%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Colorado and the Four Wests: An Introduction to the Political Economy Section http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-and-four-wests-introduction-political-economy-section <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado and the Four Wests: An Introduction to the Political Economy Section</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2481--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2481.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/coal-miners-strike"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/colorado-and-four-wests-introduction-political-economy-section-media1_0.jpg?itok=VElmsyRm" width="1000" height="701" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/coal-miners-strike" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Coal Miners on Strike</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Coal mining was an integral part of Colorado's industrial economy in the early twentieth century, but dangerous work conditions and low pay often led to strikes. Here, striking coal miners near Trinidad pose with weapons during the Coalfield War of 1913-14.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-04-24T14:28:55-06:00" title="Monday, April 24, 2017 - 14:28" class="datetime">Mon, 04/24/2017 - 14:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-and-four-wests-introduction-political-economy-section" data-a2a-title="Colorado and the Four Wests: An Introduction to the Political Economy Section"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-and-four-wests-introduction-political-economy-section&amp;title=Colorado%20and%20the%20Four%20Wests%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Political%20Economy%20Section"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Why has Colorado’s economy experienced booms and busts? Which Coloradans have profited the most from the state’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/things/natural-resources"><strong>natural</strong></a> and human resources? In what ways have Colorado’s<strong> </strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/place/cities-towns"><strong>cities, towns</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and regions competed against one another to secure investment, migration, and authority—and how have they cooperated to draw labor and investment from beyond the state’s borders? What visions of the good life have Coloradans of different socioeconomic classes and ideological perspectives embraced, and how have they struggled against one another to realize these visions through popular mobilization, public policy, and law? How has the expansion of the federal government—and, at times, its contraction—affected Colorado’s diverse peoples? How have corporations and labor unions—most of them based outside of Colorado—attempted to influence the state’s economy and politics? Why has financial and political power in Colorado remained concentrated among a relatively small elite, and by what means have grassroots movements attempted to redistribute—and thus to equalize—wealth and privilege?</p> <p>These are just some of questions that the study of political economy brings to our understanding of Colorado’s past, present, and future. At its core, political economy refers to the relationship between individuals and society and between markets and the state. The scope of these relationships and the complex forms they have assumed over the course of Colorado’s tumultuous history defy easy summary, but dividing this vast and unruly story into three sequential phases—the Old West, the Middle West, and the New West—nonetheless helps to highlight the most important twists and turns between the mid-1800s and the present day.</p> <p>The label for the first of these draws upon the hallowed place of the frontier in American culture and mythology, while the name of the third phase invokes the growing sense, both within and outside the American West following <strong>World War II</strong>, that Colorado and the rest of the region had changed significantly—perhaps even fundamentally—from their frontier roots. In truth, though, the arrival of railroads in 1870 initiated a new increasingly industrial period in Colorado’s political economy: the Middle West phase. A few parts of the state seem to have experienced such far-reaching political-economic shifts in recent years that they appear to be entering a fourth phase—let’s call it the Newest West era—defined by unprecedented economic diversification, political estrangement from Colorado’s rural regions, and such pathbreaking and problematic innovations as the full legalization of <a href="/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>marijuana</strong></a><strong>.</strong></p> <h2>Old West (ca. 1858–ca. 1870)</h2> <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>discovery of gold</strong></a> in a chilly tributary of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> in 1858 did more than any other single event to initiate the Old West phase of Colorado’s political economy. Old West Colorado outwardly resembled the mythic West of dime novels and Western movies. Poised on the outer edge of a rapidly industrializing United States, the economy of the area that the US Congress organized into <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861 represented a throwback, its political economy driven by farming for subsistence purposes and local markets; open-range <strong>ranching</strong>; real estate speculation and development, especially in towns and cities; and, above all, the <a href="/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining of precious metals</strong></a>.</p> <p>More than a few self-proclaimed pioneers would later look back upon Old West Colorado with profound longing. In their minds, at least, this phase represented an era of practically boundless opportunity—a time when financial independence required only hard work and a little luck —and possibly even a fortune. Those who looked backward with memories of their own success, though, generally chose to discount or forget the many other Coloradans who had lost out in the bargain: the hundreds of thousands of prospectors, <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteaders</strong></a>, and other home seekers who abandoned Colorado as abject failures; the more select but no less disillusioned ranks of investors and entrepreneurs who had been deceived, cheated, or forced out of the lucrative mining claims, agricultural lands, and businesses in which they had invested their time and hope, as well as their money; the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> individuals and communities who found their land and <a href="/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> rights challenged by incoming Americans; and the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Nuche (Ute</strong></a><strong>)</strong>, and other indigenous peoples who had been dispossessed, herded onto reservations, and killed by Colorado militiamen, US troops, and federal negotiators.</p> <h2>Middle West Political Economy (ca. 1870–ca. 1945)</h2> <p>While Colorado’s Old West political economy centered on freewheeling and often ruthlessly competitive mineral prospecting, open-range ranching, and town building, the political economy of Colorado during the Middle West period was inextricably industrial, urban, and corporate.</p> <p>The incorporation of Colorado into American <strong>railroad</strong> networks starting in 1870, and the subsequent extension of tracks into nearly every nook and cranny of the state by the early 1900s, inaugurated the Middle West. Instead of ending abruptly, the Middle West took more than a century to peter out. The Middle West subsided in part because of major economic shifts: the collapse of silver mining and smelting in the <a href="/article/panic-1893"><strong>depression</strong></a> of the 1890s; the eclipse of railroads by explosive growth in automobile, truck, and bus traffic in the late 1910s and 1920s; and dramatic declines in output, employment, or both in subsequent decades by the state’s mines and factories (especially at <a href="/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a>’s (CF&amp;I) Pueblo <strong>steel mills</strong>). Political and cultural changes, however, also contributed: <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive</strong></a> and <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> reforms softened some of industrialism’s harder edges, while the rise of consumerism in the form of recreational <strong>tourism</strong> and lifestyle-oriented suburban development in the 1920s and 1930s paved the way for a New West future in which a rising percentage of Coloradans defined themselves more through leisure and purchasing than through productive labor.</p> <p>Colorado’s Middle West political economy rested on a foundation forged by the railroads’ wide-ranging mobility, steel’s strength and versatility, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal</strong></a>’s seemingly boundless energies. The Middle West phase left an enduring legacy of brick and metal structures: trestles, skyscrapers, warehouses, and mansions. More subtly, this era served to integrate Colorado into the heart of the American and global economies. A region that had previously served up furs, hides, and precious metals from a wide-open, sometimes lawless milieu increasingly resembled the places in the northeastern and Midwestern United States and northwestern Europe, where the vast majority of newcomers to Colorado originated.</p> <p>Industrialism’s reign over Colorado faced challenges from several fronts. Workers in smelters, steel mills, and mines, like those on the railroads themselves, labored in remarkably dangerous conditions. Every year, on-the-job accidents claimed hundreds of lives—and thousands of limbs—in the state. The most dramatic workplace tragedies were mine disasters such as a trio of coal-dust explosions that killed more than 200 coal miners in <a href="/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas County</strong></a> in a ten-month period in 1910. The misgivings kindled by the violence laboring Coloradans experienced at work were aggravated by the indignities of poor pay; long hours; ongoing efforts by employers to control workers and combat labor unions through private detectives, company housing, and other intrusions; and the outsized influenced that mine operators, railroad companies, smelter owners, and the CF&amp;I exerted over political and legal institutions at the local and state levels.</p> <p>Given these conditions, it should come as little surprise that the state’s Middle West witnessed the worst labor management conflicts in Colorado history. Many Colorado workers joined labor unions in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Virtually all of these labor organizations sought to improve wages, limit the daily labors of men and women to eight hours, mitigate workplace hazards, and coordinate efforts to advance workers’ interests at the ballot box and in the state capitol.</p> <p>But some of Colorado’s unions sought not simply to gain greater security, prosperity, and control for workers within the existing structures of capitalism and democracy but wanted to destroy the existing order and build a new one from its ashes. The largest and most famous of Colorado’s radical labor organizations was the <a href="/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners</strong></a> (WFM), founded in Butte, Montana, in 1893 with the help of delegates from Colorado’s smelters and silver and gold mines.</p> <p>The growing economic, political, and cultural power of the state’s spectrum of workers’ movements prompted a range of responses among Colorado’s large employers, as well as the state’s growing middle classes. In some towns and industries, unions encountered little opposition and made considerable headway advancing their aims. Even the more revolutionary WFM gained significant ground in many parts of the state during the 1890s, turning the booming <a href="/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> Gold District into the so-called Gibraltar of Unionism after a successful strike campaign in 1894.</p> <p>The 1890s also revealed another core feature of Colorado’s Middle West phase: the growing power of outside corporations over the state’s political economy. Like all frontier regions, Old West Colorado possessed almost no capital. Yet even though most of the state’s early enterprises were financed by investors from the eastern states—as well as from Great Britain, Holland, and other parts of Europe—Colorado’s pioneer entrepreneurs nonetheless retained most of the prerogatives of ownership and control. In the wake of the financial crisis that began in 1893, though, Coloradans learned firsthand of Wall Street’s burgeoning power. By the early twentieth century, many of Colorado’s most important corporations were headquartered in New York (or, in some instances, Boston or Chicago) and controlled by such titans of industry and finance as John D. Rockefeller (the biggest shareholder in CF&amp;I starting in 1903) and the <strong>Guggenheim</strong> family (which leveraged a fortune made in <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> into the monopolistic American Smelting and Refining Company).</p> <p>As capitalists beyond Colorado’s borders assumed command over the core of the state’s Middle West era economy, they closed ranks with local elites—especially the leaders of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s big banks and business-friendly political officials—to roll back labor unionism. In a massive set of strikes in 1903–04 that affected the state’s gold, silver, and coal mines and smelters, Colorado’s organized workers suffered major defeats. Ten years after the state’s corporations shattered the Gibraltar of Unionism at Cripple Creek, a brutal fifteen-month conflict erupted in Colorado’s southern coalfields when the <a href="/article/united-mine-workers-america"><strong>United Mine Workers of America</strong></a> sought recognition from the region’s coal operators as the collective bargaining agent for everyone laboring in and around the area’s coal mines and coke ovens. In the coal miners’ strikes of the early 1910s (1910–14 in northern Colorado, 1913–14 in southern Colorado), as in so many other labor disputes during the state’s Middle West phase, the Colorado National Guard played a decisive and controversial role, killing eighteen strikers at the <a href="/article/ludlow-massacre"><strong>Ludlow</strong></a> tent colony and making it easier for the state’s coal corporations to maintain production by protecting strikebreakers.</p> <p>Unionization constituted just one set of threads within a larger tapestry of campaigns to reform—or, in the case of the WFM, to revolutionize—Colorado’s Middle West political economy. While workers on the state’s railroads and in its mines and mills paid an especially heavy toll for Colorado’s industrial “progress,” a host of other Coloradans also bristled against the rule of what gadfly Denver attorney J. Warner Mills bemoaned as the state’s “Throne Powers.”</p> <p>Farmers on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>eastern plains</strong></a> accused railroad and grain elevator companies of monopolizing the markets for transportation and grain. Owners of small businesses groused that corporations, cartels, trusts, and monopolies made it impossible for them to compete. And consumers and citizens of all sorts complained about the control big business exerted over Colorado’s economic and political life.</p> <p>These widespread, diverse, and sometimes contradictory critiques of corporate dominance fueled a variety of reform campaigns, of which the two most consequential were <a href="/article/populism-colorado"><strong>Populism</strong></a> and Progressivism. Populism forged a short-lived coalition between farmers, workers, nonconformists of various stripes, and an array of Coloradans concerned with propping up the state’s vital silver industry. Under the auspices of the People’s Party, Colorado Populists showed their strength by electing <strong>Davis Waite</strong> to the governorship in 1893. Waite was voted out of office just two years later, and the People’s Party declined almost as swiftly as it had risen to prominence. Yet several core Populist causes fed into Progressivism.</p> <p>Like Populism, Progressives sought to grind down industrialism’s hard edges and limit corporate power by rebuilding grassroots democracy and increasing government regulation and oversight. But in Colorado, as in the United States more broadly, some Progressives also wanted government to exert tighter command over social and cultural life—whether by prohibiting alcohol, restricting immigration (particularly from Asia and southern and eastern Europe), or compelling indigenous peoples on the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> Reservations and recent immigrants to assimilate into the dominant society by forsaking their native cultures and embracing what advocates called “100 percent Americanism.”</p> <p>During <a href="/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>, the federal government’s war production policies favored workers and their unions while advancing many of the regulations, social programs, and government interventions in the economy favored by Populists and Progressives. Workers’ gains evaporated, however, during newly elected president Warren Harding’s “return to normalcy.” The rise of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a>, meanwhile, and the broader resurgence of business-friendly conservatism checked the further growth of the state and federal government (though some Progressive causes remained vibrant enough to secure the passage of restrictive federal immigration regulations in 1924 and ongoing state, local, and federal crackdowns on alcohol, prostitution, and organized crime). By the mid-1930s, when Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal codified the right of labor unions to organize and enshrined federal responsibilities for providing at least a modicum of economic security for those Americans—mostly white and male—protected by Social Security and other new entitlements, most of the core industries of Colorado’s Middle West period were either faltering or in total collapse.</p> <h2>New West Political Economy (ca. 1945–ca. 2010)</h2> <p>The New West political economy of Colorado, like its predecessors, took hold in some places earlier than in others; it even left some stretches of the state largely untouched well into the twenty-first century. Colorado was almost certainly one of the first parts of the United States to grapple with deindustrialization, thanks to the silver bust of the 1890s and the stagnation of railroads, steel, and coal by the 1920s. But people in many parts of Colorado, unlike those in most other American places afflicted during the 1900s and early 2000s by the blight of shuttered mines and factories, managed to build new economic foundations as the old ones crumbled away. The most picturesque exceptions became ghost towns, while the most troubling departures from emerging New West trends could be found in the deteriorating working-class neighborhoods of Denver and <a href="/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, as well as in the eviscerated Middle West heartlands of <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, <strong>Trinidad</strong>, and other once rollicking mining towns founded on silver and coal.</p> <p>Compared to the Middle West before it, New West Colorado was more suburban than urban; more oriented to the consumption of the state’s scenery, <strong>climate</strong>, and recreational opportunities than to the extraction and transformation of the state’s natural resources into marketable products; and more fully premised on the notion of the state as a special and distinctive place. Trains continued to play a crucial role in shipping and the streetcar systems built in the late 1800s and early 1900s did not reach peak ridership until the 1940s, but New West Colorado depended utterly and inextricably on automobiles, trucks, and the roads and highways upon which these motor vehicles traveled.</p> <p>New West Colorado was not so much postindustrial as alt-industrial. Farming and ranching grew more intensive and productive thanks in no small part to ever-growing quantities of fossil fuels, chemical inputs, and <a href="/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> water. Mining remained important too, though the targets shifted away from precious metals and coal toward molybdenum, <a href="/article/uranium-mining"><strong>uranium</strong></a>, and gravel even as mechanization and strip mining reduced the industry’s labor requirements. And though Coloradans imported most of the fuel burned by their growing fleets of cars and trucks, petroleum and natural gas extraction eventually emerged as key drivers of growth in parts of the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> and the northern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>.</p> <p>The rising power of the federal government played a pivotal but sometimes overlooked role in creating and sustaining New West Colorado. National parks and national forests established in the late 1800s and early 1900s helped to ensure the state’s continuing role as a tourist destination; so did federal subsidies for the state’s roads. New Deal relief and assistance programs resulted in the construction of hiking trails and other recreational amenities, including world-renowned <a href="/article/red-rocks-park-and-amphitheatre"><strong>Red Rocks Amphitheatre</strong></a>, as well as K–12 schools and new classrooms and dormitories at Colorado’s state institutions of higher learning.</p> <p>During <strong>World War II</strong>, Colorado, like other western and southern states, benefited immensely from federal military spending and wartime investment. This infusion of government funds continued throughout the ensuing Cold War, with several important consequences. Military posts like <strong>Fort Carson</strong> near Colorado Springs; <strong>Lowry Air Force Base</strong> outside Denver; and <a href="/article/camp-hale"><strong>Camp Hale</strong></a>, on the opposite side of Tennessee Pass from Leadville, exposed hundreds of thousands of American service members to Colorado for the first time. Many of those who enjoyed their time in the Centennial State pulled up stakes and made new lives in Colorado after their military commitment ended. Federal defense spending also laid the basis for the state’s emergence as an important center for research, development, and innovation in fields ranging from aerospace to climate change. Finally, and perhaps more subtly, federal programs from the New Deal and World War II through the Cold War era established the infrastructure of highways, water systems, and power transmission and communications networks upon which the rapid growth of New West Colorado depended.</p> <p>Coloradans responded to growing federal involvement in the state’s economy with mixed emotions. Government money could spur growth and development, but it also raised fears that federal officials would try to leverage increased government spending into centralized political authority over the state. Organized opposition to federal programs during the New West phase stretched from Democratic governor <strong>Edwin “Big Ed” Johnson</strong>’s attempts to refuse New Deal aid through the successful campaign by wilderness activists to prevent the damming of <a href="/article/echo-park-dam-controversy"><strong>Echo Park</strong></a> in <a href="/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a> in the 1950s and the <strong>Sagebrush Rebellion</strong> that pitted some Colorado ranchers against the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong> and other agencies starting in the 1970s.</p> <p>Champions of small government at the state level won a signal victory with the 1992 passage of the <strong>Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR)</strong>. This constitutional amendment sought to roll back the expansion of state and local government by restricting their ability to generate revenue. Though touted as a way to harness the expansion of governments that conservatives blamed for enacting restrictive regulations and engaging in unwarranted interventions in economic, social, and cultural life, TABOR’s many critics lambasted the amendment for straitjacketing the ability of Colorado’s public institutions to serve Colorado’s rapidly growing population.</p> <h2>Newest West Political Economy (ca. 2010–)</h2> <p>By the early 2000s, at least some parts of Colorado appeared to be entering a fourth phase—the Newest West—distinguished from its New West precursor largely by the solidification of the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> corridor as a dynamic megalopolis tied much more closely to national and global trends and markets than to other parts of Colorado and the Interior West. For the first time in its history, Denver has finally unburdened itself from the inferiority complex that bedeviled it from the Colorado Gold Rush onward. Freed of the burden of imitating San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, or Dallas, the city has come into its own. New generators of economic growth—particularly the emergence of the world’s first legal marijuana industry following the passage of Amendment 64 by Colorado voters in 2012 but also the fluorescence of <strong>craft brewing</strong> and other neo-artisanal pursuits—have combined with old mainstays such as real estate development and speculation and New West innovations in high technology, financial services, petroleum extraction, and recreational tourism to fuel explosive economic growth along the Front Range, as well as in scattered pockets elsewhere in the state.</p> <p>These trends in and around the Denver region have complicated effects on other parts of Colorado. Most important, and perhaps most worrisome, has been an apparent upswing in the longstanding divides and resentments pitting rural Coloradans—especially on the Western Slope and the eastern plains—against citizens of the state’s urban and suburban core. These antagonisms are especially evident in national elections, as well as in the special-issue politics surrounding <strong>gun control</strong> and other hot-button issues. Whether or not the countervailing trends of pragmatic action across party lines in day-to-day state politics and the rising influence of unaffiliated voters (whose ranks now outnumber <strong>Republicans</strong> and <strong>Democrats</strong> in Colorado) will mitigate these growing economic, cultural, and political divides remains to be seen.</p> <p>All we can conclude with any confidence is that for us, as for earlier generations of Coloradans, the future will remain uncertain, up for grabs, and subject to the incessant winds of change that continue to shape and reshape the political economy that draws various people together at the same time it sets us apart.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/andrews-thomas-g" hreflang="und">Andrews, Thomas G.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/political-history-colorado" hreflang="en">political history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/economic-history-colorado" hreflang="en">economic history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-economy" hreflang="en">colorado economy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-politics" hreflang="en">colorado politics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nineteenth-century-colorado" hreflang="en">nineteenth century colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coal-mining" hreflang="en">coal mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-mining" hreflang="en">gold mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-beets" hreflang="en">sugar beets</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-people" hreflang="en">indigenous people</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> Mon, 24 Apr 2017 20:28:55 +0000 yongli 2480 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Abiquiú http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Abiquiú</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:32:56-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:32" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Abiquiú"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-abiquiu&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Abiqui%C3%BA"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Considered to be the first official treaty between the United States and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico, the Treaty of Abiquiú was made in 1849 with the intention of establishing peaceful relations between the two groups. Signed in the northern New Mexico village of Abiquiú, the treaty came at the end of a violent decade in present-day New Mexico and southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it did little to quell the violence in a hotly contested region, the treaty laid the groundwork for future Ute-American relations and granted the US government a foothold in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, northern New Mexico, and other indigenous-controlled territories it claimed after the end of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> in 1848.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early 1840s, a violent situation was brewing along today’s New Mexico–Colorado border. Indigenous people—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, and Ute—fought each other for access to hunting grounds and trade networks. At the same time, they found their ancestral lands increasingly traversed by European and American fur traders, Mexican ranchers and wagon trains along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and other trading routes. In response to this growing threat, Indigenous people raided New Mexican towns, drove off would-be colonists on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican land grants</strong></a>, and attacked wagon trains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Regional violence escalated after the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846. Moving relatively unopposed down the Santa Fé Trail, the US Army quickly captured New Mexico, and President James Polk installed Charles Bent, an American trader, as governor of the unorganized territory. Apaches, Navajos, Utes, and other Indigenous nations continued their defensive campaign against the foreign invaders, increasing raids on New Mexican communities such as Las Vegas and Taos. In response, the US Army embarked on several campaigns to punish Indigenous nations, including one in 1848 that fought a combined Ute-Apache force near Cumbres Pass in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war ended in 1848, New Mexicans (now American citizens under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a>) began expanding their claims in New Mexico and the San Luis Valley. This prompted more reprisals from Indigenous people. Finally, in March 1849, the US Army’s swift destruction of fifty Ute lodges in New Mexico convinced Ute leaders that peace was a wiser course. Not only would it spare them losses against a superior fighting force, but it would also give them time to deal with their own political crises and food shortage, both of which stemmed from the ongoing defense of their lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A “Perpetual Peace”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>New Mexico governor James S. Calhoun also came to believe that peace with the Utes was necessary if the United States hoped to populate its new territories. Like other American observers, Calhoun considered the Utes to be key in making this peace, as they were believed to hold “influence over the [other] wild tribes.” In late December 1849, in his capacity as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a>, Calhoun brought together Ute leaders—mostly from the <strong>Capote </strong>and <strong>Muache bands</strong>—and American officials at Abiquiú, a village along the Chama River in northern New Mexico. The subsequent agreement, signed by twenty-eight leaders of the “Utah tribe of Indians,” placed the Utes “lawfully and exclusively under the jurisdiction of the [US] government” in “perpetual peace and amity.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty provided for “free passage” of American citizens through Ute territory, as well as for the construction of “military posts,” Indian agencies, and “trading houses” on Ute lands. In return, it promised to protect Utes against depredations by American citizens, as well as provide “such donations, presents, and implements” deemed necessary for the Utes to “support themselves by their own industry.” These “donations” would come in the form of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>—annual deliveries of food and supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From the Ute perspective, the most problematic section of the treaty called for Utes to “cultivate the soil,” to “cease the roving and rambling habits which have hitherto marked them as a people,” and to “confine themselves strictly” within American-imposed territorial limits.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These clauses reflected a common misunderstanding in many treaties between the United States and Indigenous nations during the nineteenth century. To the Utes, many of whom had only a cursory understanding of the treaty’s contents, the agreement was merely a pragmatic parley that would bolster their chances of survival in a new geopolitical reality. Determined to remain on their land, they did not imagine the treaty as restricting their traditional migratory rounds, nor did they see it as erasing their sovereignty. To the government officials who penned it, however, the treaty was viewed as the Utes’ total surrender to American authority, the first step toward their eventual “civilization” and the acquisition of their land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Treaty of Abiquiú was ratified by Congress on September 24, 1850, just weeks after the establishment of New Mexico Territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the treaty’s hopes for “peace and amity,” regional violence continued immediately after its signing, revealing the vast gulf between how the two parties understood the agreement. Not even a week later, Utes killed a group of Mexicans along the Chama River and stole their livestock. The Utes viewed the violence as necessary. Although the treaty promised annuities that would ease their starvation, they still needed food in the interim, and they decided to take what they needed from people they continued to consider trespassers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As months went by and annuities still did not arrive—Calhoun’s agency was simply too large and underfunded to fulfill the treaty obligations—Utes continued to take livestock from Americans and Mexicans in New Mexico and Colorado. The US Army’s establishment of Fort Massachusetts (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>) in the San Luis Valley in 1852 did little to stop the raids. American officials sought to curb the violence by regulating American and Mexican traders, who were the Utes’ chief suppliers of weapons and ammunition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The new rules only made the Utes angrier, especially since similar regulations were not imposed on Plains traders who provided arms and ammunition to their enemies, the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. Overall, the presence of white immigrants and military units, combined with the US government’s inability to fulfill its treaty obligations, exacerbated regional power struggles between indigenous peoples, precipitating a plague of violence across southern Colorado and northern New Mexico throughout the 1850s. Then the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of American immigrants to Colorado, decisively shifting the regional balance of power toward the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though it did not bring “perpetual peace” to New Mexico and southern Colorado, the Treaty of Abiquiú established a precedent of treaty making between the United States and Ute leaders that lasted until the 1870s. From the American perspective, this made the Utes reliable, if reluctant, partners, confirming many officials’ belief that the Utes were one of the “good” Indigenous nations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the Utes, this status was a double-edged sword, for as much as it often put them in the good graces of a decidedly superior military force, it also paved the way for their continued acquiescence to US demands, especially the cession of their lands. By 1881, thirty-two years after Ute leaders marked their “x” at Abiquiú, many of the Ute bands had been removed from Colorado, and the remaining bands held only a small strip of land in the state.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/abiquiu" hreflang="en">abiquiu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache" hreflang="en">muache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote" hreflang="en">capote</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-mexico" hreflang="en">new mexico</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ned Blackhawk, <em>Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://utulsa.edu/academics/academic-calendar/schedule-of-courses/">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Utah Tribe of Indians</a>,” December 30, 1849.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/chronology/">Chronology</a>,” Southern Ute Indian Tribe, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:32:56 +0000 yongli 3168 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Appropriations Act (1871) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T10:31:24-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 10:31" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 10:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0" data-a2a-title="Indian Appropriations Act (1871)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-appropriations-act-1871-0&amp;title=Indian%20Appropriations%20Act%20%281871%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 declared that American Indians were no longer considered members of “sovereign nations” and that the US government could no longer establish treaties with them. The act effectively made Indians wards of the US government and paved the way for other laws that granted the federal government increased power over the land and lives of indigenous peoples.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it promised not to “invalidate or impair the obligation” of previous treaties, the act was the first step toward the elimination of indigenous sovereignty, which was completed in 1898 with the <strong>Curtis Act</strong>, and the invalidation of previous treaty obligations, a power finally granted to Congress in 1903. One of the first arrangements to be made in the post-treaty era was the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, in which <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Utes</strong></a> under <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> ceded Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike other Indian Appropriations Acts, most of which served the mundane purpose of allocating federal funds to fulfill treaty obligations, the Appropriations Act of 1871 marked a major shift in federal Indian policy. Nearly a century earlier, immediately after the nation was established, President George Washington applied the president’s treaty-making power to Indian nations, setting a precedent for nation-to-nation diplomacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Four decades later, indigenous sovereignty was upheld in the 1832 Supreme Court decision <em>Worcester v. Georgia</em>, which declared that Indians did indeed belong to “sovereign nation[s].” This result obliged the United States to engage with Indians in diplomacy the same as it would Spain, Britain, or France. President Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future administrations respected it, forging treaties with various American Indian nations that had to be ratified by Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many American Indians who signed treaties did not fully understand what they were signing because they were unfamiliar with the US government as well as American legal writing and practices. Still, over time, treaties became an important source of indigenous power since they were by definition made between equal partners—nation to nation. If nothing else, tribes could point to treaties to protest nondelivery or delay of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> (money and supplies promised in treaties) or trespassing on tribal lands. Many American Indian leaders rightly came to regard treaties as the final say on what the US government and its citizens could or could not do regarding Indian land and people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Civil War, however, a renewed spirit of white national unity, as well as the ongoing conquest of the American West, compelled many in Congress and the western territories to reconsider indigenous sovereignty. Treaties that created reservations and Indian agencies, they argued, essentially made Indians dependent on the government, so why must they continue to be recognized as independent nations?</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Appropriations Act of 1871</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the Constitution, treating making was the prerogative of the president, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. The House of Representatives had no say in creating treaties and was only responsible for allocating funds to carry out their provisions. By the 1870s, however, the House had new members representing new constituencies in western states, many of whom lobbied for Indian removal. The House as a whole had also come to resent its minor role in Indian affairs, going so far as to refuse to fund new treaties. As the House debated the Appropriations Act of 1871, representatives hitched a rider denying Indian sovereignty to what was otherwise a routine allocations bill. Even though the rider increased the House’s power in Indian affairs, the Senate approved the bill on March 3, 1871, and President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A New Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it prevented new treaties from being written, the Appropriations Act did not end binding agreements with Indian nations. These agreements, however, differed from treaties in that they were not bilateral—meaning the US government could choose to respect American Indians’ demands at its own discretion. The Brunot Agreement of 1873, for example, still had to be ratified by Congress and made the government accountable for the agreement’s stated compensation to the Utes. However, the Appropriations Act laid the groundwork for the government to abandon past obligations, a right that the Supreme Court granted to Congress in its 1903 decision <em>Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the 1871 Appropriations Act, historian Mark G. Hirsch writes, “US repudiation of treaties and tribalism was steadfastly opposed by American Indians, who continued to identify themselves as members of autonomous, self-governing nations.” This resistance took many forms, from religious movements such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> to outright refusal to participate in subsequent laws, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act of 1887</strong></a>. In Colorado, the 1879 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> stemmed from the Utes’ refusal to give up either their tribal identity or their sovereignty, especially because the latter was protected by treaty. While not opposing the Appropriations Act by name, these assertions of autonomy were responses to the denial of Indian self-determination that was codified in the 1871 Act.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Dawes Act, which broke up collectively owned Indian reservations into individual lots, demonstrated Congress’s true intent with the Appropriations Act. Nothing in any treaty signed before 1871 gave the federal government the right to forcibly break up reservations, but after tribal sovereignty was nullified in the Appropriations Act, Congress assumed the right to legislate on all matters concerning Indian affairs as it saw fit. By breaking up spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held collectively for generations, the Dawes Act dealt another crippling blow to indigenous sovereignty in the late nineteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous nations within the United States had gone from having the rights due any other foreign country to having almost no right to exist. This process had been under way before 1871, but the Indian Appropriations Act of that year incorporated it into official government policy, opening the door for its rapid acceleration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While no new treaties have been brokered since 1871, Congress did eventually restore some measure of indigenous sovereignty in 1934 with the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). However, because it forced tribes to hold votes and write their own Constitutions, many tribes correctly viewed the IRA as another government mandate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though most tribes today have some form of self-government, the fight for indigenous sovereignty denied in the 1871 Act continues. In New Mexico, for example, tribes are resisting government-sponsored energy drilling near sacred sites on public land; in North Dakota they have protested government-imposed oil pipelines across treaty-protected land. Meanwhile, in Alaska and Colorado, tribes are lobbying for the power and resources to combat disproportionately high rates of sexual assault and other violent crime on reservations.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-appropriations-act" hreflang="en">indian appropriations act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cultural-genocide" hreflang="en">cultural genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty" hreflang="en">treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous" hreflang="en">indigenous</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/41st-congress/session-3/c41s3ch120.pdf">An Act Making Appropriations for the Current and Contingent Expenses of the Indian Department…</a>” (Indian Appropriations Act), 41st Congress, Sess. III, Ch. 119–120, March 3, 1871.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/194/">Antoine v Washington</a>, 420 US 194 (1975).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeff Brady, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/11/29/671701019/2-years-after-standing-rock-protests-north-dakota-oil-business-is-booming">2 Years After Standing Rock Protests, Tensions Remain but Oil Business Booms</a>,” NPR, November 29, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Susan Montoya Bryan, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/protecting-the-incredible-magical-spiritual-that-is-chaco-canyon">Protecting the ‘Incredible, Magical, Spiritual,’ That Is Chaco Canyon</a>,” Associated Press and <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joaqlin Estus, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/the-fix-for-alaska-s-public-safety-crisis-recognize-tribal-powers">The Fix for Alaska’s Public Safety Crisis? Recognize Tribal Powers</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phillip M. Kannan, “<a href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&amp;context=wmborj">Reinstating Treaty-Making with Native American Tribes</a>,” <em>William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal </em>16, no. 3 (2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alysa Landry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/ulysses-s-grant-mass-genocide-through-permanent-peace-policy">Ulysses S. Grant: Mass Genocide Through ‘Permanent Peace’ Policy</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, May 3, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a>, 187 US 553 (1903).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/155413">Meeting Addresses Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Plans; Ute Mountain Looks to Hemp, More Officers</a>,” <em>Journal </em>(Cortez, CO), October 14, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 16:31:24 +0000 yongli 3165 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Appropriations Act (1871) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/indian-appropriations-act-1871"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Appropriations-Act-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=mMnKk355" width="1090" height="1470" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/indian-appropriations-act-1871" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In what was supposed to be a routine bill providing funds to Indian Agencies, the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871&nbsp; included a significant clause declaring that Indigenous people did not belong to "independent nations" and could therefore not enter treaties with the United States. A departure from previous US-Indigenous relations, the Act dealt a major blow to Indigenous sovereignty.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T10:30:57-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 10:30" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 10:30</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871" data-a2a-title="Indian Appropriations Act (1871)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-appropriations-act-1871&amp;title=Indian%20Appropriations%20Act%20%281871%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 declared that Indigenous people were no longer considered members of “sovereign nations” and that the US government could no longer establish treaties with them. The act effectively made Native Americans wards of the US government and paved the way for other laws that granted the federal government increased power over the land and lives of Indigenous peoples.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it promised not to “invalidate or impair the obligation” of previous treaties, the act was the first step toward the elimination of Indigenous sovereignty, which was completed in 1898 with the <strong>Curtis Act</strong>, and the invalidation of previous treaty obligations, a power finally granted to Congress in 1903. One of the first arrangements to be made in the post-treaty era was the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, in which <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Utes</strong></a> under <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> ceded Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike other Indian Appropriations Acts, most of which served the mundane purpose of allocating federal funds to fulfill treaty obligations, the Appropriations Act of 1871 marked a major shift in federal Indigenous policy. Nearly a century earlier, immediately after the nation was established, President George Washington applied the president’s treaty-making power to Indigenous nations, setting a precedent for nation-to-nation diplomacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Four decades later, Indigenous sovereignty was upheld in the 1832 Supreme Court decision <em>Worcester v. Georgia</em>, which declared that Indigenous people did indeed belong to “sovereign nation[s].” This result obliged the United States to engage with Indigenous people in diplomacy the same as it would Spain, Britain, or France. President Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future administrations respected it, forging treaties with various Native nations that had to be ratified by Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many Indigenous leaders who signed treaties did not fully understand what they were signing because they were unfamiliar with the US government as well as American legal writing and practices. That eventually changed, however, and over time treaties became an important source of Indigenous power since they were by definition made between equal partners—nation to nation. If nothing else, Indigenous nations could point to treaties to protest nondelivery or delay of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> (money and supplies promised in treaties) or trespassing on Indigenous land. Many Indigenous leaders rightly came to regard treaties as the final say on what the US government and its citizens could or could not do regarding Indigenous land and people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>, however, a renewed spirit of white national unity, as well as the ongoing conquest of the American West, compelled many in Congress and the western territories to reconsider Indigenous sovereignty. Treaties that created reservations and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, they argued, essentially made Indians dependent on the government, so why must they continue to be recognized as independent nations?</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Appropriations Act of 1871</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the Constitution, treaty making was the prerogative of the president, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. The House of Representatives had no say in creating treaties and was only responsible for allocating funds to carry out their provisions. By the 1870s, however, the House had new members representing new constituencies in western states, many of whom lobbied for the removal of Indigenous people. The House as a whole had also come to resent its minor role in Indigenous affairs, going so far as to refuse to fund new treaties. As the House debated the Appropriations Act of 1871, representatives hitched a rider denying Native sovereignty to what was otherwise a routine allocations bill. Even though the rider increased the House’s power in Indigenous affairs, the Senate approved the bill on March 3, 1871, and President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A New Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it prevented new treaties from being written, the Appropriations Act did not end binding agreements with Indigenous nations. These agreements, however, differed from treaties in that they were not bilateral—meaning the US government could choose to respect Native Americans’ demands at its own discretion. The Brunot Agreement of 1873, for example, still had to be ratified by Congress and made the government accountable for the agreement’s stated compensation to the Utes. However, the Appropriations Act laid the groundwork for the government to abandon past obligations, a right that the Supreme Court granted to Congress in its 1903 decision <em>Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the 1871 Appropriations Act, historian Mark G. Hirsch writes, “US repudiation of treaties and tribalism was steadfastly opposed by American Indians, who continued to identify themselves as members of autonomous, self-governing nations.” This resistance took many forms, from religious movements such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> to outright refusal to participate in subsequent laws, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act of 1887</strong></a>. In Colorado, the 1879 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> stemmed from the Utes’ refusal to give up either their tribal identity or their sovereignty, especially because the latter was protected by treaty. While not opposing the Appropriations Act by name, these assertions of autonomy were responses to the denial of Indigenous self-determination that was codified in the 1871 Act.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Dawes Act, which broke up collectively owned Indigenous reservations into individual lots, demonstrated Congress’s true intent with the Appropriations Act. Nothing in any treaty signed before 1871 gave the federal government the right to forcibly break up reservations, but after tribal sovereignty was nullified in the Appropriations Act, Congress assumed the right to legislate on all matters concerning Indigenous affairs as it saw fit. By breaking up spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held collectively for generations, the Dawes Act dealt another crippling blow to Indigenous sovereignty in the late nineteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous nations within the United States had gone from having the rights due any other foreign country to having almost no right to exist. This process had been under way before 1871, but the Indian Appropriations Act of that year incorporated it into official government policy, opening the door for its rapid acceleration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While no new treaties have been written since 1871, Congress did eventually restore some measure of Indigenous sovereignty in 1934 with the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). However, because it forced tribes to hold votes and write their own Constitutions, many tribes correctly viewed the IRA as another government mandate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though most federally recognized tribes today have some form of self-government, the fight for Indigenous sovereignty denied in the 1871 Act continues. In New Mexico, for example, Indigenous people are resisting government-sponsored energy drilling near sacred sites on public land; in North Dakota they have protested government-imposed oil pipelines across treaty-protected land. Meanwhile, in Alaska and Colorado, tribes are lobbying for the power and resources to combat disproportionately high rates of sexual assault and other violent crime on federal reservations.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-appropriations-act" hreflang="en">indian appropriations act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cultural-genocide" hreflang="en">cultural genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty" hreflang="en">treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous" hreflang="en">indigenous</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/41st-congress/session-3/c41s3ch120.pdf">An Act Making Appropriations for the Current and Contingent Expenses of the Indian Department…</a>” (Indian Appropriations Act), 41st Congress, Sess. III, Ch. 119–120, March 3, 1871.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/194/">Antoine v Washington</a>, 420 US 194 (1975).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeff Brady, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/11/29/671701019/2-years-after-standing-rock-protests-north-dakota-oil-business-is-booming">2 Years After Standing Rock Protests, Tensions Remain but Oil Business Booms</a>,” NPR, November 29, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Susan Montoya Bryan, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/protecting-the-incredible-magical-spiritual-that-is-chaco-canyon">Protecting the ‘Incredible, Magical, Spiritual,’ That Is Chaco Canyon</a>,” Associated Press and <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joaqlin Estus, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/the-fix-for-alaska-s-public-safety-crisis-recognize-tribal-powers">The Fix for Alaska’s Public Safety Crisis? Recognize Tribal Powers</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phillip M. Kannan, “<a href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&amp;context=wmborj">Reinstating Treaty-Making with Native American Tribes</a>,” <em>William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal </em>16, no. 3 (2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alysa Landry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/ulysses-s-grant-mass-genocide-through-permanent-peace-policy">Ulysses S. Grant: Mass Genocide Through ‘Permanent Peace’ Policy</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, May 3, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a>, 187 US 553 (1903).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/155413">Meeting Addresses Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Plans; Ute Mountain Looks to Hemp, More Officers</a>,” <em>Journal </em>(Cortez, CO), October 14, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 16:30:57 +0000 yongli 3164 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Conejos Treaty http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conejos Treaty</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-12T16:03:42-06:00" title="Thursday, March 12, 2020 - 16:03" class="datetime">Thu, 03/12/2020 - 16:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty" data-a2a-title="Conejos Treaty"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconejos-treaty&amp;title=Conejos%20Treaty"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Signed in October 1863 at <strong>Conejos</strong> in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, the Conejos Treaty was an agreement between the US government and the Tabeguache band of Nuche (Ute people). It granted the United States the rights to all land in Colorado’s <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> east of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, as well as <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a>. The Conejos Treaty is also known as the “Treaty with the Utah-Tabeguache Band,” as well as the “Treaty of 1864,” the year it was ratified.</p> <p>The treaty was an attempt to end hostilities that resulted when white immigrants occupied <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> lands during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 and after the passage of the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead</strong></a> Act in 1862. The government had hoped that more of Colorado’s Ute bands would sign the treaty, but only the Tabeguache were willing to attend the negotiations in any significant number. From that moment on, the US government considered the Tabeguache leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> to be the de facto leader of all Utes, even though he was not recognized as such by Colorado’s other Ute bands. Five years later, in an attempt to avoid bloodshed, Ouray helped recruit other Ute leaders to sign <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>another</strong> <strong>treaty</strong></a> that pushed the Utes even farther west.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The first treaty between the US government and Ute people, signed at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Abiquiú</strong></a>, New Mexico, in 1849, accomplished little for either side. It failed to award decisive control of the region to the United States, and it failed to give the Utes the reliable food supply they had sought through diplomacy. Perhaps most important, it failed to quell the violence that wracked the Colorado–New Mexico borderlands at the time.</p> <p>Roughly a decade later, the Colorado Gold Rush brought thousands of white immigrants to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> of the Rockies. Gold seekers set up mining camps in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City and</strong> <strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>, <strong>Idaho Springs</strong>, <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>, and other places in the mountains west of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. The Utes, who had lived in Colorado’s mountains for more than four centuries, generally viewed these newcomers with tolerant suspicion. But tensions increased as whites brought <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> and competed with the Utes for game and other resources.</p> <p>The Utes felt a brief reprieve in the early 1860s, when many of the Front Range’s richest surface gold deposits were panned out and disgruntled prospectors headed back east. However, the passage of the Homestead Act in 1862 drew even more whites westward, seeking to set up farms and ranches on land wrested from the <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and other indigenous people. As would-be homesteaders increasingly moved into favorite Ute campsites in Middle Park and the upper <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Valley, the Utes increasingly found themselves without peaceful recourse.</p> <p>Some Ute leaders, such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a>, made a habit of driving off white intruders, while others, including Ouray, were more hospitable. Overall, however, growing tensions and sporadic outbreaks of violence, as well as the opportunity for resource development, convinced the government that the Utes should be made to give up their lands.</p> <h2>Signing the Treaty</h2> <p>Anticipating treaty negotiations that year, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lafayette-head"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a>, agent at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0"><strong>Conejos Indian Agency</strong></a> in the San Luis Valley, attempted to impress the Utes by bringing a delegation of them to Washington, DC, in February 1863. Leaders from each of Colorado’s Ute bands, including the Tabeguache leaders Shavano and Ouray, rode a train to the nation’s capital and visited New York City.</p> <p>Believing the Indians to be sufficiently impressed, Colorado territorial governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a> convened a treaty council at Conejos in October 1863, joining Head and other government officials for the parley. However, most Ute leaders declined to make the trip. Ultimately, Ouray’s Tabeguache, numbering about 1,500, was the only band present in sufficient numbers to legitimize an agreement.</p> <p>Frustrated but undeterred, government officials had the Tabeguache leaders sign over their claims to most of the lands already occupied by white squatters. This included all of the Rocky Mountains east of the Continental Divide, as well as Middle Park, which was targeted for development by influential Front Rangers <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William N. Byers</strong></a> and <strong>Ed Berthoud</strong>. The treaty also gave the United States rights to build military posts and roads on all “unceded” land. This clause proved especially troublesome, as the Tabeguache were essentially granting permission for US citizens to trespass on land belonging to other Utes who did not agree to the treaty.</p> <p>In exchange, the Tabeguache Utes were confined to a region that stretched from the Uncompahgre Valley in the west to the Sawatch Range in the east, and from the Colorado River valley in the north to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a> valley in the south. Per the revised treaty, the Utes would also receive $10,000 worth of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>—food and provisions—each year for ten years, as well as a few stallions to improve their horse stock. This was in contrast to the earlier, Abiquiú Treaty, which directed the Utes to abandon their “roving and rambling” ways, of which the horse was an important part.</p> <p>Among the ten Ute signatories were Ouray and Colorow, but it soon became apparent that the rest of Colorado’s Ute bands would not agree to the treaty terms. Five years later, with Ouray’s reluctant support, the government would try again to get Colorado’s disparate Ute bands to sign a treaty that would take more of their ancestral mountain homelands.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The Conejos Treaty did little to improve United States–Ute relations, largely because the majority of Colorado’s Utes had not agreed to allow miners, soldiers, and homesteaders to trespass or build on their land. This alone provoked the same kind of violence that the treaty sought to avoid; it also gave white immigrants a false sense of entitlement to Ute land, which they desired even more as the mining industry revived in the mid-1860s.</p> <p>In addition, as with most other Indian treaties, the government failed to provide the promised annuities; in 1865, just one year after the treaty was ratified, Governor Evans was already complaining about a delay in annuity shipments.</p> <p>Finally, the Conejos Treaty solidified Ouray as the de facto Ute ambassador to the United States, a role that earned him considerable enmity, as well as begrudging respect, among his Ute peers. Ouray reluctantly accepted the role, using his high diplomatic status to continually seek the most peaceful outcome for his people.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-people" hreflang="en">ute people</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-history" hreflang="en">ute history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos" hreflang="en">Conejos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lafayette-head" hreflang="en">Lafayette Head</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/abraham-lincoln" hreflang="en">abraham lincoln</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache" hreflang="en">tabeguache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache" hreflang="en">muache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert B. Houston Jr., <em>Two Colorado Odysseys: Chief Ouray, Porter Nelson </em>(Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2005).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=363524">Treaty with the Utah-Tabeguache Band, 1863</a>,” in <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Peter R. Decker, <em>“The Utes Must Go!”: American Expansion and the Removal of a People </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2004).</p> <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 12 Mar 2020 22:03:42 +0000 yongli 3163 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ute Treaty of 1868 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Treaty of 1868</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:39:02-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:39" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:39</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868" data-a2a-title="Ute Treaty of 1868"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fute-treaty-1868&amp;title=Ute%20Treaty%20of%201868"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Ute Treaty of 1868, also known as the “Kit Carson Treaty,” was negotiated between agents of the US government, including <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, and leaders of seven bands of Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) living in Colorado and Utah. The treaty created for the Utes a massive reservation on Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> in exchange for ceding the Central Rockies to the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty proved immensely important to the white population of Colorado, as it opened a huge portion of the mineral-rich <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> to development. For the Utes, however, it proved to be a major step toward their eventual expulsion from the state. The US government failed to fulfill the treaty’s obligations, and its coercive attempts to assimilate the Utes led to the bloody <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879 and the removal of most of Colorado’s Utes in the early 1880s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1800 Ute people had lived in Colorado’s mountains for more than 500 years. By the 1860s, American mining camps and towns had been established on Ute land across the Colorado <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> as a result of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Gold Rush of 1858–59</strong></a>, and the United States officially claimed the Ute homeland when it established <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. After the passage of the first <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> in 1862 and the end of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> three years later, many more whites came to the new territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In general, the Utes viewed the invaders with tolerant suspicion, only occasionally raiding or driving them off. As immigration increased, however, white Coloradans pressured the federal government to solve their local version of the nation’s so-called "Indian problem." The first treaty with Utes had been made in 1849 at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Abiquiú</strong></a>, New Mexico, but it failed to encompass the lands that white Coloradans coveted—and had already begun occupying—in the 1860s. With mining and homesteading interests booming, the government brokered two major deals with the Utes to acquire Colorado’s mineral-rich peaks and lush mountain pastures.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>treaty</strong></a>, signed in 1863 at <strong>Conejos</strong> and approved by Congress in 1864, was made with just one band of Utes, the Tabeguache under <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>. It secured lands east of the Continental Divide and <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a> for the United States. Among others, this included places such as <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, <strong>Hot Sulphur Springs</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a>, <strong>Buena Vista</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>. Having secured these lands, the government now turned its attention to Colorado’s other Ute bands, many of which had far less experience with white Americans than the Tabeguache.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Signing the Treaty</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In early 1868, the US government convened a treaty delegation in Washington, DC. On hand were Colorado territorial governor <strong>Alexander Hunt</strong>, Kit Carson’ <a href="/article/lafayette-head"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a>, Ouray, and representatives of six other Ute bands, including the Uintah band from Utah. Although Ouray represented only the Tabeguache, the government had recognized him as the de facto leader of all Utes during the 1863 negotiations, so he was again treated as such.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the treaty, the US government agreed to create a reservation for all six bands of Colorado’s Ute people that encompassed nearly 16.5 million acres, or a third of the territory. Its boundaries ran between the <strong>White</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yampa-river"><strong>Yampa</strong></a> Rivers in the north, the 107th meridian in the east, the Utah border in the west, and the New Mexico border in the south. The Uintah Utes would get their own reservation in northeast Utah. The government would set up one <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agency</strong></a> in Utah and two in Colorado—one on the White River and another along the <strong>Los Piños River</strong>. There, agents would distribute <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>—deliveries of food and supplies—to the Utes, as well as farming equipment and animals for each family. Non-Natives could not enter, reside on, or cross the reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To keep receiving annuities, Utes would have to send their children to white schools and turn over any Ute who “commit[s] a wrong or depredation” to US authorities for punishment. The treaty also guaranteed a 160-acre <a href="/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>allotment</strong></a> and farming equipment to any Ute who chose to take up farming.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Leaders of the Capote, Grand River, Muache, Tabeguache, Weeminuche, and Yampa Ute bands all signed the treaty, though some signatures were later disputed. Back in Colorado, many Utes resented Ouray and other leaders for signing the treaty, and it soon became clear that most would not accept its “civilizing” dictums.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trouble at the Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Establishing the agencies proved more difficult than laid out in the treaty. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Agency</strong></a>, for instance, was never actually established on the Los Piños River (in today’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a>); first it was moved to <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-0"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>, an upstart town in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> that was already a trading hub for Indigenous people and whites. Saguache, however, was off the reservation, so the agency was soon moved to the frozen heights of <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, south of <strong>Gunnison</strong>. This location proved to be too far from other Ute bands, so finally government officials settled on a site in the Uncompahgre Valley, south of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montrose"><strong>Montrose</strong></a>, for the reservation’s southern agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> farther north was established as per the treaty, but it was plagued with other problems. For one, it was in an extremely remote part of northwest Colorado, making travel and communication difficult. Annuities that were supposed to be delivered to both agencies under the treaty frequently arrived late or not at all, meaning that the Utes often did not have enough food or warm clothing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Agency experienced rapid turnover, and in 1879 Union Colony founder <a href="/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a> was appointed to lead it. A devout zealot committed to “civilizing” the Utes, Meeker took a heavy-handed approach. He requested federal troops to keep Utes from leaving the reservation to hunt, and he deliberately plowed pastures and sought to destroy the Utes’ centuries-long relationship with the horse. Meeker’s treatment of the Utes culminated in the 1879 Meeker Incident, during which Utes killed Meeker and the agency’s staff. After an investigation into the matter, a new agreement was drawn up in 1880 that would remove all of Colorado’s Utes except the Muache, Capote, and Weeminuche, who were deemed not to be culpable in the incident.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ouray refused to sign the 1880 Treaty, and he died before it was ratified and forced upon his people. Many Utes refused to abandon their homelands. In 1881 the US Army force-marched them onto a new reservation in northeast Utah, leaving the 110-mile strip of the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> Reservation as the only remaining Ute land in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the national context, the Ute Treaty of 1868 was one of many treaties between the United States and Native Americans that year, including those with the <strong>Navajo</strong> and <strong>Lakota</strong>. At the time, these significant treaties were hailed as milestones in US-Indigenous relations. President Andrew Johnson gave silver peace medals to each Ute at the 1868 meetings. Yet no matter what the government promised in treaties, leverage remained with the United States and its superior military force.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While Indigenous leaders often considered treaties to be binding agreements, the US government more or less considered them conditional arrangements, good only until the growing nation needed more land. For example, in 1871 Congress created a workaround to the 1868 Treaty by passing the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0"><strong>Indian Appropriations Act</strong></a>. Invalidating an 1832 Supreme Court decision, the act declared that Indigenous people did not belong to “sovereign nations” and thus could not enter treaties. This development made it easier to negotiate more land away from the Utes, such as in the 1873 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, without the 1868 treaty, white homesteaders and miners may have incited more violence against Ute people, and without leaders like Ouray, the Utes may have bled themselves out fighting a better-armed foe. In the end, the treaty might best be remembered as both a valiant attempt at peace on the part of Ute leaders and a pragmatic ploy by the US government to separate a people from their ancient homelands.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-treaty-1868" hreflang="en">ute treaty of 1868</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-1868" hreflang="en">Treaty of 1868</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache" hreflang="en">tabeguache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache" hreflang="en">muache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weeminuche" hreflang="en">weeminuche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote" hreflang="en">capote</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/yampa" hreflang="en">yampa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/annuities" hreflang="en">annuities</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/reservation" hreflang="en">reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agencies" hreflang="en">indian agencies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agents" hreflang="en">indian agents</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/andrew-johnson" hreflang="en">andrew johnson</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Peter R. Decker, <em>“The Utes Must Go!”: American Expansion and the Removal of a People </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Brandi Denison, <em>Ute Land Religion in the American West, 1879–2009 </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheUte1868.html">Treaty With the Ute, March 2, 1868</a>,” FirstPeoples.us, n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism</em> (New York: Peter Lang, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Silbernagel, <em>Troubled Trails: The Meeker Affair and the Expulsion of Utes from Colorado </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Southern Ute Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/chronology/">Chronology</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:39:02 +0000 yongli 3126 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Dawes Act (General Allotment Act) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Dawes Act (General Allotment Act)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T13:39:56-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 13:39" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 13:39</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act" data-a2a-title="Dawes Act (General Allotment Act)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdawes-act-general-allotment-act&amp;title=Dawes%20Act%20%28General%20Allotment%20Act%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Passed by Congress in 1887, the Dawes Act—formally known as the General Allotment Act—authorized the US government to survey and divide federal Indigenous reservations into private lots for individual tribal members. The Dawes Act’s central idea of “allotment” became the foundation of federal Indigenous policy well into the twentieth century, with disastrous results for Indigenous people in Colorado and throughout the nation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many white observers, such as Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, the act’s sponsor, thought the law would help “civilize” Indigenous people and protect what remained of their land. However, as many Indigenous leaders realized, the Dawes Act undermined indigenous sovereignty and brought Indian land into the US legal system, which served only to benefit non-Indians. The Dawes Act provided the legal means for taking land away from Indigenous people. Between the passage of the act and the end of the allotment era in 1934, Indigenous lands in the United States were reduced by 60 percent.<br /><br />&#13; The Dawes Act did not affect Indigenous people living in Colorado until 1895, when it became a divisive and damaging force on the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> Reservation. Disagreement over allotment split the original Southern Ute Reservation in two, resulting in the creation of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a> and the unallotted Ute Mountain Reservation. The rest of the Southern Ute Tribe accepted allotment and lost more than 523,000 acres under the policy, though it was able to recover almost half of that land in 1938.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late nineteenth century, the goal of most US Indigenous policy was to “civilize” Native Americans, that is, to have them adopt the values and traditions of Euro-American society. Although most Indigenous people lived on communally owned reservations, private land ownership and improvement were seen as fundamental aspects of transforming the Indigenous population. As a result, allotment—often referred to as <em>severalty</em>—was offered to some federally recognized tribes in treaties well before the 1880s.<br /><br />&#13; Indigenous land protections were dealt a blow in 1871, when Congress’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>Indian Appropriations Act</strong></a> invalidated the Supreme Court’s 1832 ruling that Indigenous people belonged to “sovereign nations.” Later, President Ulysses S. Grant turned over administration of Indigenous reservations—including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agencies</strong></a>—to missionaries who sought to convert Indigenous people to Christianity, place their children in boarding schools, and force them to adopt farming, Western dress, and other non-Native ways of life. This policy had disastrous results across the nation. In Colorado, it led to such tragedies as the 1879 <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> and the opening of the <strong>Teller Indian School</strong> outside of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>.<br /><br />&#13; Observing the manifest problems with missionary-led Indigenous policy, groups of sympathetic whites began to consider alternatives that would take a more humane—albeit paternalistic—approach to changing Indigenous people. In 1882 Philadelphian Herbert Welsh founded the Indian Rights Association, which investigated conditions on reservations and advanced ideas to bring Native Americans into “the common life of the people of the United States.” In the early 1880s, the Indian Rights Association and similar groups met to discuss potential legislation, attracting the attention of sympathetic politicians such as Dawes. Figuring that Indigenous land would be best protected by the same set of laws that protected non-Native land, the reformers developed the policy of allotment, and Dawes found plenty of support for the idea in Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Allotting Indigenous Lands</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As it was written, the Dawes Act offered to allot each Indigenous “head of a family” 160 acres, the size of a standard <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a>. Those who accepted allotment would have their land protected in federal trust for twenty-five years, and at the end of that period they would receive title to the land as well as full citizenship. Later amendments to the act raised the maximum allotment size to 320 acres, but they also abolished the federal trust protection, allowed for the sale of unallotted or “surplus” lands to non-Natives, and allowed non-Natives to lease allotments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In theory, the Dawes Act would persuade Indigenous people to abandon the tribal system altogether and become assimilated, solving the nation’s so-called "Indian problem." The act’s white supporters lauded its passage as progress in US-Indigenous relations. Charles Painter, of the Indian Rights Association, celebrated the act as “the only practical measure” to save Indigenous lands from unscrupulous whites; offering Indigenous people “a personal patent” on their land, he argued, was a stronger legal mechanism for protecting the land than treaties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In practice, however, the amended Dawes Act and later allotment laws not only failed to protect Indigenous land, but actually facilitated its transfer to non-Natives. Many Indigenous people lacked the skills, money, or credit needed to start a successful farm, so they eventually decided to sell or lease their land to non-Natives. Sales of so-called surplus land further diminished tribal holdings, as did the deaths of “family heads,” whose allotments grew smaller as they were divided among an increasing number of heirs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Resistance and Effects</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Most Indigenous nations resisted allotment at the outset, seeing the new law as no different from the Indian agents and boarding schools that had already been forced on them. Reactions varied by nation, however. For example, in South Dakota, Lakota under Sitting Bull attacked fellow tribal members for agreeing to allotment, while in Oklahoma the Choctaw and Chickasaw studied the law extensively in order to get the fairest possible deal. The Dawes Act also helped stimulate a revival of the <a href="/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> among many Indigenous nations, as they appealed to the spiritual realm to help restore their lands and culture.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Allotment in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the time of its passage, the Dawes Act did not apply to Colorado’s Southern Ute Reservation, because white Coloradans were more interested in removing their Indigenous neighbors than in breaking up the reservation. They nearly got their wish in 1888, when Congress passed a bill to remove the Southern Ute Tribe. The <em>Saguache Democrat </em>eagerly proclaimed that the Utes were “now ready to go” and that their removal would “throw open for settlement several hundred thousand acres of the best farming land in Colorado.” However, lawmakers from Utah and Colorado disagreed over where the Utes would be resettled, and Congress ultimately failed to pass the necessary follow-up legislation to the 1888 bill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Having failed to remove the Utes outright, Congress eventually opted for allotment. In 1895, over the objection of President Grover Cleveland’s administration, lawmakers passed the Hunter Act, which essentially applied the Dawes Act to the Southern Ute Reservation. However, the Hunter Act differed from the Dawes Act in that it offered each of the tribe’s three bands the option to reject allotment and live in a separate part of the reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Of the three bands, only the Weeminuche, led by <strong>Ignacio</strong>, refused allotment, seeing it as another attempt to undermine their sovereignty. They moved to the western part of the reservation, at the base of <strong>Sleeping Ute Mountain</strong>, and eventually established the Ute Mountain Reservation. Meanwhile, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Sapiah</strong></a> (Buckskin Charley), one of the earliest Ute leaders to take up farming, advocated for the rest of the Southern Utes—the Muache and Capote—to accept allotment. He encountered plenty of opposition, but in the end the two bands narrowly voted to accept allotment.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As it did for other Indigenous nations, allotment drastically reduced the Southern Ute Reservation. In 1899 the federal government opened more than 523,000 acres of “surplus” Southern Ute land for sale to non-Natives; the Utes retained only about 73,000 acres in allotments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For those Utes who held allotments, development often proved impossible, as the best water rights were already taken by whites upstream and farming equipment was unavailable or unaffordable. As a result, Ute landowners were often deemed “incompetent” and their land sold to non-Natives. Sale of allotted land continued into the twentieth century; as late as 1911, Southern Ute Reservation Superintendent <strong>Charles Werner</strong> reported selling 1,040 acres of inherited land and 1,400 acres of land held by “incompetent” Ute landowners.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though they rejected allotment, the Weeminuche still felt the effects of it because the fragmentation of the original Southern Ute Reservation restricted their access to good grazing land. In 1906 they lost even more hunting and grazing land when the government took 70,000 acres to form <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. This left them even more dependent on government rations, though they continued to sustain themselves by hunting, gathering, and trading.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of Allotment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The era of allotment finally ended in 1934 with the passage of the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). Part of the “Indian New Deal,” the IRA reestablished tribal governments and gave them authority to reconsolidate previously allotted lands. It even allowed for the restoration of “surplus” lands sold during the allotment era. Under the IRA, the Southern Ute Tribe was able to recover 220,000 acres, less than half of the “surplus” land it had lost under allotment.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While individuals—especially those who managed to start farms—may have benefitted from allotment, the policy decimated Indigenous identity and solidarity, leaving future generations to navigate a complicated US legal system just to reclaim their own land. Although its creators perhaps meant well, the Dawes Act splintered spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held communally for generations. For that reason, it is widely seen today as a key piece of the United States’ larger campaign of cultural genocide against Indigenous people.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dawes-act" hreflang="en">dawes act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/allotment" hreflang="en">allotment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George Clayton Anderson and Kathleen P. Chamberlain, <em>Power and Promise: The Changing American West </em>(New York: Pearson, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&amp;doc=50&amp;page=transcript">Dawes Act of 1887 (full text)</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=FPF18941220.2.13&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=--1894-----en-20--1-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute%22+%22severalty%22+%22allotment%22-------0--">Fight Over the Ute Bill: The Administration Has Decided to Oppose It</a>,” <em>Fairplay Flume</em>, December 20, 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism</em> (New York: Peter Lang, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Historical Society of Pennsylvania, “<a href="http://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/i/IRA1523.html">Indian Rights Association records</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=TSS18960222.2.67&amp;srpos=13&amp;e=--1894-----en-20--1-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute%22+%22severalty%22+%22allotment%22-------0--">Land for the Utes</a>,” <em>Silverton Standard</em>, February 22, 1896.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nebraskastudies.org, “<a href="http://www.nebraskastudies.org/1875-1899/the-dawes-act/">The Dawes Act</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul Stuart, “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30015511?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents">United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission</a>,” <em>Social Service Review </em>51, no. 3 (September 1977).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SGD18881122-01.2.7&amp;srpos=31&amp;e=--1887-----en-20--21-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute+reservation%22-------0--">The Utes Now Ready to Go</a>,” <em>Saguache Democrat</em>, November 22, 1888.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia, 31 US 515 (1832)</a>,” Justia, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Jason Edward Black, <em>American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Allotment </em>(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William T. Hagan, <em>The Indian Rights Association: The Herbert Welsh Years, 1882–1904 </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frederick E. Hoxie, <em>A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Protest of the Indian Rights Association Against the Proposed Removal of the Southern Ute Indians,” Philadelphia, 1890.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Treuer, <em>The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present</em> (New York: Riverhead, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 20:39:56 +0000 yongli 3111 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Impact of Disease on Native Americans http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Impact of Disease on Native Americans</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2574--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2574.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/native-american-medicine-man-sucking-out-disease"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Native-Americans-and-Post-Contact-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=h9ZPFTzx" width="1000" height="664" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/native-american-medicine-man-sucking-out-disease" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Native American medicine man sucking out disease</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Native American medicine man sucking out disease with special hollow bone, Chippewa (Ojibwa).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2575--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2575.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/dakota-warrior"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Native%20Americans%20and%20Post%20Contact%20Media%203_0.jpg?itok=kz4EaoCa" width="1024" height="1346" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/dakota-warrior" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Dakota Warrior</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Watercolor on paper: Detail of Dakota Warrior by Karl Bodmer from his travel to the United States 1832-1834.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-16T11:12:28-06:00" title="Tuesday, May 16, 2017 - 11:12" class="datetime">Tue, 05/16/2017 - 11:12</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans" data-a2a-title="Impact of Disease on Native Americans"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fimpact-disease-native-americans&amp;title=Impact%20of%20Disease%20on%20Native%20Americans"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Newly introduced diseases originating in Europe, Africa, and Asia swept what is now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-overview"><strong>Colorado</strong></a> in the aftermath of Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage. While sparse historical and archaeological records make the effects of the earliest epidemics hard to determine, evidence is better for the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when historians can document episodes of smallpox, cholera, measles, whooping cough, and other diseases.</p> <p>The impact of postcontact diseases is difficult to ascertain before 1700. We know little about Colorado’s inhabitants in these years, but we do know that the peoples of the central and southern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> had a lively trade with New Mexico. Evidence for this comes from Pedro de Castañeda, who accompanied Francisco Vásquez de Coronado to New Mexico and then across the plains in 1540–42. Castañeda observed that nomadic plains-dwellers pursued <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, and took their hides to trade with the Pueblo Indians during the winter. Since commerce and contagion often coexist, this makes it likely that epidemics that reached the Pueblos of New Mexico in the 1500s and 1600s may also have spread to natives who traded with them, including those living in or passing through present-day Colorado.</p> <p>By the 1700s, a richer documentary record makes more accurate speculation possible. The infections that afflicted New Mexico’s Pueblos in these years included smallpox in 1709, 1733, 1780–81, 1799–1800, 1816, and 1840; measles in 1728–29 and 1804–5; and an unidentified fever in 1840. Other periods of high mortality, possibly attributable to contagion or to contagion combined with other causes, occurred in 1736, 1737, 1748, 1785, 1789, 1804, and 1805.</p> <p>Horse-borne transportation may have facilitated the circulation of microbes after 1700, as native and nonnative peoples engaged in new patterns of interaction. The <strong>Comanche</strong>, who traded and raided in New Mexico, held an annual trade fair on the Arkansas River in the general region of today’s Kansas-Colorado border. These gatherings drew Wichita, <strong>Pawnee</strong>, <strong>Jicarilla&nbsp;Apache</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and Eastern Shoshone, and it is likely that infections spread widely in the resulting encounters. Epidemics may also have reached Colorado from the north and east, carried by trading, warring, or migrating peoples. Likely contagions transmitted in this fashion include measles, whooping cough, cramps, and other intestinal disorders (possibly cholera).</p> <p>Epidemics continued apace in the nineteenth century. Outbreaks of smallpox occurred in 1801 and 1815–16. Another episode in 1839–40 prompted the Kiowa to remember that winter as the “smallpox winter.” The discovery of gold in California brought a continent-wide epidemic of cholera to the plains in 1849, affecting many peoples and prompting a Kiowa war chief to sacrifice a horse to help protect himself, his family, and his people. Similarly, <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>gold discoveries</strong></a> in Colorado in 1861–62 brought smallpox to Kiowa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Dakota, leading some to scatter to avoid the disease. An 1877 outbreak of measles killed 219 Cheyenne and Arapaho children. Another episode of measles may have affected Colorado's indigenous populations in 1892.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/fenn-elizabeth" hreflang="und">Fenn, Elizabeth A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cholera" hreflang="en">cholera</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/measles" hreflang="en">measles</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smallpox" hreflang="en">smallpox</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-disease" hreflang="en">native american disease</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/disease-history-colorado" hreflang="en">disease history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Pedro de Castañeda, “Pedro de Castañeda’s Account of the Expedition of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado,” in <em>New American World: A Documentary History of North America to 1612</em>, ed. David B. Quinn, Alison M. Quinn, and Susan Hillier (New York: Arno Press, 1979).</p> <p>Angélico Chávez, comp., <em>Archives of the Archdiocese of Santa Fe</em> (Washington, DC: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1957).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, “The Western Comanche Trade Center: Rethinking the Plains Indian Trade System,” <em>Western Historical Quarterly</em> 29 (Winter 1998).</p> <p>Andrew C. Isenberg, <em>The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 </em>(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).</p> <p>Thomas W. Kavanagh, <em>Comanche Political History: An Ethnohistorical Perspective, 1706–1875</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1996).</p> <p>James Mooney, <em>Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians</em>, pt. 2, <em>Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</em>, 1895–1896 (Washington, DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898).</p> <p>Charles Rosenberg, <em>The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866</em>, repr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).</p> <p>Linea Sundstrom, “Smallpox Used Them Up: References to Epidemic Disease in Plains Winter Counts,” <em>Ethnohistory</em> 44 (Spring 1997).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Candace S. Greene and Russell Thornton, <em>The Year the Stars Fell: Lakota Winter Counts at the Smithsonian</em> (Washington DC and Lincoln, NE: Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, and University of Nebraska Press, 2007).</p> <p>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/cholera/index.html">Cholera</a>.”</p> <p>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/measles/index.html">Measles</a>.”</p> <p>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/">Pertussis</a>.”</p> <p>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention “<a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/index.asp">Smallpox</a>.”</p> <p>Jared Diamond, <em>Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of World Societies </em>(New York: W.W. Norton, 1997).</p> <p>Marc Simmons, “New Mexico’s Smallpox Epidemic of 1780–81,” <em>New Mexico Historical Review</em> 41, no. 4 (October 1966).</p> <p>Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, “<a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/discontinued-website.htm">Lakota Winter Counts</a>.”</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 16 May 2017 17:12:28 +0000 yongli 2571 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Northern Ute People (Uintah and Ouray Reservation) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Northern Ute People (Uintah and Ouray Reservation)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--571--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--571.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chief-ouray-and-chipeta"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chief20and%2520Chipeta.jpg?itok=WqLiOkTG" width="1090" height="1168" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chief-ouray-and-chipeta" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chief Ouray and Chipeta</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chief Ouray, pictured here with his wife Chipeta, was one of the most influential leaders of the Northern Ute people in the late nineteenth century. A known intellectual and skilled diplomat, Ouray negotiated treaties and attempted to avoid conflict with whites wherever possible.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--627--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--627.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-delegation-dc"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Media%203%20Ute_delegation_0.jpg?itok=bJk8Mq9P" width="490" height="413" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-delegation-dc" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Delegation to DC</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chief Ouray and his wife, Chipeta (front row, right), travelled to Washington, DC, with Southern Utes to negotiate the treaty that would remove White River and Tabergauche Utes from Colorado following the Meeker incident. Chief Ouray passed away at the age of 47 shortly after the trip.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--670--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--670.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bear-dance"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/P-36_0.jpg?itok=IDWtgtyu" width="1090" height="650" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bear-dance" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Bear Dance</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Originally, the Ute people were organized into separate bands, or groups of families, that occupied territory recognized by the other bands. Although there were regional differences between bands, they were, and remain to be, tied together by cultural and spiritual practices, such as the Bear Dance.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-20T15:20:26-06:00" title="Thursday, August 20, 2015 - 15:20" class="datetime">Thu, 08/20/2015 - 15:20</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation" data-a2a-title="Northern Ute People (Uintah and Ouray Reservation)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fnorthern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation&amp;title=Northern%20Ute%20People%20%28Uintah%20and%20Ouray%20Reservation%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Although the Ute Indian Tribe (Uintah and Ouray reservation) is the official designation of the tribe today, its members are frequently referred to as Northern Utes to distinguish them from the <strong>Southern Ute Indian Tribe</strong> and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a>. The Ute Indian Tribe’s reservation is located in northeastern Utah.</p> <p>There is little written information about the Utes before 1650. According to their oral tradition, they have always lived in the region that is now northern New Mexico, Colorado, and eastern Utah. They were a nomadic mountain people and ranged throughout this area extensively, following the cycle of the seasons.&nbsp;For food, they hunted large game,&nbsp;gathered berries, nuts, roots and small game,&nbsp;and fished. For shelter, Utes built brush dwellings known as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a> or used <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipis</strong></a>. The family was and remains&nbsp;the center of Ute life and includes immediate and extended family members.</p> <p>The Ute people were originally organized into several bands, or groups of families. Each band occupied a general territory that was recognized by the other bands. Bands gathered periodically throughout the year. The nature of the land determined their lifestyle. Their native language is from the Southern Numic branch of Uto-Aztecan. There are regional differences in Ute speech, but all dialects are mutually intelligible. In addition to language, the bands were and are tied together by religion and customs such as the <strong>Bear Dance</strong>.</p> <p>The 1800s were a difficult time for the Utes. Not only did they have to endure sporadic outbreaks of Old World <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> such as smallpox, but their territory was also increasingly encroached upon by other tribes, as well as traders, miners, and settlers. This intrusion was met with both resistance and attempts at compromise through negotiations. Various treaties resulted in the loss of much of the Utes’ land. The Ute Indian Tribe’s Uintah and Ouray reservation was established in 1861 by executive order of Abraham Lincoln, although they continued to hunt and range in eastern Utah, western Colorado, and Wyoming for some time thereafter.</p> <p>The modern-day Ute Indian Tribe consists of three bands: White River, Uintah, and Uncompahgre. The people now called Uintah Utes are descended from many smaller bands that had been living in various parts of Utah. Under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>, the White River and Uncompahgre bands lived on a reservation in Colorado until 1880, when they were removed&nbsp;to the Utah reservation&nbsp;following the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker incident</strong></a>. In 1878&nbsp;<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a> was appointed the White River Indian agent. He was an autocratic administrator who was hostile toward the Ute Indians and their traditions. His alienation of the Ute people reached a crisis point when he ordered the land the Utes used for pasturing and racing horses to be plowed. US troops were called in, tensions escalated, and violence ensued. Meeker and his employees were killed and Meeker’s family was kidnapped. The hostages were released after negotiations by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, but the incident provided the rationale for removing the two Ute bands from Colorado.</p> <p>In addition to Ouray and his wife, Chipeta, other Ute Indian leaders worked to resolve problems during this time, including Sowiette, Antero, Kanosh, <strong>Black Hawk</strong>, Tabby-to-Kwanah, Wakara, Nicaagat, Quinkat, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a>, Paant, Shavano, and Suriap.</p> <p>Once confined to the reservation, the Ute people were unable to follow their traditional way of life. US government promises of supplies and money were often unfulfilled. Their land was subjected to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act</strong></a> of 1887, in which allotments were given to individuals and unassigned land was sold to non-Utes in an effort to change their traditional relationship to the land.</p> <p>In 1937, under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal"><strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong></a>, the Uintah and Ouray Ute Tribal Business Committee was established. The committee had limited power and was organized in a nontraditional way. The tribe continued to suffer economic woes and internal divisions. Utes struggled to preserve their water and land rights, as well as sovereignty. For example, in 1965 the tribe signed an agreement with the Central Utah Water Conservancy District that gave the state permission to draw water from the reservation, but only after it built a water project on Ute land so the tribe could actually use its water rights. The project was never completed, and the tribe was not offered a settlement until 1992. In 1986, after several years of litigation, 3 million acres taken in the early 1900s were returned to the Utes. Similar efforts continue to the present as the tribe seeks to reclaim hunting rights in western Colorado granted prior to its expulsion from the state.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/goff-sheila" hreflang="und">Goff, Sheila</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-utes" hreflang="en">northern utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-history" hreflang="en">northern ute history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uintah-and-ouray-reservation" hreflang="en">uintah and ouray reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uintah-and-ouray-utes" hreflang="en">uintah and ouray utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes-colorado" hreflang="en">utes colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">northern ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-tribe" hreflang="en">ute tribe</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred A. Conetah, <em>A History of the Northern Ute People,</em> ed. Kathryn L. MacKay and Floyd A. O’Neil (Fort Duchesne and Salt Lake City: Uintah-Ouray Ute Tribe, 1982).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.uen.org/lessonplan/download/34253?lessonId=27648&amp;amp;segmentTypeId=2">Court Victory Restored the Utes' Homeland of Desert, Forest and Oil</a>,” <em>Deseret News</em> (Salt Lake City), October 9, 1988.</p> <p>Nancy Lofholm, “<a href="https://extras.denverpost.com/news/news0523i.htm">Tribe Seeks Hunting Rights</a>,” <em>Denver Post</em>, May 23, 2000.</p> <p>Daniel McCool, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/9/285">Utah and the Ute Tribe Are at War</a>,” <em>High Country News</em> [Paonia, CO], June 27, 1994.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>June Lyman and Norma Denver, <em>Ute People: An Historical Study,</em> 3rd ed., ed. Floyd A. O’ Neil and John Sylvester (Salt Lake City: Uintah School District and Western History Center, University of Utah, 1970).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 20 Aug 2015 21:20:26 +0000 yongli 570 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org