%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Indian Agencies and Agents http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Agencies and Agents</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1217--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1217.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-19367_0.jpg?itok=-vvK5tKD" width="1000" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Lyon, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Fort Lyon with tents outside, c. 1862-64.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1219--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1219.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-2_20009286_0.jpg?itok=O3VFhid6" width="1000" height="649" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Nuche (Ute People) in Ignacio</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute people&nbsp;at the Southern Ute Agency at Ignacio, about 1890.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1221--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1221.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-3_20102505_0.jpg?itok=WTYhdzRD" width="1000" height="711" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Camp, Los Pinos Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute encampment in the Uncompahgre Valley near the Los Pinos Agency, ca. 1878-1881.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x 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field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-15T12:10:56-06:00" title="Tuesday, March 15, 2016 - 12:10" class="datetime">Tue, 03/15/2016 - 12:10</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents" data-a2a-title="Indian Agencies and Agents"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-agencies-and-agents&amp;title=Indian%20Agencies%20and%20Agents"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Indian Agencies were established by the US government as part of the formal relationship with Indigenous nations as it acquired lands from them. Indian Agents were individuals responsible for cultivating relationships with Indigenous people and extending government policies. As <a href="/article/indian-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and agreements were negotiated and reservations were established, these relationships became increasingly complex and controversial.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Territorial Period</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Initial management of Indigenous affairs in what would become Colorado was a result of acquisition of Mexican territory during the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1846 General Stephen Watts Kearney occupied New Mexico, and government interaction with Native Americans was largely to ensure peaceful relations and regulate trade. That year, Kearney appointed<strong> Charles Bent</strong> as civilian governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the newly acquired land. Bent’s experience with numerous Native American groups through his affiliation with <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> and with <strong>Fort St. Vrain</strong> and through his store in Taos made him a natural choice, but he spent only a few months at the post before he was killed during the Taos Revolt in January 1847.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Subsequent governors followed Bent in the role as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in New Mexico, as was the case with later territorial governors. The Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were formally organized in 1850. The Utah Territory extended eastward over the entire western third of Colorado to the <a href="/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, and the New Mexico Territory included the southern portion of Colorado east of the mountains. The Kansas and Nebraska territories were established in 1854, with the Kansas Territory covering the central portion of Colorado east of the mountains and Nebraska Territory covering northern Colorado east of the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agents were appointed to assist the territorial governors or superintendents of Indian Affairs on a somewhat regional basis that conformed to areas occupied by one or more Indigenous nations. The agents were posted to communities or forts that were in relatively close proximity to the Native American groups they were to serve. In these early years, agents often had some direct contact with the Indigenous people in their jurisdiction, with most of their time spent attempting to ascertain which groups were present, their numbers, their modes of life and habits, and their ranges, as well as controlling illicit trade by whites or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Utah Territory, the first agent seems to have been John Wilson, who was stationed at Fort Bridger beginning in August 1849. His wide area covered land occupied mainly by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Utes</strong></a>, <strong>Shoshones</strong>, and <strong>Paiutes</strong>. J. S. Calhoun was the first agent in New Mexico; he was posted at Santa Fe and negotiated the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of 1849</strong></a> with the Utes at Abiquiú. His jurisdiction covered lands occupied or entered by <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, Ute, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, and various Puebloan groups. In Kansas, former trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick was assigned the area of the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers by 1847 and was mostly concerned with the safety of travelers along the <a href="/article/santa-fe-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In an effort to protect emigrants traveling through the region on their way to California and Oregon, the US government signed a treaty known as the <strong><a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></strong> with Indigeneous nations on the Great Plains in 1851. Part of the treaty assigned territories for the various Plains Indian groups. Among these, the Arapaho and Cheyenne were jointly assigned to the area east of the Rockies between the North Platte and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Rivers. <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Annuity goods</strong></a> were distributed to them at Bent’s Fort, and the agent for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-arkansas-indian-agency"><strong>Upper Arkansas Agency</strong></a> was stationed there beginning in 1858. Annuity goods were useful items—such as clothing, tools, cookware, decorative items, hunting and fishing supplies, and canvases for <strong><a href="/article/tipi-0">tipi</a></strong><a href="/article/tipi"><strong>s</strong></a>—that were distributed to Indigenous people as stipulated by a signed treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1855 two treaties were negotiated with two Ute bands in the New Mexico Territory. With the assistance of Lorenzo Labadi, who served as the agent for both bands at Abiquiú​, Territorial Governor David Merriwether finalized treaties with the Capote Utes on August 8, 1855, and with the Mouache Utes on September 11. Reservations were proposed for the Capote along the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River </strong></a>and for the Mouache along the Rio Grande, both extending into present-day Colorado. Though Congress failed to ratify either treaty, the treaties were the first in a series that followed national policy of attempting to have Native American groups cede a large portion of their territories for small reservations in return for money, goods, and services.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Fort Wise/Fort Lyon Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 15, 1861, within two weeks of the establishment of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> the Cheyenne and Arapaho signed the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Fort Wise Treaty of 1861</strong></a>, which was deemed necessary because of increased conflict between the two tribes and the influx of miners and settlers to the area after the discovery of gold along the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> in 1858. Discussions with the Native Americans had been initiated in 1860. The Cheyenne and Arapaho agreed to cede most of their traditional lands for a smaller reservation that took up a considerable amount of southeastern Colorado and was bound on the north by Sand Creek and on the south by the boundary between the New Mexico and Colorado Territories. The western portion of the reservation was to be occupied by the Arapaho and the eastern portion by the Cheyenne.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the treaty and establishment of the Colorado Territory, A. G. Boone was made the agent at Fort Wise (soon renamed Fort Lyon), to be succeeded by <a href="/article/samuel-gerish-colley"><strong>Samuel G. Colley</strong></a> in 1862. The Kiowa and Comanche residing in southern Colorado were also attached to the agency at Fort Lyon, though a treaty had not been made with them. The Cheyenne and Arapaho never really occupied the reservation, mostly because the buffalo that they depended on were no longer present and only minimal improvements had been made for the agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>, which took place on the reservation in 1864, resulted in widespread warfare. The <strong>Treaty of 1865</strong> resulted in removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado to reservation lands in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Upper Arkansas Agency was terminated.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Middle Park and Conejos Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the establishment of Colorado Territory on February 10, 1861, the Colorado territorial governor became the local superintendent of Indian affairs. Two agencies were established in Colorado. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0"><strong>Conejos Agency</strong></a> had already been established in 1860 in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> to administer to the Tabeguache Utes, who had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Taos Agency under <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> as early as 1856. Prior to its official establishment, the Conejos ranch of <a href="/article/lafayette-head-1825-1897-0"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a> had been where annuity goods for the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Tabeguache</strong></a> and <strong>Mouache Utes</strong> were distributed beginning in 1858. Head became the first agent at the Conejos Agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0"><strong>Middle Park Agency</strong></a> was established in 1862 for the Grand River, Uinta, and Yampa Utes. Simeon Whiteley was appointed the first agent for the Middle Park Agency in 1862. The agency had no real headquarters, though its business was carried out at <strong>Hot Sulphur Springs</strong>, <strong>Breckenridge</strong>, <strong>Empire</strong>, and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Responsibilities for Native Americans under Treaties</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> resulted in Colorado’s Utes ceding much of their traditional homeland, including the San Luis Valley and the most heavily mined areas in the Colorado Rockies. The eastern boundary was at 107 degrees latitude, which was mostly west of the Continental Divide. The treaty stipulated that two new agencies would be established on the reservation. The Conejos Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Pinos Agency</strong></a> west of <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, and the Middle Park Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> along the White River in northwestern Colorado; both were established in 1869. In order to satisfy treaty stipulations, the agent became the manager of several employees—typically a farmer, blacksmith, and schoolteacher, but often including cattle herders and sawmill operators. A full complement of buildings was constructed, including residences, shops, barns, school houses, and warehouses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Employees were to teach Indigenous people their respective skills. The agent ordered and distributed annuity goods and rations, made sure the agency was well supplied; hired, fired, and managed employees; and completed arduous financial accounting tasks. In addition, he was to enforce ever-changing government policies and respond to crises between Native Americans and whites. Despite the best intentions of most of agents, they were subject to accusations of malfeasance by Indigenous people as well as encroaching whites, and to removal for political reasons.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Federal Policy and Selection of Agents</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under President Ulysses S. Grant, Christian reformers were included in developing and implementing Native American policy. This resulted in the Board of Indian Commissioners being established in 1869 and Christian evangelism being incorporated into Indigenous policy. With these changes, tribal traditions were discouraged; the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>treaty system was revised</strong></a> so that it was no longer a nation-to-nation agreement; monetary annuities were discouraged in favor of goods, agency improvements, and services; and Indigenous people were considered wards of the government for their protection. With proper oversight, it was thought that Native Americans could be educated in industry, civilization, and Christianity so they could eventually attain US citizenship and become self-supporting.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indigenous people were initially to be placed on small reservations, with the goal being that when ready, they would be granted exclusive ownership of land in parcels of 160 acres or less. This was designed to teach them the values of land ownership and enable them to earn a living from their labor on their land. All of these goals were made without Indigenous input, ran contrary to Native American customs, and were demoralizing. Under the new policy, candidates for agents were to be put forward by Christian religious groups. Inadequate candidates were immediately available. For example, the initial agents for the Los Piños and White River agencies were former military officers who were available as a result of the reduction of military force following the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>. Congress rejected this approach of appointing former military officers as public servants to fill civil positions in July 1870, so the American Unitarian Union began nominating candidates as agents for the two Indian Agencies in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>White River Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the Middle Park Agency at White River, <strong>Daniel C. Oakes</strong>, successor to Simeon Whiteley, selected the agency location and began construction of the buildings. Lieutenant W. W. Parry, who was completely unprepared for the job, replaced Oakes in June 1869. Governor <strong>Edward M. McCook</strong> appointed several ineffective military officers as agents thereafter. More successful were agents <strong>John S. Littlefield</strong> and Edward H. Danforth, both nominated by the Unitarians and serving as agents from 1871 to 1878. Danforth was followed by <strong><a href="/article/nathan-meeker">Nathan C. Meeker</a>.</strong> Meeker was not a Unitarian but was highly religious and brought utopian ideals from the agricultural colony of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> to the agency. After moving the agency to a new location a few miles downstream along the White River, Meeker’s rigidity and zealotry precipitated a Ute uprising known as the <strong><a href="/article/meeker-incident">Meeker Incident</a></strong> in late September 1879. Utes killed Meeker and ten others, including most of the agency’s employees, and the US troops sent to assist Meeker were defeated at the <a href="/article/battle-milk-creek"><strong>Battle of Milk Creek</strong></a>. The incident prompted the eventual removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Los Piños Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Lieutenant Calvin T. Speer was the first agent for the Los Piños Agency, beginning in 1869. He selected the agency location and initiated construction of its buildings. Speer was replaced by Unitarian Jabez Nelson Trask, the first of three Unitarian agents between 1871 and 1876. Thereafter, the agency was served by a succession of agents unaffiliated with the Unitarian Church whose rapid, near-annual turnover provided no stable leadership until the Utes associated with the agency were removed from Colorado in late 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Denver Special Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A large number of Utes who were to be attached to the White River Agency refused to move to the reservation and desired to continue hunting buffalo on the plains, spending summers in North and Middle Parks, and wintering near Denver. Although attached to the Middle Park Agency, these Utes had become accustomed to visiting the agent in Denver, where they acquired goods and services from the government. Rather than force the Utes onto the reservation on the west side of the Rockies, James B. Thompson, personal secretary and brother-in-law of Governor McCook, continued the practice of supplying the Indigenous people in Denver in 1869. This practice was formalized through the establishment of the Denver Special Agency in 1870. It continued to serve the Utes through 1874, when they agreed to go to the reservation and be served by the White River Agency. After a brief reopening in 1875, the agency was permanently closed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Removal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Meeker Incident was the catalyst for removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. The bands associated with the White River Agency were forced to the Uintah Reservation in Utah in late summer 1881. The Tabeguache Utes attached to the Los Piños Agency, under the leadership of <strong><a href="/article/ouray">Ouray</a>,</strong> negotiated an agreement shortly before his death in 1880 that stipulated that they would be moved to a smaller reservation, likely at the confluence of the Grand and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Rivers in present-day <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>. With this in mind, a survey of the proposed new reservation was completed that included several townships in what is known as the Ute Principal Meridian. If the land there was found unsuitable, then other lands could be considered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Ute Commission, following the lead of member <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, found the land at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers unsuitable for agricultural settlement, so decided that land at the confluence of the Green and White Rivers in Utah should be the new reservation. This land was annexed to the existing Uintah Reservation, and the reservation is now known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/.../northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray- reservation"><strong>Uintah and Ouray Reservation</strong></a>. Tabeguache Utes formerly attached to the Los Pinos Agency were forced to the new reservation in September 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations and Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A separate <strong>Southern Ute Agency</strong> was established for the Capote, Mouache, and Weeminuche Utes in early 1877, with Francis H. Weaver as the agent. The actual agency site selected that June was on the Los Piños River, much to the consternation of the Utes, who expected it to be placed on the Navajo River. A post office at the agency was named Ignacio when it opened in 1882. When the town of Ignacio grew nearby, the post office was moved there in 1914. Indigenous people attached to the agency were formerly served at agencies in Abiquiú​ and Cimarron, New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Ignacio</strong>, leader of the Southern Utes—as the three bands came to be known—had the foresight to distance his group from Ouray during the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> of 1873, when the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> were ceded to the US government. A strip of land fifteen miles wide and south of the territory ceded in the Brunot Agreement was recognized as the domain of the Southern Utes. The Southern Utes agreed to move to this reservation along the southern border of Colorado in 1880. Because they were recognized as separate from the Utes attached to the Los Piños and White River agencies, they were allowed to remain in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the reservation was to be allotted to individual tribal members with the remaining land sold for the benefit of the tribe. Ignacio objected to the plan and desired to retain contiguous land for the Weeminuche band. An agreement in 1895 resulted in the allotment of the eastern portion of the reservation, still known as the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong>, with its agency at Ignacio. The 374 allotments designated to the Utes in the eastern portion of the reservation amounted to about 60,000 acres of land, leaving 636,000 acres open for entry to other settlers beginning in May 1899.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The western portion was established as the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> for Utes who did not want to participate in the allotment program, with agency headquarters at Navajo Springs. Because of a lack of water, the agency at Navajo Springs was quickly abandoned and a new agency was constructed in about 1898 at <strong>Towaoc</strong>. Reconfiguration of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in 1911 resulted in a land exchange that took 12,760 acres of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation in exchange for 7,840 acres of land vacated from the original configuration of the park and 19,520 acres on the north side of Ute Mountain that extended to the south side of McElmo Canyon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/military-posts" hreflang="en">military posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts" hreflang="en">trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/annuity-goods" hreflang="en">annuity goods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>F. H. Abbott and James McLaughlin,<em> Letter to the Secretary of Interior, June 5, 1911</em>, Major James McLaughlin Papers on microfilm (Denver: Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, 1911).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Bauer, “The Colorado Postal Encyclopedia: La Plata County, Part 1,” <em>Colorado Postal Historian</em> 20, no. 1 (2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Bent, “Indian Tribes of New Mexico,” in <em>Information Respecting the History, Conditions and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States: Collected and Prepared under the Direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per Act of Congress of March 3d, 1847</em>, by Henry R. Schoolcraft (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo &amp; Company, 1853).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Felix R. Brunot, Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, and Robert Campbell, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, “Letter to J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC, October 29, 1870,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1870</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to C. E. Mix, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, September 27, 1858,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, For the Year 1858</em> (Washington, DC: Wm. A. Harris, Printer, 1858).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Evans, Governor and ex officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to W. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, October 30, 1862,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Fitzpatrick, Indian Agent, Upper Arkansas and Platte, Bent’s Fort, Arkansas River, “Letter to Thomas H. Harvey, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, St. Louis, Missouri, September 18, 1847,” in <em>Annual</em> <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Transmitted with the Message of the President, at the First Session of the Thirtieth Congress, 1847…1848</em> (Washington, DC: Wendell and Van Benthuysen, Printers, 1848).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Gilpin, Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to William P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, June 19, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Sonja L. Cohen, “<a href="https://www.uuworld.org/articles/history-ute-indians">Unitarians Worked to ‘Save’ Ute Indians</a>,” <em>U U World Magazine</em> 23 (Winter 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fred A. Conetah, <em>A History of the Northern Ute People</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Decker, <em>The Utes Must Go! American Expansion and the Removal of a People</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Los_Pinos_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Los Pinos Indian Agency (Colorado),</a>” Familysearch.org, updated March 30, 2015,</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Petit, <em>Utes, the Mountain People</em> (Boulder: Johnson Printing, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/White_River_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">White River Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” Familysearch.org, updated March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Mar 2016 18:10:56 +0000 yongli 1216 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Niwot (Left Hand) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Niwot (Left Hand)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1257--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1257.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-and-cheyenne-delegation-camp-weld-1864"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=zvtDSm32" width="1000" height="794" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-and-cheyenne-delegation-camp-weld-1864" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho and Cheyenne Delegation at Camp Weld, 1864</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Arapaho and Cheyenne delegation at Camp Weld in September 1864. Kneeling in front are Major Edward W. Wynkoop (left) and Captain Silas Soule. The seated delegates are (l-r) Neva, Bull Bear, Black Kettle, White Antelope, and No-ta-nee. Standing in back are (l-r) unidentified, unidentified, John Simpson Smith, Heap of Buffalo, Bosse, Dexter Colley, unidentified.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1258--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1258.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cheyenne-and-arapaho-arrive-denver-1864"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=ijkkJho4" width="1000" height="794" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cheyenne-and-arapaho-arrive-denver-1864" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cheyenne and Arapaho Arrive in Denver, 1864</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Wagons on Fourteenth Street between Lawrence and Larimer Streets in Denver carrying the Indian delegation to meet with Governor John Evans, September 28, 1864.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1259--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1259.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=dkaJwxJr" width="1000" height="782" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho Camp, 1858</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arapaho camp across Cherry Creek from the gold seekers camp in 1858.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-04T09:41:44-07:00" title="Friday, March 4, 2016 - 09:41" class="datetime">Fri, 03/04/2016 - 09:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand" data-a2a-title="Niwot (Left Hand)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fniwot-left-hand&amp;title=Niwot%20%28Left%20Hand%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Niwot (c. 1820s–64), known to English speakers as "Left Hand," was a prominent <strong>Arapaho</strong> leader in the mid-1800s. The tumultuous period in Colorado history followed the 1858 <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>discovery of gold</strong></a> near present-day <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, on the traditional lands of the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. Diplomat, negotiator, linguist, and fluent English speaker, Niwot spent the last years of his life trying to establish a peaceful agreement between Indigenous nations of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and the thousands of gold seekers converging on Colorado. He was killed in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of November 29, 1864, an event he had worked tirelessly to prevent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The exact date of Niwot’s birth is unknown, but by 1860 he had become a respected leader and close confidant of the Arapaho chief <strong>Hosa (</strong><strong>Little Raven</strong><strong>)</strong>. This suggests that Niwot was in his early forties, old enough to have gained prominence in the tribe. His Arapaho name means "Left Hand," and since Arapaho names often allude to physical characteristics, he was most likely left-handed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Results of the Gold Discovery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1858 gold discovery electrified the country and sent an estimated 150,000 gold seekers to Colorado by the spring of 1859. The vast numbers overwhelmed the Arapaho and Cheyenne, small groups that together numbered about 10,000 people. The long wagon trains disrupted the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds, upon which the Indigenous nations depended for food, clothing, shelter, and tools. New towns sprang up, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> and Denver City, as well as other towns along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The migration placed tremendous pressure on Indigenous people. They had to ride farther to find buffalo. Once a vast land of abundance, the plains and foothills became a natural arena in which white immigrants and Native Americans competed for timber, game, and other limited resources. White immigrants brought smallpox and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>other diseases</strong></a> to which indigenous people had no immunity. They raided the forests for timber and polluted the streams.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Violent clashes began to occur between Indigenous people and whites. Groups of Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors raided new outposts, killing the inhabitants and driving off the cattle. In retaliation, <a href="/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a>, the first territorial governor of Colorado, and his successor, <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>, dispatched troops to pursue the Native Americans. Whites' invasion of the Front Range precipitated suffering on both sides, and anger and distrust settled over Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Niwot Seeks Peace</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot emerged during this period as the leading spokesman for the Arapaho and Cheyenne. Since the other leaders, including Hosa and the Cheyenne chiefs <strong>Black Kettle</strong> and <strong>White Antelope</strong>, could not speak English, they relied on Niwot as an interpreter and a mediator. Niwot had learned English as a boy from John Poisal, who had married his sister, Mahom. In 1859, for instance, Boston journalists <strong>Horace Greeley</strong> and Albert D. Richardson interviewed Hosa with Niwot as interpreter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On numerous occasions, Niwot met with Governor Evans and other white authorities to express the peaceful intentions of his people and ask for a peace agreement. At one point, he took ten warriors to a performance of Lady of Lyons at the Apollo Theater on Larimer Street in Denver. After the play, Niwot jumped onto the stage and told the audience that his people wanted peace. When the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> printed an account of an Arapaho attack on a ranch, Niwot visited the newspaper and told editor <a href="/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William Byers</strong></a> what had actually happened: the rancher, without provocation, had attacked a young Arapaho man. Niwot then demanded reparations of food and clothing. Byers accepted Niwot’s account.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Attacks and Reprisals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1864, bands of Cheyenne, Lakota, and Arapaho warriors broke with Niwot and the other peace chiefs and attacked wagon trains on the <a href="/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Route</strong></a>, halting all traffic. Denver was isolated. For two weeks, no food or supplies from the East reached the settlement. Alarmed, Governor Evans petitioned the military for immediate help and received permission to raise a volunteer regiment for 100 days to fight the Indigenous groups and reopen the road.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot and the other peace chiefs were also alarmed. With the help of <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>—the educated son of the famous trader <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> and his Cheyenne wife, <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a>—the chiefs composed a letter asking for a meeting with Evans to make a treaty. To demonstrate their peaceful intentions, Niwot and Black Kettle rode to hostile Cheyenne and Lakota camps and gave their own ponies and buffalo robes in ransom for white captives taken in raids. Niwot ransomed three white children and seventeen-year-old Laura Roper, whom he brought safely to an army camp on the plains. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Camp Weld Council</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of the actions of the peace chiefs, in September 1864 Major <strong>Edward Wynkoop</strong> brought a delegation of Arapaho and Cheyenne leaders to Denver to meet with Governor Evans. The governor refused to see them, but Wynkoop persisted until the governor agreed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The meeting, known as the Camp Weld Council, took place at Camp Weld near the present-day interchange of I-25 and 6th Avenue in Denver. Four Arapahos attended, including Neva, Niwot’s brother, and No-Ta-Nee, a relative. Niwot himself remained on the plains to prevent the warriors from attacking settlements while the chiefs worked for peace. At the council, Governor Evans and Colonel <strong>John M. Chivington</strong>, military commander of the district of Colorado, instructed the Indigenous leaders to bring their bands to Fort Lyon on the Arkansas River, place themselves under the protection of the commander, and await a peace agreement. Niwot and the other chiefs complied, but when their people began arriving at Fort Lyon, the commander told them to move to Sand Creek, forty miles away.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Sand Creek Massacre</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By late November 1864, between 500 and 600 Cheyenne under Black Kettle and White Antelope, as well as sixty Arapaho under Niwot, were camped along the dry bed of Sand Creek. A larger group of Arapaho under Hosa had not yet arrived. The Cheyenne and Arapaho believed themselves under the protection of the military, as Governor Evans had stated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At dawn on November 29, 1864, Colonel Chivington, in command of the Third Colorado Regiment and troops from Fort Lyon, attacked the sleeping Indigenous camp. The attack raged all day. When it ended, at least 230 Indigenous people had been killed along with thirteen troops. Niwot’s band had been annihilated. The Cheyenne peace chief White Antelope was also killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Firsthand accounts confirm Niwot’s fate. Letters written by George Bent, Lieutenant Silas Soule and Lieutenant Joseph Cramer—all of whom were at Sand Creek—confirm that Niwot was mortally wounded. William Bent, George’s father, said that Niwot “got over to the Sioux [Lakota],” where he died. Later, Hosa said that it saddened his heart to leave Colorado, where Niwot was killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to George Bent, Niwot and other survivors—many wounded—made their way out of the camp and onto the plains. Other survivors captured ponies and rode to nearby Indigenous camps to sound the alarm. When news reached a large Lakota camp near present-day Cheyenne Wells, warriors rode out with extra ponies, food, and blankets to look for survivors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Niwot’s Death</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Among those rescued and brought to the Lakota camp were Niwot and George Bent. Within a few days, the Arapaho chief died from his wounds and was buried according to the Arapaho Way.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>No known photographs of Niwot exist. Over the years, photographs of other Arapaho, including a later chief in Oklahoma with the same name, and No-Ta-Nee, have been erroneously identified as photographs of Niwot. The photograph of No-Ta-Nee was taken at the Camp Weld Council, which Niwot did not attend.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot’s memory lives on in places that bear his name around <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, where he and his band spent the winters, including the town of Niwot, Left Hand Creek, and Left Hand Canyon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/coel-margaret" hreflang="und">Coel, Margaret</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Margaret Coel, <em>Chief Left Hand</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians,” <em>Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War</em>, Senate Report 142, 38th Congress, 2nd session, 3 (Washington, DC: US Congress, Senate, 1865).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Albert D. Richardson, <em>Beyond the Mississippi</em> (Hanford, CT: American Publishing, 1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Sand Creek Massacre,” <em>Report of the Secretary of War</em>, Senate Executive Document 26, 39th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC: US Congress, Senate, 1867).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Cheyenne &amp; Arapaho Tribes, “<a href="https://www.cheyenneandarapaho-nsn.gov/">Historical Photograph Collection</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/sand/index.htm">Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, Colorado</a>,” last modified October 23, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs</em>, 1863–1864 (Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, Denver, April 25, 1859 to January 3, 1865.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Mar 2016 16:41:44 +0000 yongli 1175 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Fort Wise http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Fort Wise</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--721--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--721.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/1851-and-1861-treaty-lands"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Cheyenne-and-Arapaho-Territory-Map-February-2014_0.jpg?itok=HYUBbKSt" width="442" height="261" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/1851-and-1861-treaty-lands" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">1851 and 1861 Treaty Lands </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Lands granted to the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples under the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie and 1861 Treaty of Fort Wise.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-21T16:14:42-06:00" title="Friday, August 21, 2015 - 16:14" class="datetime">Fri, 08/21/2015 - 16:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Fort Wise"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-fort-wise&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Fort%20Wise"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Treaty of Fort Wise was an agreement between the US government and the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> people who lived on the western <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> in present-day Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming. The treaty was signed in 1861 and reduced the territorial lands previously granted to the Cheyenne and Arapaho under the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <strong>Fort Wise</strong> treaty established the Reservation of the Arapaho and Cheyenne of the Upper Arkansas, and revised their claim to include an area between the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> and the Sandy Fork of the Arkansas River (now known as Sand Creek). The treaty was in response to increased conflicts between the Indigenous nations on the Great Plains and early Colorado settlers and was an antecedent to one of the most horrific events in Colorado history, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1860 eastern Colorado (then comprising parts of the Kansas, Nebraska, and New Mexico Territories) was a popular place. Gold was discovered on Little Dry Creek along the Colorado <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> in 1858, and along <a href="/article/clear-creek-canyon"><strong>Clear Creek</strong></a> and in <a href="/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> shortly thereafter. The appeal of easy gold lured many immigrants who sought their fortunes in the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. Under the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were granted the lands between the Arkansas and North Platte Rivers (including most of the Colorado Front Range) in exchange for allowing safe passage to travelers along the <strong>Oregon Trail</strong>. The treaty did not grant travelers authority to settle or mine for gold within the designated Native American area. Since the continuous influx of miners onto their lands caused tensions and conflicts, the territorial administrators pressured the US government to renegotiate the 1851 treaty and redefine Cheyenne and Arapaho lands to allow for continued settlement of the gold-rich Rocky Mountains without fear of violence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To this end, the US government sent Alfred Burton Greenwood, the commissioner of Indian affairs, to <strong><a href="/article/bents-forts">Bent’s New Fort</a> </strong>in the fall of 1860 to negotiate the treaty. After gathering the local Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs from their villages, Greenwood insisted negotiations begin. Cheyenne chief <strong>Black Kettle</strong>,<strong> </strong>however, protested since under Cheyenne political doctrine all tribal and military leaders (most of whom were not in attendance) must be consulted before the treaty could be consummated. Despite these objections, the treaty was signed at Fort Wise, a military fort less than a mile west of Bent’s New Fort, on February 15, 1861. In attendance that day were several US officials, including later Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart and eleven Native American leaders, among them Little Raven, Storm, Shave-Head, <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Left Hand</strong></a>, and Big-Mouth (Arapaho), and Black Kettle, White Antelope, Lean Bear, and Little Wolf (Cheyenne).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty itself contains twelve articles and outlines the specific terms of the agreement. In effect, the United States agreed to establish the Reservation of the Arapaho and Cheyenne on the Upper Arkansas and provide the tribes with the funds and resources in exchange for their abandonment of their hunting and gathering livelihoods in favor of an agricultural economy. The United States also agreed to protect the Cheyenne and Arapaho, their persons and property, during periods of “good behavior.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs in attendance signed the treaty, though many would later say they did not understand the terms, and did not intend to cede the lands granted them under the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty. The majority of the Cheyenne and Arapaho did not move to the reservation, and conflicts between settlers and Indigenous people continued, ultimately reaching a boiling point with the Sand Creek Massacre on November 29, 1864.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/troyer-michael-d" hreflang="und">Troyer, Michael D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wise" hreflang="en">Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Charles D. Collins, <em>The Cheyenne Wars Atlas</em> (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 1955).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stan Hoig, <em>The Peace Chiefs of the Cheyennes</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, ed. and comp., “Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861 (Treaty of Fort Wise) 12 Stat. 1163, Feb. 15, 1861. Ratified Aug. 6, 1861; proclaimed Dec. 5, 1861,” in <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties—Vol. II: Treaties</em> (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Dee Brown, <em>Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West</em> (New York: Holt, Reinhart &amp; Winston, 1970).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent: Written from His Letters</em>, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gregory F. Michno, <em>Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850–1890</em> (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/sand/learn/news/a-tale-of-two-treaties.htm">A Tale of Two Treaties</a>,” National Park Service, last modified January 22, 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:14:42 +0000 yongli 605 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org