the company’s economic mainstay. During the 1930s the Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company’s production of copper, lead, and zinc helped meet the needs of America’s manufacturing companies. From 1930 to 1932 the mill processed more than 450,000 tons of ore. Shenandoah-Dives represented the largest single industrial payroll in the <strong>Four Corners region</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Depression, Chase gambled that the Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company’s production of base metals, such as lead and zinc, would carry the cost of the operations, with additional profit from gold and silver. To ensure the success of the Shenandoah-Dives operation, Chase built and ran the Silverton complex with the newest, most efficient mining and milling processes available. Equipment upgrades over time enabled the mill to separate five products from the ore: gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Environmental Concerns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Shenandoah-Dives Mill responded to the increased environmental concerns of the early twentieth century. The operation was the first in the region to use tailing ponds. Common practice was simply to slurry the tailings into available waterways, despite the dangers to the water supply and fish population. Chase consulted with J. T. Shimmin, who had devised a method of creating “ponds” of tailings at mills in Butte, Montana.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After visiting Shimmin’s site in Montana, Chase returned and adapted Shimmin’s design to a triangular chunk of land just south of the Shenandoah-Dives Mill where tailings were deposited. Water was decanted off the surface, filtered, and returned to the mill. Much of the water either evaporated or percolated through the tailings and into the substructure. The ponds’ location kept the runoff from percolating into the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> just east of the mill. After a trial period—with a few mishaps due to freeze and thaw—the tailing ponds of the Shenandoah-Dives Mill took shape in 1935.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>World War II and After</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>World War II ushered in a period of artificially inflated prices for essential resources and revived the mining industry across the nation, including the Shenandoah-Dives operations. Chase convinced the War Department that the Shenandoah-Dives Mine’s base metal production was essential to national security, allowing the Shenandoah-Dives Mill to stay open and supply America’s needs through World War II and the Korean War.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the wars ended, the demand for metals stopped. Stockpiled metals met the needs of manufacturers who now turned from munitions production to household goods. While other industries flourished, the gold and base metal industry languished.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1953, after twenty-five years of mining and milling in Silverton, the Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company shut down its operations. In its history, the mill had processed four million tons of Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company ore and 186,000 tons of custom ore from surrounding smaller enterprises. In total, the Shenandoah-Dives Mill had processed 11 percent of all the gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc in Colorado. When the mill closed in 1953, the total assayed value of the Shenandoah-Dives Mill production was $32 million.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the company’s demise, smaller Silverton companies, which relied on the Shenandoah-Dives Mill to buy their ore, were forced out of business. In fact, the years 1954 to 1959 were an era of mine closures throughout the industry. It was not only the end of an era for Charles Chase and Shenandoah-Dives, but also for underground mines and small flotation mills in general. When the mining industry rebounded in the 1960s, open-pit mines and large milling operations ruled the industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Revivals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The syndicate’s firing of Chase and closure of the Shenandoah-Dives mine and mill did not signal the permanent end of operations. Between 1953 and 1957 the mill operated intermittently as the company underwent a series of ownership changes. In 1957 the mill reopened on a more permanent basis. After several mergers and sales, it became part of the Standard Metals Corporation. In 1960 the Shenandoah-Dives Mine closed, but the mill continued to operate, processing ore from area mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1985, Standard Metals sold its Shenandoah-Dives holdings to the Sunnyside Gold Corporation, a subsidiary of the Echo Bay Mining Company of Edmonton, Canada. Sunnyside and associated companies participated in two joint ventures using the mine and mill. By 1990 Sunnyside Gold was the sole owner. In 1992 Sunnyside announced permanent closure of the mine and mill because of declining zinc prices and a lack of gold reserves.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the final closure of the Shenandoah-Dives mines and mill, Silverton’s population declined by nearly half as miners and their families moved on. Like other former mining towns in the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, Silverton’s economy now relies on government activities and tourism.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sunnyside Gold donated the flotation mill and affiliated lands to the San Juan County Historical Society. By 1996 surface reclamation of the tailing ponds and mine site was substantially complete. Through the work of local preservationists and the historical society, the mill reopened in 1997 as a museum. In 2000 the mill was designated a National Historic Landmark.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The San Juan County Historical Society has received more than $500,000 in grants from the State Historical Fund, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and other organizations for the stabilization and restoration of the Shenandoah-Dives Mill. The historical society’s goal is to rehabilitate each building within the large mill complex. In addition, in 2010 the historical society received a State Historical Fund Special Initiatives grant to build hydroelectric power into the mill to offset the mill’s large electricity bill and improve the supply of drinking water in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>*Adapted from Dawn Bunyak, “Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company: A Twentieth-Century Boom and Bust,” <em>Colorado Heritage</em> (Spring 2003): 35–46.</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shenandoah-dives-mining-0" hreflang="en">Shenandoah Dives Mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/charles-chase" hreflang="en">Charles Chase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arthur-weinig" hreflang="en">Arthur Weinig</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mayflower-mill" hreflang="en">Mayflower Mill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mayflower-mine" hreflang="en">Mayflower Mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tailing-ponds" hreflang="en">tailing ponds</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-county-historical-society" hreflang="en">San Juan County Historical Society</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="http://www.sanjuancountyhistoricalsociety.org/mayflower-mill.html">Mayflower Mill</a>,” San Juan County Historical Society.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Christopher M. Maschino, “Over the Range: A Historical Geography of a Western Mountain Mining Landscape, San Juan County, Colorado” (master’s thesis, Prescott College, AZ, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>A Brief History of Silverton</em>, 2nd ed. (Montrose, CO: Western Reflections, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold and Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 25 Aug 2016 18:08:38 +0000 yongli 1775 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org San Juan Mountains http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Juan Mountains</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--936--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--936.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mt-sneffels-sunset"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mount-Sneffels-at-Sunset-Colorado-John-Fielder_0.jpg?itok=Hk-q-m99" width="1090" height="875" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mt-sneffels-sunset" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mt. Sneffels at Sunset</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>At 14,157 feet, Mt. Sneffels is the highest peak in the Sneffels Range and the highest point in <a href="/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray County</strong></a>. It is named after the Icelandic volcano Snæfell, which was featured in Jules Verne's novel <em>A Journey to the Center of the Earth.</em></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1551--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1551.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/old-hundred-mine-silverton"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San-Juan-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=nghum2ts" width="1000" height="1405" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/old-hundred-mine-silverton" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Old Hundred Mine, Silverton</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Structures from the Old Hundred Mine cling to the side of Mt. Galena in the San Juan Mountains in San Juan County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1553--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1553.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/signing-brunot-agreement-1873"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San-Juan-Media-2%20%281%29.jpg?itok=2kA72Ev3" width="1000" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/signing-brunot-agreement-1873" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Signing of the Brunot Agreement, 1873</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Portrait of the signatories of the 1873 Brunot Agreement. Front row, left to right: Guero, Chipeta, Ouray, Piah. Second row: Uriah M. Curtis, Major J. B. Thompson, Gen. Charles Adams, Otto Mears. Back row: Washington, Susan, (Ouray's sister) Johnson, Jack and John.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1554--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1554.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/remnants-old-house-red-mountain-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San-Juan-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=QF_bDODx" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/remnants-old-house-red-mountain-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Remnants of Old House on Red Mountain Pass</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A historic house structure near Red Mountain Pass, deep in the San Juan Mountains.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1556--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1556.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/red-mountain"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juans_20160725_0905_1_0.jpg?itok=iOS5fhVM" width="1090" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/red-mountain" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Red Mountain </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Red Mountain is a set of three peaks between Ouray and Silverton, Colorado. The reddish color comes from iron ore. This area is also know as the Red Mountain Mining District, which is known for the silver produced as well as gold, iron, copper and other minerals.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1584--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1584.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lower-ice-lake-basin"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lower_Ice_Lake_Basin_0.jpg?itok=5yLp4_pT" width="1090" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lower-ice-lake-basin" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lower Ice Lake Basin</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ice Lake Basin, located on the Ice Lake Trail in western <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>,&nbsp;is considered one of the most beautiful places in the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. This photo shows Lower Ice Lake Basin in summer, bursting with wildflowers.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-01T15:16:33-06:00" title="Monday, August 1, 2016 - 15:16" class="datetime">Mon, 08/01/2016 - 15:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains" data-a2a-title="San Juan Mountains"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsan-juan-mountains&amp;title=San%20Juan%20Mountains"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The San Juan Mountains are the largest mountain range by area in the Centennial State, spanning thirteen counties in southwestern Colorado. In addition to being the home of the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indians</strong></a> for hundreds of years, the mountains intrigued <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spaniards</strong></a>, lured the prospectors of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, and attracted thousands of vacationers and seekers of outdoor adventure. Today the mountains are home to many historic <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> towns that are now popular tourist destinations, including <a href="/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a>, <a href="/article/silverton"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/pagosa-springs-0"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Formation and Features</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Part of the Southern <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rockies</strong></a>, the San Juan Mountains were created as two enormous continental plates slammed into one another, folding and faulting the earth’s crust. Volcanic activity associated with the tectonic mountain-building process produced rich mineral veins—the silver and gold deposits that drew miners to the region in the 1860s and 1870s. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>Glaciers</strong></a> carved the range’s steep mountainsides and U-shaped canyons, such as the iconic box canyon that surrounds Telluride. The San Juans contain some of the highest and most jagged summits in the continental United States, with twenty-eight peaks above 9,000 feet and thirteen <a href="/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteeners</strong></a>. <strong>Uncompahgre Peak </strong>is the highest, measuring 14,309 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <strong>San Juan River</strong> is a significant tributary of the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> and has its source in the southern slopes of the San Juan Mountains. Notable tributaries of the San Juan River include the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas</strong></a>, <strong>Piedra</strong>, and <strong>La Plata </strong>Rivers. Two of Colorado’s four subspecies of native <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-fish"><strong>cutthroat trout</strong></a> inhabit the mountain streams and rivers of the San Juans: the Rio Grande cutthroat trout (<em>Salmo clarki virginalis</em>) and the Colorado River cutthroat trout (<em>Salmo clarki pleuriticus</em>). A variety of mammals also inhabit the thickly forested mountain slopes, including <strong><a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk">elk</a>, </strong><a href="/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a><strong>, lynx</strong>,<strong> <a href="/article/black-bear">black bear</a></strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lion</strong></a>, among others.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Human History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The nomadic Ute people lived in the San Juans for more than 500 years, following game up to the high country during the summer and retreating to lower elevations—such as the area near present-day Durango—during the winter. To supplement diets of elk, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, jackrabbit, and buffalo, the Utes gathered a wide assortment of berries and roots, including the versatile yucca root. On their seasonal migration routes, the Utes trod paths that were later used by Spanish explorers and American miners and road builders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All that was necessary for the Utes’ survival lay on top of the earth, so they did not bother to mine the San Juans. But locating minerals was a primary objective of multiple <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spanish expeditions</strong></a> in the eighteenth century. Guided by Utes, Spanish parties repeatedly searched the mountains for silver but failed to find any significant deposits. By the time of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan María de Rivera</strong></a>’s expedition of 1765, many of the Spanish place-names, such as the names of the mountains and their rivers, were already in common use. In the 1820s trappers and mountain men ventured into the San Juan Mountains for another natural resource—<a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beavers</strong></a>. According to later reports, many trappers, including the famous <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, insisted that the southern ranges were full of gold, silver, and other valuable minerals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With some of Colorado’s highest and most rugged peaks, the San Juans challenged anyone who sought to wrest mineral riches from their granite-ribbed depths. By the time of the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, the legends and stories of the San Juans had traveled far, hard to pin down but tantalizing to ponder. The San Juans lay weeks of mountainous travel away from <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, a trip that seemed unnecessary in light of the great strikes along the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> in those years. Nevertheless, in 1860 the prospector <strong>Charles Baker</strong> made the trip. In the western San Juans, in a park that now bears his name and where the town of Silverton now sits, Baker found gold. It seemed rumor had finally turned to reality in the San Juans.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Gold Rush</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Baker party reached the San Juans in August 1860. In the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> later that year, one member described the mountains as “the highest, roughest, broadest and most abrupt of all the ranges.” He concluded the article by exulting that in the San Juans, “the metalliferous development of this region, if not of the North American continent, reaches its culminating point.” This news spurred a stampede of prospectors toward the San Juans in 1861.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The initial rush came by way of New Mexico and up the Animas River on Baker’s toll road, which passed through <strong>Animas City</strong>. This first rush, however, was fleeting for several reasons. For one, Baker had found placer gold—small pieces of gold lying on the surface, mostly in streambeds—and not nearly enough as he thought he did. Second, resistance from Utes made it virtually impossible to occupy the area year-round. Finally, the region’s climate, elevation, and isolation were not conducive to months of prospecting. Hundreds of miners left Baker’s Park disappointed, grumbling about a “San Juan Humbug.” Rumors of fabulous wealth in the San Juan Mountains faded for a time, but the stories still beckoned, and miners’ appetites were whetted. Prospectors again moved into the area after the Civil War (1861–65).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the early prospectors, <strong>John Moss</strong>, focused his attention on <strong>La Plata Canyon</strong>. Moss negotiated a treaty with the Utes for the land and brought in California capital to underwrite his mining. <strong>Parrott City</strong>, at the mouth of the canyon, served as his headquarters. Isolation, scant profits, and Moss’s own eccentricity doomed his effort. His was the first, but not the last, of the attempts to find the mother lode in that canyon’s depth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Among the first results of the renewed interest in the San Juans was conflict with the Utes, who had been guaranteed the land in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>. Unlike Moss, most San Juan miners did not stop to negotiate with the Utes, simply assuming the land would be theirs. The federal government came under pressure from both sides and even ordered the miners to leave, but they refused. Instead of forcing them out, the government negotiated the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in September 1873, in which the Utes ceded 3.5 million acres in the heart of the San Juans. In return, the Utes were to receive $25,000 annually and retain the right to hunt on the ceded land, as long as game lasted and peace was maintained.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, instead of peace, the years that followed saw increased tension and violence between Utes and whites in southwest Colorado and across the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. In 1880, following the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879, most of the remaining San Juan Ute population was forced onto the Southern Ute Reservation in southern Colorado. As was typical of mining in the west, the boom brought Indian occupation of the San Juans to a quick and decisive end.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White settlement and development of the San Juans continued. The towns of Silverton, <strong>Howardsville</strong>, and <strong>Eureka </strong>took root to serve the miners who worked the surrounding mountains. Nestled among the high peaks, <a href="/article/animas-forks"><strong>Animas Forks</strong></a> and <strong>Mineral Point</strong> anticipated a bonanza from nearby mines. Silverton, the largest high-country town, boasted a population of 1,000 by 1880, while farther north Ouray and Telluride struggled for their share of business and prominence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the miners, the 1870s was a decade of waiting—waiting for investors, for mills, and for smelters to work the ores profitably, and most of all, for the railroad to provide efficient transportation. By the mid- to late 1870s Silverton had functioning smelters, but lack of finances and engineering problems had delayed the arrival of the Iron Horse to the San Juans. By 1880, however, <a href="/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a>’s <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad (D&amp;RG) </strong>was on its way. In September the first survey stake for the new town of <strong>Durango</strong> was driven, and in July 1882 the first train steamed into Silverton from Durango.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The arrival of the D&amp;RG inaugurated two decades of railroad building within the district and initiated the long-awaited San Juan bonanza. Carloads of gold and silver steamed from the mountains to the smelter in Durango, where copper, lead, and zinc were recovered as byproducts and coal was mined to fuel mining and railroad operations. Although the mountains were rich in all kinds of metals, silver reigned supreme in the San Juans. In 1891, for instance, miners in <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a> extracted more than $761,000 in silver compared to $192,000 in gold.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1893, however, the federal government drastically reduced its silver purchases, plunging silver mines in the San Juans and throughout Colorado into a devastating depression from which they never recovered. The price of silver had been declining for years as production increased, but the <strong>Panic of 1893</strong> did more than close silver mines; it also brought an end to the era of the lone prospector who selected a rocky outcropping, filed a claim, and mined his fortune. Mining had become big business and was dominated by large corporations. In San Juan County, the deep pockets of large mining companies helped the county’s mines survive the depression and actually increase silver and gold production in the years that followed. However, these companies most often brought in huge profits at the expense of their employees, which led to serious and often violent labor disputes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Labor Strife</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To try to improve their bargaining position in this new industrial world, many miners joined the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners</strong></a>, a union despised by companies and mine management. The San Juans became one of the union bastions of the Rocky Mountains. Labor tension increased, and finally, in 1903–4, Telluride and <a href="/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a>, a rich gold district on the Front Range, exploded in turmoil. Union miners lobbied for better pay, shorter work days, and safer working conditions. Governor James Peabody’s deployment of National Guard companies to break the strikes on behalf of mine owners created lasting grudges, especially since the miners had to return to work with no changes in pay or work regimen. In Telluride, mine boss–turned–National Guard Captain <strong>Bulkeley Wells </strong>declared martial law and illegally deported miners to neighboring <a href="/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray County</strong></a>. To keep the deportees out, Wells built a machine gun nest atop <strong>Imogene Pass</strong>, the only way back in to <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel County</strong></a> from the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1913 the <strong>Silverton Commercial Club</strong> promoted the San Juans as a place for recreation and tourism, indicating that the era of striking it rich in minerals had come to an end. The San Juans had been conquered and developed. San Juan mining operations made pioneering advances in the use of tramways to transport ore, in the industrial use of electricity, and in various new types of equipment. Mining camps had been born, prospered, and died.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While mining no longer dominates the economy in southwestern Colorado, its legacy continues to draw thousands of eager tourists to the region annually. Extant mining structures—such as mining smelters, boilers, and mills, as well as boardinghouses and defunct saloons—still pepper the landscape. For example, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shenandoah-dives-mill"><strong>Shenandoah Dives</strong> <strong>Mill</strong></a> complex southeast of Silverton dates to 1929 and provides a glimpse into the area’s historic mining past via a museum and rehabilitated mine structures. The <strong><a href="/article/smuggler-union-hydroelectric-power-plant">Smuggler-Union Hydroelectric Plant</a></strong>, built in 1907 atop a waterfall near Telluride to supply power to Bulkeley Wells’s Smuggler-Union mine, was restored in the late 1980s and still produces electricity today. Remains of <a href="/article/fort-peabody"><strong>Fort Peabody</strong></a>, the machine-gun post used to discourage deported miners’ reentry into San Miguel County, are still visible atop Imogene Pass east of Telluride.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While historic mining spurred the development of the region and is still a major tourist attraction in the San Juans, it left a devastating environmental legacy. <strong>Acid mine drainage</strong> occurs when subterranean rock is exposed to oxygen and groundwater. Sulfides in the metal-containing rock break down into sulfuric acid, which then dissolves the metals and allows them to flow into nearby water sources. This yellow-orange metallic slurry has entered the Animas River on multiple occasions since the mining period, threatening wildlife and drinking water supplies. The most recent incident occurred in August 2015, when workers for the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) accidentally released 3 million gallons of contaminated wastewater from the <strong>Gold King Mine</strong> into the Animas. San Juan County officials had previously been reluctant to have the county’s dozens of abandoned mines declared an EPA Superfund site—a high-priority cleanup site—but after the Gold King blowout they reconsidered, voting unanimously in February 2016 to request Superfund site designation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to their proud but fraught mining legacy, the San Juan Mountains’ rugged peaks, verdant forests, and whitewater rivers also provide a variety of recreational opportunities, from hiking and backpacking, kayaking and mountain biking, to snowshoeing and skiing. In 1996 the US Secretary of Transportation designated the <strong>San Juan Skyway</strong> as an All-American Road. The 233-mile highway loop, part of the <strong>Colorado Historic and Scenic Byway</strong>, provides tourists with stunning views of the San Juans’ 14,000-foot peaks as it carries them through Durango, Silverton, and other archetypal western towns. The skiing hamlet of Telluride­—also known for film, bluegrass, and jazz festivals—and the mountain retreat of Ouray are popular stops along the route. The road also takes visitors to <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, one of the most popular national parks in the United States. Revered by the Ute Indians for centuries and a key part of Colorado’s economic and environmental story, the picturesque landscape of the San Juan Mountains continues to impress locals and tourists alike.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Duane A. Smith, “The Miners: ‘They Builded Better Than They Knew,’” in <em>The Western San Juan Mountains: Their Geology</em>, <em>Ecology, and Human History</em>, ed. Rob Blair (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juans" hreflang="en">San Juans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-colorado" hreflang="en">southwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">history of san juan mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-county" hreflang="en">san juan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mineral-county" hreflang="en">mineral county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hinsdale-county" hreflang="en">hinsdale county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-plata-county" hreflang="en">la plata county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray-county" hreflang="en">ouray county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otto-mears" hreflang="en">Otto Mears</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/creede" hreflang="en">Creede</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-miguel-county" hreflang="en">san miguel county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archuleta-county" hreflang="en">archuleta county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/charles-baker" hreflang="en">charles baker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shenandoah-dives-0" hreflang="en">Shenandoah Dives</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains-mining" hreflang="en">san juan mountains mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining-history" hreflang="en">mining history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shenandoah-dives-mining-0" hreflang="en">Shenandoah Dives Mining</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Rob Blair, ed., <em>The Western San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dawn Bunyak, “Shenandoah-Dives Mining Company: A Twentieth-Century Boom and Bust,” Colorado Heritage (Spring 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Andrew Gulliford, “<a href="https://www.durangoherald.com/article/20091108/LIFESTYLE03/311089955/0/SEARCH/The-Guns-of-Imogene">The Guns of Imogene</a>,” <em>The Durango Herald</em>, November 8, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan Thompson, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.7/silvertons-gold-king-reckoning">Silverton’s Gold King reckoning</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, May 2, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Twitty, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/655.pdf">Historic Mining Resources of San Juan County, Colorado</a>,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Service Form 10-900 (Denver: History Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rob Blair and George Bracksieck, eds., <em>The Eastern San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-scenic-byway-alpine-loop">Colorado Scenic Byway: Alpine Loop</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-scenic-byway-san-juan-skyway">Colorado Scenic Byway: San Juan Skyway</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David P. Smith, <em>Mountains of Silver: The Story of Colorado’s Red Mountain Mining District</em> (Boulder: Pruett Publishing Company, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>San Juan Gold: A Mining Engineer’s Adventures, 1879–1881</em> (Montrose: Western Reflections Publishing Company, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Song of Hammer and Drill: The Colorado San Juans, 1860–1914</em> (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel and Duane A. Smith, <em>Colorado: The Highest State</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 01 Aug 2016 21:16:33 +0000 yongli 1550 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org San Juan County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Juan County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1723--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1723.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/town-silverton"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juans_20160724_1273_0.jpg?itok=-NLXef9w" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/town-silverton" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Town of Silverton</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The town of Silverton,at an elevation of 9,318 feet along the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>, is the&nbsp;county seat and only incorporated town in San Juan County. It was established by prospectors&nbsp;in 1874, after the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> forced Ute Indians from the area.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1523--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1523.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/san-juan-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/SanJuanCounty_0.jpg?itok=mnkV8Fqc" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/san-juan-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Juan County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>San Juan County, once the heart of gold and silver mining in the San Juan Mountains, was established in 1876.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1722--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1722.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/san-juan-county-google-map"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juan_County_0.jpg?itok=3LO9AeXP" width="1001" height="804" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/san-juan-county-google-map" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Juan County on Google Map</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>San Juan County covers 388 square miles of the San Juan Mountains. US 550, the "Million Dollar Highway," is the main thoroughfare, and the county also contains the headwaters of the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1584--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1584.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lower-ice-lake-basin"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lower_Ice_Lake_Basin_0.jpg?itok=5yLp4_pT" width="1090" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lower-ice-lake-basin" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lower Ice Lake Basin</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ice Lake Basin, located on the Ice Lake Trail in western <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>,&nbsp;is considered one of the most beautiful places in the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. This photo shows Lower Ice Lake Basin in summer, bursting with wildflowers.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1589--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1589.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/grand-imperial-hotel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juans_20160724_1111_0.jpg?itok=9qwHEmMZ" width="1000" height="615" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/grand-imperial-hotel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Grand Imperial Hotel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Completed in 1883, the Grand Hotel was one of the most luxurious hotels in the Southwest. The Harper family, owners of the <a href="/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad"><strong>Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad</strong></a>, purchased the hotel in the spring of 2015. The family has completed restoration work on the building's thirty-seven rooms and is currently renovating the restaurant and lobby.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--764--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--764.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-forks-late-1870s"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas-Forks-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=zfzMCa-k" width="1000" height="594" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-forks-late-1870s" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Forks, Late 1870s</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Established in 1875 at an elevation of about 11,200 feet, Animas Forks flourished in the late 1870s and early 1880s on the strength of speculative mining investments. It has been a ghost town since the 1920s.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-27T15:27:29-06:00" title="Monday, June 27, 2016 - 15:27" class="datetime">Mon, 06/27/2016 - 15:27</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county" data-a2a-title="San Juan County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsan-juan-county&amp;title=San%20Juan%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>San Juan County was established just before Colorado became a state in 1876. It initially stretched from the Utah border in the west to its present border in the east. The next year, the first state assembly allocated most of San Juan County’s western portion to the newly formed Ouray County, and San Juan County assumed its current boundaries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Named after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a> within its borders, San Juan County is a remote county covering 388 square miles in southwest Colorado. With an average elevation of 11,240 feet, it is the highest county in the United States. San Juan County is bordered to the north by <a href="/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray County</strong></a>, to the east by <a href="/article/hinsdale-county"><strong>Hinsdale County</strong></a>, to the south by <a href="/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a>, and to the west by <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores</strong></a> and <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel</strong></a> Counties. The county is among the state’s least populous, home to an estimated 701 residents as of 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As San Juan County’s only incorporated area, <a href="/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> is the county seat, lying just off US Route 550 at the confluence of the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> and Mineral Creek. The highway runs north-south and splits the county into eastern and western halves. Most of the county’s land is managed by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> as part of the 1.8 million-acre San Juan National Forest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Utes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1500 the Nuche, or <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people, occupied nearly all of Colorado’s <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. The San Juan County area was home to two bands of Utes: the Tabeguache (“people of Sun Mountain”), whose range extended north into the <strong>Uncompahgre</strong> and <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Valleys and east to the <a href="/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a> region; and the Weenuche (“long time ago people”), whose range included much of southwest Colorado, southeast Utah, and a slice of northern New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Nuche lived off the natural wealth of Colorado’s mountains and river valleys, hunting <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, deer, and other game and gathering a wide assortment of wild berries and roots, including the versatile yucca root. In the summer they followed game into the high country, including the San Juan County area, and in the winter they followed the animals back to the lower river valleys. By the 1640s the Utes had obtained horses from the Spanish, an acquisition that augmented their nomadic lifestyles and allowed them to organize buffalo hunts on the plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the exception of the Nuche, who knew it well, the jagged and foreboding landscape of the San Juan County area was seldom traversed before the mid-nineteenth century when white prospectors encroached on their lands. The biggest obstacle to lasting peace between whites and Utes was the mineral wealth lying beneath the San Juans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The mining endeavors along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> prompted the US government to organize the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. That year, in an effort to stop the line of white prospectors from pushing farther west, Utes burned Animas City, the small cabin town of north of Durango that served as the staging point for prospecting parties. In 1868 the US government and several Ute bands, including the Tabeguache under <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Chief Ouray</strong></a>, <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>signed a treaty</strong></a> that ceded the Front Range and central Rockies to the United States and left the Utes a vast reservation encompassing nearly the entire Western Slope.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The “San Juan Humbug”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The prospector <strong>Charles Baker</strong> is regarded as the first white American to enter the San Juan County area. Baker arrived in Colorado during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 only to find the best deposits already claimed. Determined to find his own cache of Rocky Mountain riches, Baker and a small party of gold seekers set out to southwest Colorado in 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After failing to find <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold</strong></a> along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a>, they pushed into the San Juans. At a spot in the Animas River valley where multiple streams converged, a number of small deposits sufficiently whetted the prospectors’ mineral appetites. In October Baker came out of the mountains for supplies and to recruit more prospectors to the place he now called “Baker’s Park.” In mid-October Baker returned to the Animas Valley with 150 new prospectors. The newcomers had just enough time to scout out claims, pan for gold, and head back to the safety of lower elevations before the deep winter <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snows </strong></a>arrived.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the winter, news of the San Juan gold discovery raced across the Rockies to the Front Range, where the size of the find was greatly exaggerated. Hundreds more prospectors were enticed to make the trip to Baker’s Park the following spring. Knowing this, Baker and his group were anxious to return to the area first and headed up to the Animas Valley in April 1861. A group led by S. B. Kellogg had beaten them there, but Kellogg’s men followed frontier-mining etiquette and waited for the discoverer to arrive before staking their own claims.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>But once Baker arrived he did not immediately stake his claims, and the snow soon began to mount. As the weather worsened, it quickly became clear that all parties had made their ascent prematurely. Many in the camp began to seriously fear being trapped, and to avoid that fate—or a mutiny beforehand—Baker hastily staked his claims over what he remembered to be the best areas. The rest of the prospectors quickly staked their claims and made a rapid descent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In May and June 1861 about 600 miners flooded into Baker’s Park. With most of the good claims already staked by Baker and the others earlier that year, many of these prospectors came up empty-handed. In their frustration, some even contemplated hanging Baker, but most left in despair. Before the year ended, Baker, Kellogg, and the rest of the initial prospectors also left, finding the actual amount of gold to be far less than expected. The rapid sequence of discovery, hype, and bust in Baker’s Park produced so much discontent that it became known as the “San Juan Humbug.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The year 1870 brought an end to the lull in mining activity in the San Juan County area. In April a party led by Adnah French, Dempsey Reese, and Miles T. Johnson reoccupied some of the cabins of the burned-out Animas City. The group prepared to scout Baker’s Park for hardrock ore—the source of the nuggets that gave the gold-panning Baker party a taste for wild riches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Within weeks French’s group found that gold source, which they began extracting via the Little Giant mine, as well as several veins of silver. The party left Baker’s Park late that summer, wintered in New Mexico, and returned in May 1871 to develop the Little Giant mine with the help of carpenters William J. Mulholland and Thomas Blair and the merchant James H. Cook. The team made the Little Giant into the first profitable mine in the San Juan County area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>More successful strikes followed, and by the summer of 1872 gold and silver ore worth some $30,000 per ton was being carved out of the San Juans. The riches flowing out of the mountains prompted Colorado territorial governor Edward McCook to openly lament the 1868 treaty that barred nonnatives from the mountains. For its part, the US government responded by ordering miners to leave Ute lands, and even sent in troops to enforce the treaty. The miners, however, banded together before any conflict took shape and convinced the government to negotiate a new treaty that would take more land from the Utes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Brunot Agreement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> of 1873, also known as the San Juan Cession, cleared the way for present-day San Juan County by removing the people who had lived there for more than four centuries. The government coveted a rectangular chunk of the San Juan Mountains that measured 4 million acres and that included most of what is today southwest Colorado. In 1873 <strong>Felix R. Brunot</strong>, then-president of the US Board of Indian Commissioners, hatched a plot to find Ouray’s lost son Pahlone, believed to be in Arapaho possession, and trade him to the chief for the land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although Brunot’s men could not find Ouray’s son, at negotiations in September Ouray still wanted to provide for his wife and was impressed enough by Brunot’s effort that he agreed to sell the San Juans to the United States. The river valleys suitable for farming were supposed to remain in Ute possession, but the final agreement was struck along lines of latitude and longitude—a concept the Utes were not familiar with—so the United States got all 4 million acres. The government paid the Utes seven and a half cents per acre, a poor deal considering that it simultaneously charged white homesteaders $1.25 per acre for other, grossly inferior land. Following the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>, a Ute uprising in northwest Colorado, most of the state’s Ute population was expelled to a reservation in Utah by 1882.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Silverton was established in 1874 as one of dozens of mining camps that sprung up in the San Juans during the mid-1870s. As the center of regional mining activity, Silverton developed quickly in the early 1880s. The first church was built in 1881. Its future as a viable town, much less as county seat, was anything but certain. In fact, the territorial legislature initially gave the county seat to a rival camp, Howardsville. But the first Silverton residents convinced the owners of a smelter and sawmill to set up shop, and those key services turned Silverton into a hub for San Juan County miners. Its residents went a step further and organized an election to redetermine the county seat. Silverton won, snatching the county seat from a dwindling Howardsville in 1874.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>North of Silverton, the small town of <a href="/article/animas-forks"><strong>Animas Forks</strong></a> grew out of a cluster of cabins when it gained a US post office in 1875. The Dakota and San Juan Mining Company built a mill the next year, and the town soon had three general stores, a butcher, restaurant, a saloon, and two boardinghouses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Additional smelters built in 1874 proved to be woefully inefficient, extracting only a paltry amount of metal from the county’s rich ore. A combination of inadequate smelters and rich silver strikes elsewhere in the state staved off investment in San Juan County mines until 1875. That year, metallurgist John A. Porter refitted and improved the smelter owned by Greene &amp; Company, one of the early developers of Silverton. Soon, a second smelter was in operation, and with its revived smelting capacity the county was almost ready for its long-awaited boom. The final piece was the arrival of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong>, which connected Silverton to the smelters in Durango in 1882.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining Boom</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Mining activity had already increased after the smelters were fixed; for instance, Leadville silver baron <a href="/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a> purchased several San Juan County mines in 1879. But the railroad galvanized production because it drastically reduced the costs of shipping ore to smelters and metal to market. In 1882 productive mines opened on Sultan Mountain just southwest of Silverton, forming the prosperous Mineral Creek District. Other productive mines were set up on Kendall Mountain southeast of Silverton and in the Eureka District to the northeast. By 1886 there were 102 mines in San Juan County, double the amount in 1882. In 1882 county mines produced $53,000 in silver, $10,000 in gold, and $16,000 in lead, but by 1885 those values had climbed to $749,000 in silver, $40,000 in gold, and $207,000 in lead.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At this time San Juan County was also the main entry point to the mines of the Red Mountain District in neighboring Ouray County; the town of Chattanooga, which was formed through the merger of two mining camps in northern San Juan County, supplied the district. In 1882 metallurgist Cushing M. Bryant opened Bryant’s Mining Exchange, a business center that served the area’s mining investors, and in 1883 the San Juan County Bank was chartered as the First National Bank of Silverton. Silverton also became the cultural center of the San Juans, featuring thirty saloons, two dance halls, a community performance and celebration house, and several men’s and women’s clubs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Bust and Recovery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1887 the miner Olaf A. Nelson located and staked the Gold King claim north of Silverton on the north fork of Cement Creek. The <strong>Gold King Mine</strong>, one of the richest in San Juan County history, began operating in 1893. The Gold King had scarcely begun operations when the Silver Panic of 1893 caused the price of silver to drop to an all-time low of seventy-eight cents per ounce. The initial effect on the San Juan County economy was devastating—nearly 1,000 of the county’s 1,600 people lost their jobs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>But by 1896, as most Colorado mining regions failed or languished in economic depression, several factors allowed San Juan County to make a miraculous recovery. First, the remaining mines, especially the largest ones, were still producing enough ore to keep local and regional smelters in business. Second, that ore was exceptionally rich, often containing both gold and silver. Finally, the county’s wealthiest investors, such as mine owner Edward G. Stoiber and road builder <a href="/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, poured large sums of capital into mine expansion, road maintenance, and railroad construction in order to keep their operations viable. The result of all this was a dramatic increase in production in 1896. By then several shuttered mines had reopened and existing mines such as the Gold King had expanded. That year the county produced a remarkable $1.5 million in silver, $909,000 in gold, and $169,000 in lead.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it was subject to ups and downs, mining remained the most important part of the San Juan County economy through the beginning of the twentieth century. By the end of World War I, county mines had produced more than $60 million in gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Labor Strife</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The mining revival led to an uptick in the San Juan County population by 1900, but not all of the county’s 2,342 residents were content. Workers in the mines, smelters, and mills worked grueling, ten-hour shifts in dangerous conditions, and by the late nineteenth century many joined unions that lobbied for higher wages and a shorter workday. The county narrowly avoided a wave of strikes occurring across the state in 1899, but in 1907 tensions between miners and mine owners resurfaced as the economy dipped again. Budget-wary mine owners looked to cut labor costs, but miners threatened to strike and won a three-dollar, eight-hour workday.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Labor strife returned to the county in 1939, when Charles Chase—owner of the <a href="/article/shenandoah-dives-mining-company"><strong>Shenandoah-Dives</strong></a>, the county’s largest mine—sought concessions from his workforce. Miners and mill workers refused and shut down the mine with a strike in June. But Chase’s company was backed by wealthy investors, which allowed him to wait out the strike. The summer-long strike ended in a stalemate, as workers voted to return to work with no concessions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mining continued in San Juan County through World War II but began tapering off in the 1960s. The county’s last significant mine, the American Tunnel, closed in 1991.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Durango-Silverton Railroad</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to being the primary carrier of San Juan County ore, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad line connecting Durango and Silverton was promoted as a tourist route from its opening in 1882. The railroad persevered through multiple economic and natural challenges, having to reduce service during the 1890s depression and reorganize following government control during World War I. In addition, the line traversed some of the most challenging terrain in the Rocky Mountains and had to constantly contend with rockslides, <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanches</strong></a>, and blizzards. After World War II the railroad was in danger of folding, but staff turned its promotional efforts toward tourism, and Hollywood directors shot a number of films along the route, including the 1956 film <em>Around the World in 80 Days</em>. During the 1980s, the railroad replaced more than 10,000 ties and began weathering its cars for winter use. The Durango-Silverton Railroad remains a major attraction today, with vintage, coal-fired locomotives carrying trainloads of tourists year-round through the majestic scenery of the San Juans.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it is the main tourist attraction, San Juan County’s natural environment continues to struggle with the toxic legacy of mining. Mining exposes mineral-laden rock to oxygen, facilitating a chemical process in which metals liquefy and leech into local watercourses. This process, known as <strong>Acid Mine Drainage</strong>, has been occurring in San Juan County mines since they opened and continues to cause problems today. In August 2015 workers for the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) accidentally released some 3 million gallons of contaminated water from the abandoned Gold King Mine into the Animas River, coloring huge stretches of the river a metal-tainted orange. Even though the EPA caused the spill, Silverton and San Juan County officials voted in February 2016 to pursue EPA Superfund status in order to clean up forty-six mines and two settlement areas in the county. Even though it now has the county’s approval, the EPA will need to conduct research for several years before cleanup can begin.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-county" hreflang="en">san juan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-king-mine" hreflang="en">gold king mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango-silverton-railroad" hreflang="en">durango silverton railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/charles-baker" hreflang="en">charles baker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-humbug" hreflang="en">san juan humbug</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otto-mears" hreflang="en">Otto Mears</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Waldo Butler, <em>Mountain Mysteries: The Ouray Odyssey </em>(Cortez, CO: Ouray Chamber of Commerce, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Durango &amp; Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad &amp; Museum, “<a href="https://www.durangotrain.com/history/">Train History</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Grace Hood, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/news/newsbeat/after-years-opposition-silverton-oks-superfund-plan">After Years of Opposition, Silverton Oks Superfund Plan</a>,” Colorado Public Radio, February 23, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul M. O’Rourke, <em>Frontier in Transition: A History of Southwestern Colorado</em> (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, Colorado State Office, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Twitty, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/655.pdf">Historic Mining Resources of San Juan County, Colorado</a>,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Service Form 10-900b (Denver: History Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bill Wehrum, “<a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/salvaging-a-lesson-from-the-animas-river-spill-1441841582">Salvaging a Lesson From the Animas River Spill</a>,” <em>Wall Street Journal</em>, September 9, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://sanjuancounty.colorado.gov/index.html">San Juan County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>San Juan Bonanza: Western Colorado’s Mining Legacy </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold and Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/townofsilverton">Town of Silverton</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Karen A. Vendl and Mark A. Vendl, <em>Mines Around Silverton </em>(Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 27 Jun 2016 21:27:29 +0000 yongli 1522 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Animas River http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1733--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1733.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-river-animas-fork"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas_River_20160724_1076_0.jpg?itok=OWhli16N" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-river-animas-fork" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas River at Animas Fork</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Animas River is 126-mile-long, originates at Animas Forks northeast of Silverton at an elevation of 11,120 feet, and flows southward to Farmington, New Mexico, where it joins the San Juan River.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1729--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1729.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-river-and-abandoned-buildings"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas_River_20160724_1074_0.jpg?itok=qmNJ2kVD" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-river-and-abandoned-buildings" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas River and Abandoned Buildings</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Colorado State Historical Fund grant to San Juan County, in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, provided for stabilization of the remaining structures in 1997 and 1998.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1730--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1730.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-river-san-juan-mountains"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas_River_20160724_1098_0.jpg?itok=Ma_JAa82" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-river-san-juan-mountains" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas River in San Juan Mountains</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Animas Forks is a ghost town located just northeast of Silverton, Colorado. This is where Animas Fork originated. The landscape around Animas Fork is impressive and in general the best time to visit is middle June to the end of September.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1723--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1723.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/town-silverton"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juans_20160724_1273_0.jpg?itok=-NLXef9w" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/town-silverton" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Town of Silverton</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The town of Silverton,at an elevation of 9,318 feet along the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>, is the&nbsp;county seat and only incorporated town in San Juan County. It was established by prospectors&nbsp;in 1874, after the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> forced Ute Indians from the area.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-02-29T16:32:27-07:00" title="Monday, February 29, 2016 - 16:32" class="datetime">Mon, 02/29/2016 - 16:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river" data-a2a-title="Animas River"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fanimas-river&amp;title=Animas%20River"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Until recently, the Animas River—known in Spanish as “El Río de las Ánimas,” or “The River of Lost Souls”—was one of only a few undammed rivers in southwestern Colorado. The Upper Animas River Canyon bears the legacy of the longest <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado">hard-rock mining</a> </strong>operations in southwestern Colorado. The mineral-rich geology of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong> </a>profoundly shaped the natural and human histories of the Animas watershed. Moreover, the Animas River provides Coloradans a prism through which to view humanity’s historic, and often troubled, relationship with the sensitive ecosystems of the southwest <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Anatomy of a River</h2> <p>The Animas River originates at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-forks"><strong>Animas Forks </strong></a>northeast of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> at an elevation of 11,120 feet and flows southward to Farmington, New Mexico, where it joins the <strong>San Juan River, </strong>which ultimately flows to the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>. In its course, the Animas travels from high alpine to dry desert environments, undergoing many changes in its physical, chemical, and biological attributes.</p> <p>The rate and volume of stream flow in the Animas vary greatly by season and year. The typical seasonal minimum stream flow occurs during the winter months of November through March. The seasonal maximum occurs during the spring snowmelt period of late April through early June. The greatest stream flows in the Animas have occurred not as a result of the spring snowmelt but during the occasional late summer and early fall <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>floods</strong></a>, which result from the <strong>monsoon rains</strong> this area receives. The largest of these floods on record came on October 5, 1911.</p> <p>From the river’s origin to <strong>Baker’s Bridge</strong>, north of <strong>Durango</strong>, the gradient of the Animas varies from steep to moderate. The Animas flows through Durango, where its gradient moderates, and continues in that manner for the rest of its course within Colorado. The upper Animas’s high altitude; many tributaries; steep gradient; and narrow, shady canyons keep the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> temperature low even in summer. However, when the river reaches the valley below Baker’s Bridge, it slows and meanders back and forth in the warmth of the sun, and the water temperature rises.</p> <h2>Mining’s Legacy</h2> <p>The Animas bears the San Juan’s legacy of mining to this day. The persistence of heavy metals in the Animas watershed affects aquatic life along most of the Animas. In the upper Animas watershed, acidic runoff containing toxic levels of heavy metals comes from several sources. In the Silverton area and northward extensive amounts of pulverized mine tailings and exposed ore deposits leach sulfides of iron, copper, antimony, arsenic, and zinc into the groundwater and the greater Animas watershed. When iron pyrite (fool’s gold) in these deposits is exposed to the atmosphere directly or indirectly, it undergoes a series of reactions with water and oxygen to produce ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid. These reactions start in the ore deposits and continue within the streams that drain them. Ferric hydroxide is insoluble and coats the rocks of stream beds with a light yellow to orange precipitate often called “<strong>yellow boy</strong>.”</p> <p>Mining has received more attention than any other source of pollution in the upper Animas watershed. Mining activities exposed large amounts of ore deposits in several ways. Miners moved large amounts of mineral-rich rocks to the surface of the earth. They discarded most of this rock and debris near the adits (the opening at the surface), where it became exposed to the atmosphere and weather, flushing mineral toxins to the streams below. Miners disposed of the mine tailings, a fine gray mineral powder suspended in water, by discharging the refuse into the nearest stream. This practice once caused severe pollution of the Animas River until mining engineers constructed tailing ponds to impound the mineral sludge.</p> <p>Upstream of Silverton, the Animas River is noticeably affected by the extensive mining that has occurred in this portion of the watershed over the past 120 years. Water quality deteriorates markedly below Silverton because two tributaries, Mineral Creek<strong> </strong>and Cement Creek, enter the Animas in this area. Both creeks contain very high levels of sulfuric acid, which prevent aquatic organisms from living in them. These tributaries contain dissolved iron and heavy metal volumes many times greater than what the Animas has absorbed above the mouths of the two creeks.</p> <p>Fortunately, the volume of water discharged into the Animas River by Cement and Mineral Creeks is low compared to the amount in the main stream. Furthermore, their polluted waters are greatly diluted by the many tributaries between Silverton and <strong>Rockwood</strong>. Nevertheless, the Animas has very poor water quality for many miles downstream of Cement and Mineral Creeks. This fact can be verified simply by observing the stream from the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/durango-silverton-narrow-gauge-railroad"><strong> narrow-gauge Durango-Silverton train</strong></a>. As the train approaches Silverton, the stream bed changes from the usual dark olive color to light tan and finally to orange.</p> <h2>Aquatic Wildlife and Tourism</h2> <p>The Animas River within and immediately below Durango is well known as a trout fishery. Both <strong>rainbow trout </strong>and <strong>brown trout </strong>are present in this stretch of river. The Animas trout fishery in Durango is wholly artificial. Each year, <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife">Colorado Parks and Wildlife</a> </strong>releases nearly 12,000 rainbow trout into the Animas. Fish dispersed from the stocking program in Durango produce the sparse population of brown and rainbow trout for several miles both upstream and downstream of town. An inconspicuous but interesting native fish in the Animas River and its tributaries is a small bottom-dweller called the <strong>mottled sculpin</strong> (<em>Cottus bairdi</em>), which thrives only in clean, cobble-bedded mountain streams.</p> <p>Despite poor water quality in its upper reaches, throughout much of its length the Animas River is a beautiful and ecologically productive stream. It supports extensive plant and animal communities in its riparian zone. Water from the Animas irrigates many farms and furnishes towns with municipal water supplies. Spring and summer flows create whitewater sports and recreation opportunities. Thus, the Animas River is a precious resource worthy of protection and improvement through conservation and pollution control.</p> <h2>2015 EPA Spill</h2> <p>On August 5, 2015, the toxic legacy of mining in the San Juans revisited the Animas River when the <strong>US Environmental Protection Agency</strong> (EPA) inadvertently released more than 3 million gallons of water that had been trapped in an abandoned mine. The water—which was laced with heavy metals such as iron, arsenic, and lead—escaped when workers breached materials that they did not realize were holding back the contaminated water.</p> <p>The Animas River immediately turned orange as the contaminated water devastated one of this region’s most important watersheds. The heavy metals in the spill will persist in the sediments of the river for years to come. Clean water will flush pollutants downstream, and eventually much of the pollution will be trapped behind dams along the Colorado River, settling in lake-bottom sediments. Cleaner river water will continue to flow down the Colorado to Phoenix, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, and other western cities.</p> <p>In the short term, water sampling has protected the drinking-water supplies of communities along the Animas River. Aquatic wildlife has been and will continue to be tested for quite some time to assess the safety of eating fish from the river’s contaminated reaches. The August 2015 spill has drawn attention to Colorado’s troubled mining legacy, forcing land management agencies to reassess how historic mining communities deal with the hundreds of abandoned mines in southwest Colorado (and thousands more in the West) that hold vast quantities of water polluted by heavy metals. The cost of cleanup in Colorado and the rest of the United States will be astronomical. The terrible results of the EPA’s attempts to clean up just one mine show the complications of undoing the toxic legacy of mining across the West. Ultimately, the images of orange-colored water flowing through beautiful stretches of Colorado will serve as a reminder of the challenges faced in addressing the environmental legacy of the Centennial State’s mining past.</p> <p>Adapted from Preston Somers and Lisa Floyd-Hanna, “Wetlands, Riparian Habitats, and Rivers,” in <em>The Western San Juan Mountains: Their Geology</em>, <em>Ecology, and Human History</em>, ed. Rob Blair (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1996) and Tom Cech, “The Animas River Tragedy” (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-de-las-animas" hreflang="en">rio de las animas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/las-animas-spill" hreflang="en">las animas spill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-epa-spill" hreflang="en">colorado epa spill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-plata-county-colorado" hreflang="en">la plata county colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Rob Blair, ed., <em>The Western San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Deborah D. Paulson and William L. Baker, <em>The Nature of Southwestern Colorado: Recognizing Human Legacies and Restoring Natural Places</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p> <p>Rob Blair and George Bracksieck, eds., <em>The Eastern San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p> <p>Thomas J. Noel and Duane A. Smith, <em>Colorado: The Highest State</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p> <p>Jonathan Thompson, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/acid-mine-drainage-explainer-animas-pollution-epa-gold-king/">Gold King Mine Water Was Headed for the Animas, Anyway: The Nuts and Bolts of Acid Mine Drainage</a>,” <em>High Country News </em>August 28, 2015..</p> <p>Jonathan Thompson, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/when-our-river-turned-orange-animas-river-spill/">When Our River Turned Orange: Nine Things You Need to Know About the Animas River Mine Waste Spill</a>,” <em>High Country News </em>August 15, 2015..</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 29 Feb 2016 23:32:27 +0000 yongli 1140 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Animas Forks http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-forks <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Forks</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--764--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--764.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-forks-late-1870s"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas-Forks-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=zfzMCa-k" width="1000" height="594" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-forks-late-1870s" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Forks, Late 1870s</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Established in 1875 at an elevation of about 11,200 feet, Animas Forks flourished in the late 1870s and early 1880s on the strength of speculative mining investments. It has been a ghost town since the 1920s.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--766--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--766.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/main-street-animas-forks"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas-Forks-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=or-zRNKQ" width="1000" height="631" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/main-street-animas-forks" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Main Street, Animas Forks</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Before the railroad arrived in Silverton in 1882, Animas Forks served as a regional center for commerce and mail. It had general stores, boarding houses, a jail, a newspaper, and a grand hotel called the Kalamazoo House.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--768--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--768.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/remains-animas-forks"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Animas-Forks-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=hU38HCvt" width="1000" height="673" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/remains-animas-forks" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Remains of Animas Forks</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The ghost town of Animas Forks annually attracts about 250,000 visitors who see it along the four-wheel-drive Alpine Loop Scenic Byway. The site includes nine buildings that are still standing as well as the foundations of roughly thirty other structures.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--770--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--770.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/duncan-house"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/AUR-3531_0.jpg?itok=PHo1mru6" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/duncan-house" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Duncan House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1879 William Duncan built a two-story wood-frame house in Animas Forks. In 2013–14 it received a comprehensive restoration as part of a site-wide stabilization project overseen by the Mountain Studies Institute.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1557--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1557.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/animas-forks"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/San_Juans_20160724_1050_0.jpg?itok=Gu_taaP0" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/animas-forks" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Animas Forks</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Today Animas Forks is one of the most popular destinations along a popular 4-wheel alpine loop scenic byway.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-04T13:55:46-07:00" title="Wednesday, November 4, 2015 - 13:55" class="datetime">Wed, 11/04/2015 - 13:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-forks" data-a2a-title="Animas Forks"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fanimas-forks&amp;title=Animas%20Forks"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Established in 1875 and occupied until the 1920s, Animas Forks is a ghost town northeast of <a href="/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> in the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. It sits at an elevation of about 11,200 feet. It survived primarily on the strength of speculative investment rather than productive <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a>, though several nearby mining ventures—including the Sunnyside Extension—proved successful. Major fires in 1891 and 1913 destroyed many of the town’s buildings, but nine remain standing to attract tourists on the <strong>Alpine Loop Scenic Byway</strong>.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The San Juan Mountains remained <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> territory until 1873, when the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> opened the region to white settlement and mining. Soon the mountains were crawling with prospectors. As early as 1873, some groups began to explore the upper <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas</strong><strong> River</strong></a>. By August 1874 several miners and a few cabins occupied the spot where the West Fork of the Animas River joins the North Fork. The settlement began to get a solid hold on life during the next year. It gained a post office in February 1875; the US Post Office Department condensed competing names like Three Forks and Forks of the Animas to Animas Forks, as the town was known from then on.</p> <p>In the spring of 1876, after residents returned from their annual winter exodus, Animas Forks began to take on the character of a real community. That year the Dakota and San Juan Mining Company built a large mill in town. Like most of the mines and mills established in Animas Forks, the Dakota and San Juan mill never produced much and operated intermittently at best over the years. Though unprofitable, the activity gave the impression of success and encouraged outside investment in the area. Soon the town boasted three general stores, a butcher, a short-order restaurant, an unlicensed saloon, and two boardinghouses—including one run by Esther Ekkard, who had arrived in 1875, the camp’s first woman.</p> <p>Animas Forks grew into a lively community in the late 1870s and early 1880s. One reason was the development of the Mineral Point Tunnel (also known as the Bonanza Tunnel), a 6,000-foot tunnel meant to allow access to ores between Animas Forks and the higher mining camp Mineral Point. The tunnel, which Franklin Josiah Pratt began in 1877, was one of the main employers in Animas Forks in the nineteenth century.</p> <p>Animas Forks gradually shifted from a log-cabin mining camp to a more substantial town. Before the railroad arrived in Silverton in 1882, it was a regional center for commerce and mail. The formal town site was laid out in 1877, the same year the first legal saloon opened. The next year Edwin Brown, Levi Woodbury, and Harrison Garrison built a dam on the Animas River and established a water-powered sawmill near town. It was churning out 4,000 board feet of lumber per day in August 1878, allowing residents to cover log buildings with boards and construct new wood-frame houses and shops. In 1879 William Duncan built a two-story wood-frame house that still stands, and the Brown brothers (Edwin and Squire) established the Kalamazoo House, easily the grandest hotel in town, which boasted a piano and the only telephone in Animas Forks. By this point more people were staying in town through the winter, and some shops were remaining open year-round.</p> <p>In 1880 Animas Forks had a population of 114. It reportedly grew as large as 400 over the next few years, as the town acquired several major civic institutions. In 1881 Animas Forks incorporated, becoming the second municipality in <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>. The town built a jail in 1882. That year the <em>Animas Forks Pioneer</em> began publication with the highest-altitude newspaper printing plant in US history. Animas Forks started a school district in 1882 and held classes for a few years in rented buildings.</p> <h2>Decline</h2> <p>Animas Forks began a fairly swift decline in the mid-1880s, as speculative mining activity in the area slowed to a halt. Work on the Mineral Point (or Bonanza) Tunnel stopped in 1884. Businesses closed and people moved away; the last blacksmith left in 1884, the butcher shop closed in 1885, and the newspaper shut down in 1886. The post office closed in February 1889 but reopened again in October after Rasmus Hanson’s Sunnyside Extension mine started to ship ore, generating employment and renewed optimism about the town’s future.</p> <p>The town’s new life came to a sudden end, however, when a huge fire destroyed most of the business district on October 22, 1891. The fire started in the kitchen of the Kalamazoo House, destroyed the hotel, and eventually burned fourteen buildings, causing $20,000 in damage. The post office closed within a month, and almost everyone moved away. A few gold mines in the area, including the Sunnyside Extension, continued to operate throughout the 1890s, but the town of Animas Forks was nearly extinct.</p> <h2>Revival</h2> <p>In 1903 the Gold Prince Mines Company bought the Sunnyside Extension claims near Animas Forks and planned to build a large mill in the area. That year work on the Bonanza Tunnel also started up again. Animas Forks began to see new activity. In 1904 the Silverton Northern Railroad extended tracks to Animas Forks along what is now County Road 2. The town’s post office reopened in July, and T. J. McKelvey, who served as the postmaster and railroad depot agent, opened a merchandise store.</p> <p>A large workforce arrived in 1905 to build the <strong>Gold Prince Mill</strong>. Saloons followed; four were in business by August. Workers also repaired some of the town’s old buildings and built new houses. Rasmus Hanson and Harry Little acquired legal title to the town’s land and made lots available for purchase. They named the town’s two main streets after themselves.</p> <p>The Gold Prince Mill operated steadily for about two years. After the mill’s owners fell into bankruptcy in 1907, the mill operated intermittently until it closed in 1910. Even in that year the town still had ninety residents living on Hanson and Little Streets, including forty-nine miners, six families, and immigrants from Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland.</p> <h2>Ghost Town</h2> <p>Animas Forks limped along for a few years after the final closure of the Gold Prince Mill, largely on the strength of the Bonanza Tunnel and the Frisco Mill, which was built near the tunnel in 1912. On September 3, 1913, however, another big fire ripped through town, destroying four of the largest buildings, including a few saloons and a boardinghouse. After the Frisco Mill closed in 1914, the ruined town had little reason to exist. The Animas Forks post office closed for the final time in November 1915. The last major activity in town was the dismantling of the Gold Prince Mill in 1917, which was also probably the last time the railroad was used.</p> <p>It is possible that Harry Little continued to live in Animas Forks until the early 1920s, but since then it has basically been a ghost town. Some mines in the area were worked periodically in the twentieth century. As a result, some miners may have lived there intermittently in the 1930s, and one residence was probably occupied from the 1940s to the 1960s.</p> <p>Today, nine buildings remain standing, including the two-story Duncan House and the stacked-board jail, as well as the foundations of about thirty other structures. In 1997–98 the San Juan Historical Society and the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) stabilized seven of the remaining buildings with the help of a State Historical Fund grant.</p> <p>More extensive stabilization and restoration work began after a 2011 land swap between the BLM and Sunnyside Gold Corporation that gave the BLM full ownership of the Animas Forks site. Working with Alpine Archaeological Consultants, in 2012 the BLM got the site listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The BLM also established an assistance agreement with the Mountain Studies Institute to help administer preservation grants from the State Historical Fund totaling nearly $330,000, with the BLM contributing 25 percent of the funding. David Singer of Silverton Restoration Consulting prepared a comprehensive assessment of the nine standing buildings at the site, and during the summers of 2013 and 2014 he worked with local builder Loren Lew to complete the stabilization and restoration work. Seven buildings were stabilized. They received replacement windows and doors, new cedar roof shingles, and drainage improvements. The other two buildings, the Duncan House and the 1882 jail, received more comprehensive restorations as well as new interpretive signs developed by the BLM.</p> <p>The ghost town continues to be important to Silverton’s identity, and it annually attracts about 250,000 visitors who see it along the four-wheel-drive Alpine Loop Scenic Byway.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brunot-agreement" hreflang="en">Brunot Agreement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/animas-river" hreflang="en">Animas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sunnyside-extension" hreflang="en">Sunnyside Extension</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alpine-loop-scenic-byway" hreflang="en">Alpine Loop Scenic Byway</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bonanza-tunnel" hreflang="en">Bonanza Tunnel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-prince-mill" hreflang="en">Gold Prince Mill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/duncan-house" hreflang="en">Duncan House</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Jonathon C. Horn, “Animas Forks,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (July 16, 2010).</p> <p>Allen Nossaman, <em>Many</em><em> More Mountains</em>, 3 vols. (Denver: Sundance Books, 1989–98).</p> <p>Dale Rodebaugh, “<a href="https://durangoherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20140904/NEWS01/140909806/0/News03/Animas-Forks-back-on-the-map">Animas Forks Back on the Map</a>,” <em>Durango</em><em> Herald</em>, September 4, 2014.</p> <p>Muriel Sibell Wolle, <em>Stampede to Timberline: The Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of Colorado</em>, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Sage Books, 1974).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Christopher M. Maschino, “Over the Range: A Historical Geography of a Western Mountain Mining Landscape, San Juan County, Colorado” (Master’s thesis, Prescott College, Prescott, Arizona, 2013).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>A Brief History of Silverton</em>, 2nd ed. (Montrose, CO: Western Reflections, 2004).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 04 Nov 2015 20:55:46 +0000 yongli 763 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org