%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Canyons of the Ancients National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/canyons-ancients-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-12-02T11:27:53-07:00" title="Thursday, December 2, 2021 - 11:27" class="datetime">Thu, 12/02/2021 - 11:27</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/canyons-ancients-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Canyons of the Ancients National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcanyons-ancients-national-monument&amp;title=Canyons%20of%20the%20Ancients%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Stretching west and northwest from <strong>Cortez</strong> to the Utah border, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument was established in 2000 and boasts the densest collection of archaeological sites in the United States. An estimated 30,000 sites—including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a>—represent concrete evidence of the more than 10,000 years of habitation of the Southwest, particularly by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people who flourished from about 750 to 1300 CE. Also valued for its geology, flora, and fauna, the sprawling 176,000-acre monument is beset by complex management problems that include private inholdings (private land within the monument’s boundaries) and active drilling leases.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Natural Environment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nestled in the southwest corner of Colorado, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument occupies a rugged landscape of mesas and canyons covered with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pinyon-juniper</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a>, as well as isolated, unvegetated rock outcrops. The geology of the site evokes "the very essence of the American Southwest," according to the presidential proclamation declaring it a monument, owing to its mesas, sandstone cliffs, and deeply incised canyons. It is also a crucial habitat for a number of species, such as the Mesa Verde night snake and the long-nose leopard lizard.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The harsh nature of this landscape has greatly contributed to the preservation of the area’s archaeological sites, which provide an unsurpassed opportunity for scholars and the public to see how different cultures adapted to life in the American Southwest before the European invasion.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Human Habitation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 7500 BCE, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indians</strong></a> lived in the area that is now Canyons of the Ancients. By 1500 BCE, the Basketmaker culture—an <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic-period</strong></a> antecedent of the Ancestral Puebloans—was prevalent throughout the region (these terms are Euro-American classifications of time and cultures; Indigenous people of the Southwest have their own names for these time periods and people).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Around 750 CE, the Ancestral Pueblo began to establish farming and year-round villages. These villages eventually became part of a prehistoric cultural region that includes <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. Occupation of the site fluctuated and changed as the Pueblo people went through different phases of cultural development. The densest inhabitation occurred from 1150 to 1300 CE, when the Ancestral Pueblo began living in large, multistory masonry dwellings. These dwellings could include dozens of rooms and be part of larger villages that also encompassed natural features such as reservoirs and springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eventually dry conditions compromised agricultural efforts, making survival difficult for the Ancestral Pueblo and necessitating a move to more arable lands in present-day New Mexico and Arizona, where the twenty-five descendant tribes and pueblos reside. After the departure of the Ancestral Pueblo, migratory Nuche (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) and Diné (<strong>Navajo</strong>) people were known to inhabit the area during cooler months. The descendants of these groups still inhabit the Four Corners region.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Preservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Canyons of the Ancients was an area of archaeological and Indigenous interest for more than 125 years before its proclamation as a national monument in 2000. It has more than 6,355 recorded sites in its 176,000 acres, including some areas with hundreds of sites per square mile. As with other archaeologically rich parts of the Southwest, much early “archaeological” exploration by Euro-Americans was essentially looting or grave-robbing. Values such as scholarly rigor, tribal collaboration, and preservation gradually displaced ad hoc amateur collecting over the course of the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1985 Canyons of the Ancients was designated an Area of Critical Environmental Concern, a designation used by the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong> (BLM) to recognize areas that require special management attention “to protect important historical, cultural, and scenic values, or fish and wildlife or other natural resources.” In 1999 Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt recommended it be named a national monument.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On June 9, 2000, President Bill Clinton declared Canyons of the Ancients a national monument under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act of 1906</strong></a>. Local residents, worried about loss of access to the lands, were initially opposed to the proclamation. Despite some restrictions put in place in recent years, these fears have been largely unfounded. Monument status did result in a rise in formalized visitation to the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Interpretation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Average visitation to the monument is now roughly 45,000 people per year. Most visitors check in at the Canyons of the Ancients Visitor Center and Museum, located in <strong>Dolores</strong>. The visitor center incorporates two twelfth-century archaeological sites as well as permanent and temporary exhibits about the Ancestral Puebloans and the research that is ongoing at the monument. The rest of the monument is largely in the backcountry, meaning that the majority of the sites are accessible only via hiking and are not interpreted by staff. A handful of notable locations within the monument have interpretive material available for visitors, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lowry-site"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a>, <strong>Painted Hand Pueblo</strong>, <strong>Sand Canyon Pueblo</strong>, and Sand Canyon.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The scope of the studies being conducted at the monument makes it one of the most intensely studied landscapes in the world. The monument already hosts more than 6,000 recorded sites, but there are an estimated 30,000 total sites within the monument’s boundaries. These sites range in size and significance from cliff dwellings, villages, and great kivas to agricultural fields, check dams, and reservoirs. The monument also has a collection of more than 3 million objects and records from archaeological projects in southwest Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Several current projects involve Lowry Pueblo. In partnership with the <strong>University of Colorado—Denver</strong>, the BLM is working to digitally document and create three-dimensional models and scaled drawings of the pueblo. In addition, in 2017 the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore started a project to document the surrounding landscape using hand drawings, photographs, GIS maps, and 3D computer reconstructions.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Management</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Management of Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is complex. It is overseen by the BLM and has several private inholdings that amount to more than 16,000 acres. It also has the unique distinction of including within its boundaries a separate national monument, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep</strong></a>, which is managed by the National Park Service and covers approximately 400 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite its designation as a national monument, the landscape continues to be used not only by scholars and recreational visitors, but also for hunting, livestock grazing, and energy development. As of 2020, the monument contains 193 oil, natural gas, and carbon dioxide wells—the monument sits on top of one of the largest carbon dioxide deposits in the world—and more than 80 percent of the monument is under lease for mineral extraction. The leases predate the national monument, and the BLM is obligated to honor the mineral extraction rights while trying to preserve the monument’s archaeological sites. Many drilling sites within the monument are no longer in use but have yet to go through reclamation, a process of restoring the land to its approximate original state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sites within the remote monument still occasionally suffer from looting and vandalism. In 2017 a fifty-seven-year-old visitor damaged and took artifacts from a site in Sandstone Canyon; he was apprehended by BLM officers and later sentenced to one year in federal prison.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On April 26, 2017, President Donald J. Trump signed an executive order calling for the review of national monuments larger than 100,000 acres, including Canyons of the Ancients. The order generated controversy, particularly in the West, where most large monuments are located. Colorado’s congressional delegation requested that Canyons of the Ancients remain unchanged, and on July 21, 2017, Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke announced that the size of the monument would stay the same.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coronavirus-colorado"><strong>COVID-19</strong></a> pandemic of 2020–21, the BLM began offering online reservations for self-guided tours at Canyons of the Ancients. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/perkins-luke" hreflang="und">Perkins, Luke</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canyons-ancients-national-monument" hreflang="en">canyons of the ancients national monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-national-monument" hreflang="en">hovenweep national monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bureau-land-management" hreflang="en">Bureau of Land Management</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lowry-pueblo" hreflang="en">lowry pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/painted-hand-pueblo" hreflang="en">painted hand pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-canyon-pueblo" hreflang="en">sand canyon pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-canyon" hreflang="en">sand canyon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Administration of William J. Clinton, “<a href="https://eplanning.blm.gov/public_projects/lup/65701/99009/119999/2000-0609_7317_Presidential_Proclamation_CANM.pdf">Proclamation 7317—Establishment of the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” June 9, 2000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/blm-offers-online-reservation-system-for-canyons-of-the-ancients-museum/">BLM Offers Online Reservation System for Canyons of the Ancients Museum</a>,” <em>Journal</em>, March 16, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, “<a href="http://npshistory.com/publications/blm/canyons-of-the-ancients/mgr-rpt-2017.pdf">Annual Manager's Report- Fiscal Year 2017</a>” (Dolores, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Office, US Bureau of Land Management, “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Canyons_of_the_Ancients_National_Monumen/1Q4yAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=Canyons+of+the+Ancients+National+Monument:+Proposed+Resource+Management+Plan+and+Final+Environmental+Impact+Statement.+Resource+Management+Plan&amp;pg=RA11-PA1&amp;printsec=frontcover">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument: Proposed Resource Management Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement</a>,” Dolores, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Department of the Interior, “<a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/monument-review-secretary-zinke-recommends-no-modifications-canyons-ancients">Share Monument Review: Secretary Zinke Recommends No Modifications to Canyons of the Ancients</a>,” July 21, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kindra McQuillan, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.9/john-podesta-legacy-maker/monumental-changes">Still Quiet at Canyons of the Ancients</a>," <em>High Country News</em>, May 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Andre Miller, “<a href="https://westernpriorities.org/resource/mapping-the-legacy-of-drilling-in-a-protected-monument/">Mapping the Legacy of Drilling in a Protected Monument</a>,” March 12, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/cortez-man-sentenced-for-looting-on-canyons-of-ancients-national-monument/">Cortez Man Sentenced for Looting on Canyons of Ancients National Monument</a>,” <em>Journal</em>, June 10, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/programs/national-conservation-lands/colorado/canyons-of-the-ancients">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Tourism, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/dolores/attractions-entertainment/museums/canyons-of-the-ancients-national-monument-visitor-center-and-museum-blm">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument Visitor Center and Museum</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>TripSavvy, “<a href="https://www.tripsavvy.com/canyons-of-the-ancients-national-monument-guide-4163884">A Guide to Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” updated June 26, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Visit Mesa Verde Country, “<a href="http://mesaverdecountry.com/things-to-do/canyons-of-the-ancients/">Canyons of the Ancients</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 02 Dec 2021 18:27:53 +0000 yongli 3650 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Origins of Mesa Verde National Park http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/origins-mesa-verde-national-park <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Origins of Mesa Verde National Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-28T13:00:41-06:00" title="Thursday, October 28, 2021 - 13:00" class="datetime">Thu, 10/28/2021 - 13:00</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/origins-mesa-verde-national-park" data-a2a-title="Origins of Mesa Verde National Park"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Forigins-mesa-verde-national-park&amp;title=Origins%20of%20Mesa%20Verde%20National%20Park"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> was established in 1906 as the country’s ninth national park. The site was visited and considered sacred by multiple Indigenous nations before it began attracting interest from white Americans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. While male scientists and treasure hunters sought to extract artifacts and knowledge from the site, two Colorado women—Virginia Donaghe McClurg and Lucy Peabody—sought to preserve it. Their campaign marshaled the conservationist spirit that gripped many white Americans at the time, including President Theodore Roosevelt, and culminated in Mesa Verde’s designation as a national park.</p> <p>Today, Mesa Verde National Park hosts more than 500,000 visitors per year and remains a sacred and important place for multiple Indigenous nations, especially the Pueblo people of New Mexico. On account of the park’s history as a colonized landscape, the story of how two white women spearheaded Mesa Verde’s creation raises important questions about what it means to “preserve” a site, who should do the preserving, and for whom these sites are preserved.</p> <h2>Colonization and Preservation</h2> <p>As with many other national parks, the establishment of Mesa Verde National Park was rooted in the process of <strong>settler-colonialism</strong> unfolding across the western United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As they violently displaced Indigenous nations and built cities, farms, mines, and railroads, white Americans found beauty in certain places and sought to protect them from industry and development.</p> <p>By the late nineteenth century, the collection of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>, and other structures built by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people at Mesa Verde began to attract interest from white Americans. Located in southwest Colorado, the site was then on land belonging to the Nuche (<strong>Ute</strong> people) and was still important to the <strong>Navajo</strong> and Pueblo people. However, white scientists and explorers repeatedly trespassed and took artifacts, either for study or sale. Imbued with notions of white supremacy, the young discipline of archaeology often blurred the lines between investigation and plunder.</p> <h2>Virginia McClurg and Lucy Peabody</h2> <p>Neither a scientist nor a treasure hunter, Virginia McClurg saw the site differently, maintaining that its value came from what was there instead of what could be taken from it. The first of the two women to visit the cliff dwellings, she became the site’s earliest white champion. She was the daughter of prosperous easterners, and her life mirrored that of many female reformers of the late nineteenth century who were both ambitious and willing to join various organizations in search of change. Educated in Virginia, McClurg established herself as a travel writer while still in her twenties and remained unmarried until she was in her thirties. Poor health brought her west to Colorado in 1879, where she attended classes at <strong>Colorado College</strong>, founded a private school, and reported intermittently for newspapers. In 1889 she married <strong>Gilbert McClurg</strong>, settled in Colorado, and eventually gave birth to a son.</p> <p>McClurg’s interest in the cliff dwellings began in 1882, when the <em>New York Daily Graphic</em> asked her to visit Mesa Verde to investigate Colorado’s “lost” cities and buried homes. Fascinated by the structures, McClurg outfitted her own expedition to the cliff dwellings in 1886 to gather scientific evidence that might justify the site’s protection.</p> <p>McClurg’s contemporaries included white men such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a>, a rancher who stumbled upon Mesa Verde’s cliff dwellings in 1888, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, a Swedish scientist who studied the site in the 1890s. Both men extracted artifacts from the site, and Nordenskiöld was briefly arrested for doing so. Nordenskiöld was actually interested in documenting Ancestral Pueblo culture, but many others simply plundered the site, leading McClurg to denounce “many instances of thoughtless vandalism.” McClurg was especially critical of Wetherill, whom she later referred to as a farmer who “casts away the walls from a prehistoric pueblo to line his irrigating ditch.” In contrast, she saw Mesa Verde as an area that needed more protection, in addition to study.</p> <p>After McClurg published sketches of her trip, she became a minor celebrity. In 1893 she was the only woman invited to speak in the Anthropological Building at the Chicago World’s Fair. Seven years later, she established the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association (CCDA), a women’s group modeled after the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, the country’s first historic preservation organization. McClurg became regent of the CCDA, with Lucy Peabody as vice regent. Peabody was an influential <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> retiree who had served as secretarial assistant in the Bureau of American Ethnology before her marriage. Despite its intentions, the CCDA had limited interactions with the Indigenous people who still considered Mesa Verde to be the home of their ancestors.</p> <p>McClurg’s first goal was for the CCDA to obtain legal rights to Mesa Verde via a land lease from the <strong>Weeminuche Ute</strong>. In 1899 she traveled to the<strong> Southern Ute Indian Reservation </strong>in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county"><strong>Montezuma County</strong></a> to convince Ute leader <strong>Ignacio</strong> and his son Acowitz to lease the cliff dwellings to her. She offered him $300 a year for thirty years with $300 up front. Chief Ignacio was reluctant and demanded $9,000 on the spot. Unable to oblige, McClurg went home empty-handed. A year later, she sent Alice Bishop to Navajo Springs to try again. Bishop was successful, but US secretary of the interior Ethan Hitchcock declared the agreement illegal because private citizens did not have the authority to negotiate a treaty with tribes. The following year, the CCDA submitted the lease to the Department of the Interior a second time, only to have it rejected once again. In response, the CCDA lobbied elected officials. McClurg met with Colorado senators <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/henry-teller"><strong>Henry Teller</strong></a> and <strong>Edward Wolcott</strong> to discuss political strategies and appealed directly to President Theodore Roosevelt. McClurg wrote the president a romantic sonnet in which she described the Ancestral Puebloans as a “peaceful race” who “toiled in fields with patient industry.”</p> <p>Meanwhile, Lucy Peabody traveled to Washington, DC, to investigate the possibility of establishing a national park at the site despite McClurg’s wish that Mesa Verde become a state park. While there, Peabody secured a bill that left the CCDA out of the park’s new administration, which created a rift between McClurg and Peabody. In her 1904 annual address to the CCDA, McClurg said, “there are members of the association who are in favor of [a national park]—others a state or Association’s control . . . each may work in the field which suits her best—and time will show which plan will be crowned with success.” All of these plans failed to recognize Indigenous sovereignty over the site. In the meantime, the women of the CCDA worked hard to publicize and further colonize the site. By 1903 the CCDA created the first accurate map of the cliff dwellings, built a wagon road down the <strong>Mancos Canyon</strong>, and constructed a shelter at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a><strong>.</strong></p> <p>By 1905 the CCDA had convinced both the public and Congress that a national park should be established at Mesa Verde. That year, Colorado representative <strong>Herschel Hogg</strong> submitted the first Mesa Verde National Park bill to survive a congressional committee. The following year, Colorado senator <strong>Thomas Patterson</strong> submitted a bill to the Senate. McClurg, though she preferred a state park, reluctantly gave her blessing.</p> <h2>Conflict Over Management</h2> <p>That is, until February 1906, when McClurg suddenly withdrew her support for the new park. Contemporaries and historians alike have struggled to understand her sudden change of heart. Newspapers of the period derided her. The papers accused McClurg of being obsessed with her own celebrity. On February 23, 1906, for example, <strong><em>The</em></strong><em> <strong>Denver Post</strong> </em>scolded McClurg and told her to “put all that tremendous energy of yours into the fight to get Uncle Sam to take up this wonderful bit of ancient, ancient history and preserve it for the wonder and pilgriming of the whole world.” A day later, the <em>Post</em> published a political cartoon that illustrated the paper’s belief that federal officials—embodied by the elderly male figure of Uncle Sam—would better care for the site. In the cartoon, a young woman, identified as Miss Colorado, happily and dutifully surrenders a model of the cliff dwellings to Uncle Sam, saying, “They’ll be safer in your care, Uncle!”</p> <p>McClurg worried that federal intervention would damage the site—a concern that was not without merit. In 1881 the US Army sent Captain Moses Harris to Yellowstone to suppress illegal activities at the park. Since Harris’s arrival, residents of Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho had complained about the army’s management of the park. McClurg was reticent to see the cliff dwellings managed by the army; rather, she hoped for Mesa Verde to be legally protected and financially supported by either the state or federal government while remaining under the direction of the clubwomen. She envisioned a new kind of partnership between government organizations and women’s clubs, one that provided women with an official role in state and federal bureaucracies, and thus famously declared, “Let [Mesa Verde] be a woman’s park.”</p> <p>The <em>Post </em>insisted that no private individuals, especially women, were fit to manage the site. It told readers to “think of turning the Yosemite over to the custodianship of any band of the best meaning and the cleverest women, or men, either, in the world! Women die and women get married and lose interest in political life . . . so do men. The government of the United States lives!” Undeterred, McClurg continued to denounce the Hogg Bill, and the CCDA was divided, with one faction of clubwomen supporting McClurg and the other supporting Peabody.</p> <p>In an apparent effort to sway public opinion toward her vision, McClurg concocted a conspiracy theory. She argued that the Hogg Bill was a thinly disguised congressional plot, a furtive means by which to acquire more Indigenous land. McClurg argued that the CCDA would never attempt something so heartless. She declared, “there has never been any plan to park Mesa Verde, which did not include the Indians remaining on their land.” There was, however, no truth to McClurg’s accusations, and despite her efforts, Congress passed Hogg’s bill in 1906 with widespread public approval. The bill came the same year as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a>, designed to protect sites of archaeological interest from unscientific plundering and inspired by the increased publicity of places like Mesa Verde.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The CCDA did not officially disband until McClurg’s death in 1931. At that point, Mesa Verde was managed by the <strong>National Park Service (NPS)</strong>. Peabody, not McClurg, was lauded as the heroine who “founded” Mesa Verde National Park—despite the fact that the dwellings had been created and maintained by generations of Indigenous people. In 1906 the American Anthropology Association thanked Peabody for her role in the preservation of the great monuments of ancient culture without mentioning McClurg.</p> <p>Still, despite the best intentions of McClurg and the CCDA, the entire enterprise of creating the park amounted to a colonial project that placed an Indigenous site under the control of the US government. Today, Indigenous scholars argue that the national park system is itself a product of the dispossession and abuse of Indigenous peoples and cultures that occurred throughout Colorado and the American West in the nineteenth century. In this context, although it can still be seen as a monumental achievement, the two women’s work to create Mesa Verde National Park is more complicated and controversial than often considered.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/swanson-mary" hreflang="und">Swanson, Mary</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/founding-mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">founding of mesa verde national park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/virginia-mcclurg" hreflang="en">virginia mcclurg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lucy-peabody" hreflang="en">lucy peabody</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ignacio" hreflang="en">Ignacio</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/settler-colonialism" hreflang="en">settler colonialism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/theodore-roosevelt" hreflang="en">theodore roosevelt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antiquities-act" hreflang="en">antiquities act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spruce-tree-house" hreflang="en">spruce tree house</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/four-corners" hreflang="en">four corners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“Contending Factions in Cliff Dwellings Society: Association May be Disrupted as a Result of Differences Between Mrs. McClurg and Mrs. Peabody Over Method of Preserving Mesa Verde Ruins,” <em>Rocky Mountain Daily News</em>, February 13, 1906.</p> <p>Editorial Cartoon, <em>The </em><em>Denver Post</em>, February 24, 1906.</p> <p>“Make It a National Park,” <em>The </em><em>Denver Post</em>, February 23, 1906.</p> <p>Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, “Two Annual Addresses by the Regent of the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association,” Denver, 1904, Virginia McClurg Collection, Colorado Springs Pioneer Museum, Colorado Springs.</p> <p>“Regents Slurs on Hard Work: Regent of Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association Sharply Replies to Editorial Attack,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, March 11, 1906.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Krista Langlois, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/49.17/features-archaeology-indigenous-knowledge-untangles-the-mystery-of-mesa-verde">Indigenous Knowledge Helps Untangle the Mystery of Mesa Verde</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, October 2, 2017.</p> <p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park</a>.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Oct 2021 19:00:41 +0000 yongli 3629 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Morefield Mound http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/morefield-mound <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Morefield Mound</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-03T13:18:06-07:00" title="Friday, February 3, 2017 - 13:18" class="datetime">Fri, 02/03/2017 - 13:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/morefield-mound" data-a2a-title="Morefield Mound"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmorefield-mound&amp;title=Morefield%20Mound"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Morefield Mound sits in the middle of the wide valley at the bottom of Morefield Canyon in <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. It served as a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> supply for ancient Native Americans a thousand years ago, making it one of the earliest known domestic water-supply works in the United States. The reservoir mound was one of four ancient water catchments at Mesa Verde National Park named collectively as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2004.</p> <p>The reservoir mound has a diameter of 220 feet at its base, with side slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) that rise up sixteen feet to the flat top of the mound, which is 130 feet in diameter, like a truncated cone. The mound is made up of layers of water-deposited sediment―sandy layers interspersed with dense clay-silt layers. The original pond that the Native Americans excavated into the natural soils—now silted in—is located beneath the mound. A canal leading to the mound extended upstream for a quarter mile.</p> <p>Morefield Reservoir began where the valley floor was 500 feet wide and the tributary drainage basin area was 4.1 square miles. Wright Paleohydrological Institute excavations showed that the pond was approximately four feet deep in about 750 CE, with a diameter of fifty feet. A seasonally high water table likely provided it with a variable water pool, even without any surface flow. However, because the pond was in the canyon bottom, all the runoff from a storm would flow into it along with any sediment; it would not have taken long for the pond to become silted. Cleaning out the pond with digging sticks and baskets was a labor intensive but necessary operation. Nevertheless, with each succeeding flood, the pond would again fill with fine sand, silt, and clay. Over the years, the pond rose in elevation due to accumulated sediment and, eventually, a canal became necessary to deliver water for storage.</p> <p>At first, the canal was short. As the reservoir silt accumulated and the water level rose, the canal was raised and extended upstream. The canal banks were lined with shaped stones to help guard against erosion. As with other Stone Age civilizations, hammerstones were utilized effectively for stone shaping.</p> <h2>Research at Morefield Mound</h2> <p>The Wright Paleohydrological Institute performed research at Morefield Mound from 1994 to 1998, including the excavation of a trench to reveal sediment layers. Team member Dr. Jack Smith had also excavated at the site twenty years earlier. Smith was the chief archaeologist of Mesa Verde National Park and had studied extensively the<a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"> <strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>people who lived there. Smith thought that the Morefield Mound was the remains of a reservoir, but he could not prove it. Other scientists speculated that the site may have been an ancient dance platform while some judged it to be a natural terrace deposit.</p> <p>The Wright team conducted excavations that were deeper than Smith’s excavations in the 1970s. Evidence found in the exposed sediment layers proved that the mound had once been a reservoir and the original, undisturbed soil under the mound allowed the team to define dredged sand deposits and embankments above it. Buried in the deposits was an ancient digging tool dated to AD 860 by the University of Colorado Physics Department.</p> <p>Study of the sediment layering and its characteristics provided evidence for environmental conditions, activities, and some of the problems faced by Ancestral Pueblo engineers during the building and operation of the Morefield Reservoir structures. Three continuous soil profiles were taken down the south trench wall. One complete profile was analyzed by the <strong>Natural Resources Conservation Service</strong> Field Office in <strong>Cortez</strong> for listing in its national database.</p> <p>The soil profile data provided solid evidence that the reservoir was watertight because of the dense clays deposited in the reservoir―the type of clay that modern engineers might use for solid waste site designs to preclude leachate movement. The data also showed that over the life of the reservoir, about fourteen forest <a href="/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>fires</strong></a> resulted in ash deposits, as evidenced by continuous thin layers of carbon about one-sixteenth of an inch thick. The sediments provided evidence of twenty-one periods of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a> in the canyon bottom, as indicated by thick, sandy sediment deposits, though many of the thickest deposits were, in turn, highly stratified, indicating successive independent inflows of high water. The shape of the layering told of reservoir cleaning operations, where the dredged sediment was cast to build berms—flat strips of land bordering a canal—or where it was wasted outside the berm. It was additionally noted that sometimes one part of the reservoir was used for storage while the other was not.</p> <p>Because the excavated trench depth was limited to sixteen feet, due to the consolidation of the soil, the team was able to excavate only to the bottom of the mound, not to the original pond bottom. Then, by using a hand auger in the trench bottom, the team logged sediment deposits to an additional depth of five feet until the auger encountered the original natural soil. By exposing the natural, undisturbed soil surface in the west and east ends of the trench and having the pond bottom defined, the team could sketch the likely original shape of the excavated pond that lay under the sixteen-foot-high mound, for a total reservoir height of twenty-one feet.</p> <h2>Interpretation of Evidence</h2> <p>By studying the Morefield Mound excavation, the Wright team learned more about the ancient people of Mesa Verde and what they were doing in Morefield Canyon. The sediment deposits could be read like an open book because the evidence had not been disturbed during modern times. Findings indicated, for instance:</p> <ol> <li>Morefield Reservoir began as a hand-dug pond in the canyon bottom to capture seasonal runoff. A later supply to the reservoir was surface water carried by a stone-lined canal. A sequence of canals was outlined in the sediment, one above the other.</li> <li>Sediment from the upstream drainage basin was carried to Morefield Reservoir, sometimes at a high rate. Total volume of sediment carried into the reservoir was about 430,000 cubic feet (0.0067 acre-feet per square mile per year). Abandonment of the reservoir likely occurred when dredging became too inefficient or when the Morefield people began thinking about moving away to <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>.</li> <li>The dredged sediment used for the Morefield dam embankments was a mixture of clay, silt, and fine sand, which created a nearly impervious berm area.</li> <li>Based on potsherd analyses, Morefield Reservoir was used for approximately 350 years, during the 750–1100 CE period of the <strong>Pueblo I</strong> and <strong>Pueblo II</strong> people.</li> <li>Prehistoric agricultural fields in the Morefield basin and occasional forest fires likely allowed enough runoff for Morefield Reservoir to store up to 120,000 gallons of water at one time.</li> </ol> <p>The team also deduced that the ancient people of Mesa Verde were organized, industrious, and good water managers. The monumental task of building and maintaining the Morefield Reservoir could not have happened without the people’s diligence and organization.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wright-kenneth-r" hreflang="und">Wright, Kenneth R.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morefield-mound" hreflang="en">morefield mound</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Frederick H. Chapin, <em>The Land of the Cliff-Dwellers</em> (Boston: W. B. Clark, 1892).</p> <p>Patricia L. Crown, “Water Storage in the Prehistoric Southwest,” <em>Kiva </em>52, no. 3 (1987).</p> <p>James A. Erdman, Charles L. Douglas, and John W. Marr, <em>Environment of Mesa Verde, Colorado</em>, Archeological Research Series No. 7-B (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1969).</p> <p>William M. Ferguson, <em>The Anasazi of Mesa Verde and the Four Corners</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, <em>A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People</em>, Smithsonian Report for 1916 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1917).</p> <p>Mary O Griffitts, <em>Guide to the Geology of Mesa Verde National Park </em>(Mesa Verde National Park, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1990).</p> <p>William R. Haase, “Domestic Water Conservation among the Northern San Juan Anasazi,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 50, no. 2 (1985).</p> <p>Alden C. Hayes, <em>The Archeological Survey of Wetherill Mesa, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado,</em> Archeological Research Series No. 7-A (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1964).</p> <p>Joyce Herold, <em>Prehistoric Settlement and Physical Environment in the Mesa Verde Area</em>, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 53 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1961).</p> <p>Charles B. Hunt, <em>Cenozoic Geology of the Colorado Plateau</em>, USGS Professional Paper 279 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1956).</p> <p>Steve Lekson et al., “Migrations in the Southwest: Pinnacle Ruin, Southwestern New Mexico,” <em>Kiva</em> 68, no. 2 (2002).</p> <p>William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and Richard H. Wilshusen, eds., <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>William A. Lucius and David Breternitz, “The Current Status of Red Wares in the Mesa Verde Region,” in <em>Collected Papers in Honor of Erik Kellerman Reed</em>, ed. A. H. Schroeder, Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico 6 (Albuquerque: Archaeological Society of New Mexico, 1981).</p> <p>Paul S. Martin and William Byers, “Pollen and Archaeology at Wetherill Mesa,” in <em>Contributions of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project</em>, ed. Douglas Osborne, Society for American Archeology Memoir 19 (Washington, DC: Society for American Archeology, 1965).</p> <p>Gustav Nordenskiöld,. <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado: Their Pottery and Implements</em>, trans. D. Lloyd Morgan (Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt and Soner, 1893).</p> <p>Douglas Osborne, “Solving the Riddles of Wetherill Mesa,” <em>National Geographic</em> 125, no. 2 (February 1964).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, <em>Cultural Change and Continuity on Chapin Mesa</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1977).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, “Prehistoric Soil and Water Conservation on Chapin Mesa, Southwestern Colorado,” <em>American Antiquity </em>28, no. 4 (1963).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, “Social Implications of Pueblo Water Management in the Northern San Juan,” <em>Zietschrift für Ethnologie </em>97, no. 2 (1972).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, <em>Mesas, Cliffs, and Canyons: The University of Colorado Survey of Mesa Verde National Park</em>, Mesa Verde Research Series, Paper No. 3 (Mesa Verde, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1987).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, <em>The 1972 and 1974 Excavations of a Potential Prehistoric Reservoir (Site 5MV1936)</em> <em>Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Wright Paleohydrological Institute, 1999).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, “A Re-evaluation of Prehistoric Water Control at Mesa Verde” (paper presented at the Second Conference of Science in the National Park Service, San Francisco, CA, 1979).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith and Ezra Zubrow, <em>1967 Excavations at Site 5MV1931, Morefield Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Denver: Wright Paleohydrological Institute, 1999).</p> <p>Guy R. Stewart, “Conservation in Pueblo Agricultural: I. Primitive Practices; II. Present-day Flood Water Irrigation,” <em>Scientific Monthly </em>51, nos. 3–4 (1940).</p> <p>Guy R. Stewart and Maurice Donnelly, “Soil and Water Economy in the Pueblo Southwest,” <em>Scientific Monthly</em> 56 (January–February 1943).</p> <p>Alexander A. Wanek, <em>Geology and Fuel Resources of the Mesa Verde Area, Montezuma and La Plata Counties, Colorado</em>, Geological Survey Bulletin 1072-M (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1959).</p> <p>Gilbert R. Wenger, <em>The Story of Mesa Verde National Park</em> (Mesa Verde, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1991).</p> <p>Richard M. Wilshusen, Melissa J. Churchill, and James M. Potter, “Prehistoric Reservoirs and Water Basins in the Mesa Verde Region: Intensification of Water Collection Strategies during the Great Pueblo Period,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 62, no. 4 (1997).</p> <p>Kenneth R. Wright, “Water for the Anasazi: How the Ancients of Mesa Verde Engineered Public Works,” <em>Essays in Public Works History </em>No. 22 (2003).</p> <p>Kenneth R. Wright, Ernest L. Pemberton, and Jack E. Smith, “Mesa Verde Prehistoric Reservoir Sedimentation” (paper presented at the Seventh Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference, Reno, NV, March 25–29, 2001).</p> <p>Wright Water Engineers, Inc. <em>Final Report, Morefield Canyon Reservoir Paleohydrology, Mesa Verde National Park; Site 6MV1931 </em>(Denver: Wright Water Engineers, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 03 Feb 2017 20:18:06 +0000 yongli 2320 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Chaco Canyon http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3759--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3759.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_0.jpg?itok=VdTFEA0D" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pueblo Bonito was planned and constructed in stages between AD 850 to AD 1150 by ancestral Puebloan peoples. This&nbsp;was the center of the Chacoan world.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3760--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3760.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chetro-ketl"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_20211122_02_0.jpg?itok=vIkvS010" width="1090" height="448" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chetro-ketl" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chetro Ketl</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chetro Ketl is the second largest Chacoan great house. It covers more than 3 acres, and contains a great kiva and elevated kivas.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1671--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1671.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fig.-2-Chaco-roads_0.jpg?itok=hasHyQWO" width="1000" height="1009" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Roads and Great Houses</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chaco’s region: prehistoric roads and great houses.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1673--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1673.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo1%5B2%5D_0.jpg?itok=ld6L2yv8" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Kiva at Lowry Pueblo, Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Great Kiva, Lowry Pueblo, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T13:02:36-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 13:02" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 13:02</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon" data-a2a-title="Chaco Canyon"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fchaco-canyon&amp;title=Chaco%20Canyon"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the eleventh century, Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico was the center of a Native American cultural region about the size of the state of Indiana. It encompassed most of southwestern Colorado, from <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> on the east to <strong>Far View House</strong> at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong> on the west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon was made a National Park and a World Heritage Site because of its remarkable <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a>: monumental stone masonry buildings much larger and far more formal than any other architecture in the ancient Southwest. At its height, about AD 1100, Chaco was the largest and most complex <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> site.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The heart of Chaco Canyon is a seven and one-half-mile long stretch with the intermittent Chaco Wash running from east-southeast to west-northwest toward the San Juan River. The north side of the canyon has towering sandstone cliffs topped by wide, slickrock terraces; the south side is less dramatic. The largest great houses were concentrated in a “downtown” zone a little more than a mile wide at the center of Chaco Canyon. The scale of Chaco’s world was even larger, however, extending over much of the Four Corners region, as far away as 155 miles from Chaco Canyon. Extrapolating from demographic data for the northern third of the Chaco region and from ranges of outlier community sizes, the Chaco region comprised perhaps 30,000 to 40,000 people, of whom only a few thousand at most resided in great houses. Chaco itself was a capital city, the seat of political power.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon’s environment was harsh. Summers are blisteringly hot and very dry, and winters are wretchedly cold. The growing season is short, and rainfall is uncertain. Water for basic domestic needs was—and remains—a concern. The canyon contained little wood for building or burning, and no outstanding local resources besides sandstone and petrified wood, which was useful for tools. Because the canyon was a poor place to farm, inhabitants imported much or most of their staple foods—maize, beans, and squash, as well as meat from large game animals—from better-watered areas around the edge of Chaco’s region. How and why did Chaco’s spectacular great houses flourish in this desert canyon, when well-watered valleys lay all but empty to the north and south, closer to mountains and forests? The answers to those questions must be sought outside the canyon itself, in the larger region of which Chaco was the center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The archaeology of Chaco Canyon centers on a dozen remarkable buildings called <em>great houses</em>. Great houses at Chaco began in the late ninth century AD as monumentally upscaled versions of regular domestic structures, unit pueblos—the small, single-family home or, more prosaically, “small sites.” Early great houses were unquestionably residences, and they continued to be used as residences, even if that basic function was obscured by the addition of warehouses and other non-domestic functions over the next three centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Chaco region there were scores of unit pueblos for every great house. An entire unit pueblo, compressed to its floor area, would fit in a large room at a great house. Unit pueblos and great houses constitute one of the clearest examples of stratified housing in archaeology, and a clear indication of a class society. In Mesoamerican terms, great houses were the palaces of noble families; unit pueblos were the farmsteads of commoners.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Great Houses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Shortly after AD 1000, great houses became monuments in addition to elite residences. The traditional curved plans of earlier great houses were replaced by precise, formal geometries. Great house plans are typically described by letters: “D”-shaped, “E”-shaped, and so forth. Vast blocks of storage rooms, disproportionate to the small numbers of great house residents, were added, as were monumental public and official spaces. Most of Chaco’s great houses were built along the north side of the canyon in little over a century, from AD 1020 to about AD 1125; but each great house has a unique construction history, and several started much earlier. Pueblo Bonito was one of the earliest great houses and is typical—perhaps archetypical—of Chaco Canyon great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito took almost three centuries (AD 850 to AD 1125) to build. Like other great houses, Pueblo Bonito was expensive and laborious to build; the labor-per-unit measure of floor area or roofed volume far exceeded that for unit pueblos, which were built and maintained by their resident families. Every stage of construction was monumental, meant to be seen and appreciated. Beginning about CE 1020, the architects of Pueblo Bonito started a series of six major additions, each of which was enormously larger than anything previously built in the Pueblo world. At the culmination, about CE 1125, almost 700 rooms, massed up to four and perhaps five stories tall, covered an area of about two acres. Along the front of the enclosed plaza, two dozen <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (round rooms with both domestic and ritual functions) were built above and below grade. Only a score of families actually lived in this huge building. They were important families who controlled, or at least had access to, vast blocks of storage and non-domestic rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Great houses served the dead as well as the living. The earliest part of Pueblo Bonito, the cluster of earliest rooms at the center of the building, became a mausoleum for elite burials. Two high-status middle-aged men—perhaps the building’s founders—were buried in AD 850 with great wealth in wooden crypts beneath the building’s floor. These honored dead defined one aspect of the great house’s monumentality. Later construction preserved the early core with its burials, enveloping the older masonry in better-built blocks of rooms. Many more elite deceased were later richly interred in the oldest parts of the building.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In contrast, burials at unit pueblos were typically in middens fronting the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a>, accompanied by a ceramic pot or two. Scores of unit pueblos and aggregates of such units—commoner homes—lined the south side of the canyon. These homes were identical to farmsteads throughout Chaco’s region and in regions beyond Chaco’s reach: single (extended) family homes, largely self-sufficient, clustered into scattered communities of a few dozen unit pueblos and with a central great kiva, with a total population of a few hundred people. That was the social scale of ancient settlements, before Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito was only one of a half-dozen major great houses at Chaco. There were many smaller great houses, mostly built on the north side of the canyon. Great houses were part of a large, complex settlement; in effect, a city (described below). “Downtown” Chaco as a built environment or cityscape encompassed many other elements, such as roads, mounds, great kivas, waterworks, and hundreds of unit pueblos on the south side of the canyon, each consisting of five or six rooms and a pit house.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Roads and Waterworks</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Chacoan roads were carefully engineered earthen features, typically long, straight, and about twenty-seven-feet wide. They linked Chaco Canyon to other Chacoan sites and to important natural features, extending outward like spokes on a wheel. Some led to distant great houses; others lead to important natural features. Roads are evident at two of Colorado’s two dozen Chacoan outliers: <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> and Far View House. An elaborate and extensive line-of-sight communication system, with signal fire stations atop high points, paralleled the road system, allowing information to pass to and from Chaco to the edges of its region relatively quickly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The north side of Chaco Canyon was lined with small-scale waterworks, capturing rare rainfall in bedrock reservoirs atop the cliffs and channeling it to small fields. These systems have been interpreted as subsistence infrastructure, but given the poor agricultural prospects and the clear monumentality of Chaco Canyon, it seems possible that water was an element of landscape architecture, irrigating gardens between great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco Region</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Chaco’s roads and imported food suggest, its sphere of influence extended far beyond the confines of Chaco Canyon. It was the center of a large regional system of about 30,000 square miles, defined by about 150 smaller “outlier” great houses, road networks, and line-of-sight signaling systems.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Small outlier great houses used the same techniques and design principles as Chaco Canyon great houses, but the outliers were typically about one-twentieth the size of buildings such as Pueblo Bonito, as if a portion of those buildings had been cut away and transplanted over great distances. Lowry Pueblo is one of these outliers, located almost 125 miles from Chaco Canyon. Almost always, the great house sat amid (usually above) a scattered community of a score or more unit pueblos. Outlier great houses might represent direct imposition of Chacoan forms and presumably people, or they could represent local copies or emulations of Chacoan styles. In either case, great house residents were identified with Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>What was Chaco?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeological interpretations of Chaco Canyon range from a valley with a half-dozen farming villages (“pueblos”), to a ceremonial pilgrimage center, to the capital of a small city-state. The people of Chaco Canyon were ancestors of modern Pueblo Indian tribes, who today live in about forty traditional farming villages in New Mexico and Arizona. Pueblo Indian traditions reference Chaco and its history, as a place where various clans resided in the migrations that eventually led to Pueblos such as Hopi, Zuni, and Acoma (among others). Many archaeologists interpret Chaco as if its great houses were like modern Pueblos: egalitarian, communal, independent farming villages. Other archaeologists recognize that historic and modern Pueblos do not have a single regional center; each Pueblo is independent. While certainly a place and event in Pueblo history, Chaco was probably more than a cluster of farming villages—it was likely an episode of political centralization at odds with modern Pueblo ways of life; modern Pueblo societies developed partly in reaction to and rejection of Chaco.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lekson-stephen-h" hreflang="und">Lekson, Stephen H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-colorado" hreflang="en">mesa verde colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stephen H. Lekson, ed., <em>The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Chaco Meridian: One Thousand Years of Political and Religious Power in the Ancient Southwest</em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “Chaco Canyon and the US Southwest,” in <em>A World with States, Empires, and Networks: Cambridge History of the World</em>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed., ed. Craig Benjamin (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/escalante_pueblo.html">Escalante Pueblo</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kendrick Frazier, <em>People of Chaco: A Canyon and its Culture</em> (New York: W.W. Norton, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>In Search of Chaco: New Approaches to an Archaeological Enigma</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/lowry_pueblo.html">Lowry Pueblo</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 19:02:36 +0000 yongli 1670 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cottonwood Cave http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-cave <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cottonwood Cave</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-25T12:42:34-06:00" title="Wednesday, May 25, 2016 - 12:42" class="datetime">Wed, 05/25/2016 - 12:42</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-cave" data-a2a-title="Cottonwood Cave"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcottonwood-cave&amp;title=Cottonwood%20Cave"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located near Cottonwood Creek on the Uncompahgre Plateau in <a href="/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a>, Cottonwood Cave is a prehistoric site from the Basketmaker II period (400 BCE–400 CE) of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong> </a>tradition. Excavated in 1947 by <strong>Clarence T. Hurst</strong>, the cave yielded a buried cache of corn that was later <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dated</strong></a> to 270 BCE, making it some of the earliest corn found in the state. Further excavations at the site could help archaeologists understand the origins of farming in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Hurst Excavation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 1947, Clarence Hurst led a team from the Museum of Archaeology at Western State College (now the <strong>Clarence T. Hurst Museum</strong> at <strong>Western State Colorado University</strong>) on a two-week field expedition to excavate Cottonwood Pueblo and Cottonwood Cave. Two local men from Nucla, John Galley and W. C. Huntley, had notified Hurst of the sites and helped locate them.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At Cottonwood Cave, Hurst’s team managed only a small-scale excavation because they had to spend several hours each day hiking between their camp and the remote cave. They noted pictographs and petroglyphs on the cave walls and found many perishable Basketmaker materials, including tanned deer hides, baskets, and two types of yucca-leaf sandals. The most important discovery was a bundle found thirty inches below the surface in a trash midden. Made of <a href="/article/conifers"><strong>juniper</strong></a>-bark strips and split yucca leaves, the football-shaped bundle contained fourteen full ears of corn and nearly a gallon of shelled corn. Because the corn was in pristine condition, Hurst speculated that it was probably seed corn or a ceremonial offering, not a food cache.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Excited by the corn discovery, Hurst sent all fourteen ears to Edgar Anderson at the Missouri Botanical Garden for analysis. Anderson found similarities among the ears that indicated they were probably grown in the same field and in the same season. Like other prehistoric corn, the ears were brown, and they had twelve to sixteen rows of kernels. Anderson reported that the corn resembled prehistoric samples from South America and was the most primitive his laboratory had ever seen.</p>&#13; &#13; <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jBdEijE5oCc" width="640"></iframe></p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recent Research</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Hurst believed Cottonwood Cave was one of the most significant prehistoric sites he had excavated. He planned to do more work there, hoping that the site’s deep cultural deposits (a test trench had revealed material at least thirteen feet down) might show how the area’s population shifted from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic-era</strong></a> hunting and gathering to Basketmaker-era farming. Before Hurst could return, however, he died in January 1949. The site saw no further work for the next forty years, with the possible exception of a poorly documented excavation by Metropolitan State College faculty in the 1970s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the Clarence T. Hurst Museum at Western State began to reanalyze Hurst’s collections in the early 1990s, the biggest priority was to submit the Cottonwood Cave corn cache for radiocarbon dating for the first time. The corn returned a date of about 270 BCE, providing firm evidence of early farming at high elevations in western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1994, Western State anthropologist Mark Stiger reexamined the cave and found limited evidence of looting. He believes the corn cache consisted of seed corn stored for use at a farm plot near the cave. It remains unclear whether earlier <strong>Archaic</strong> peoples in the area adopted corn farming or were replaced by a different farming culture, but it is possible that Cottonwood Cave’s extensive unexcavated deposits hold important clues.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood-cave" hreflang="en">Cottonwood Cave</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood-creek" hreflang="en">Cottonwood Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clarence-hurst" hreflang="en">Clarence Hurst</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/basketmaker-ii" hreflang="en">Basketmaker II</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mark-stiger" hreflang="en">Mark Stiger</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>C. T. Hurst, “The Cottonwood Expedition, 1947—A Cave and a Pueblo Site,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 14, no. 1 (June 1948).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>C. T. Hurst and Edgar Anderson, “A Corn Cache From Western Colorado,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 14, no. 3 (1949).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Stiger, “Cottonwood Cave,” Colorado State Register of Historic Properties Nomination Form (October 30, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Stiger and Mark Larson, “A Radiocarbon Date from the Cottonwood Cave Corn Cache and Problems Interpreting the Origins of Farming in Western Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 58, no. 2 (Summer 1992).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. G. Matson, <em>The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 25 May 2016 18:42:34 +0000 yongli 1427 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1354--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1354.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_Bonito_Aerial%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=NVZtimPq" width="912" height="684" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of Pueblo Bonito, one of the most distinctive great houses in Chaco Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T14:21:06-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 14:21" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 14:21</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region" data-a2a-title="Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region&amp;title=Ancestral%20Puebloans%20of%20the%20Four%20Corners%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Formerly labeled Anasazi, the Ancestral Puebloan culture is the most widely known of the ancient cultures of Colorado. The people who built the <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great houses</strong></a> of <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> were subsistence farmers of corn, beans, and squash. The structures of this culture date to between ca. 350 BC and AD 1300 and are found throughout southwestern Colorado and other adjacent states of the Four Corners region. The great southward migration from this region by AD 1300 marks the end of the Ancestral Puebloan occupation in southwestern Colorado. The sites and histories of this ancestral culture are still valued today in song and prayer by the Pueblo peoples now residing in New Mexico and Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> refers to both the ancient cultural tradition and the peoples once found in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest. It is one of three major cultural traditions defined by archaeologists in the four southwestern states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah). The other two traditions are the Hohokam and Mogollon, neither of which extends into Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Archaeology and Terminology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early investigators such as <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Alfred V. Kidder referred to what we now call the Ancestral Pueblo tradition as the <em>Anasazi</em>. Although many early researchers drew inspiration from the historic Pueblos in their interpretations of the architecture and practices of the Ancestral Pueblo, they did not always make a clear link between this ancient culture and historic Pueblo peoples. They drew upon the Navajo workmen who helped them with some of their investigations and who called these ancient people <em>ʾ</em><em>anaasází</em>, translated as “old people,” “enemy ancestors,” or “ancient non-Navajos.” As archaeologists have increasingly associated many aspects of this ancient cultural tradition with the modern Pueblos, the term <em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> has gradually replaced <em>Anasazi</em> in archaeological literature as a more appropriate term.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The two branches of the Ancestral Pueblo tradition discussed in this summary—Mesa Verde and Chaco—are distinguishable from one another by differences in their pottery styles, architecture, and settlements, but they also shared a great deal in common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The cultural diversity we see in the past is similar to modern Pueblo culture, which encompasses seven distinct languages and twenty-one pueblos, each under separate governance. They share a richly interwoven past. When Spanish conquistadors encountered the Pueblo groups in the sixteenth century, they found at least 50,000 to 60,000 people in approximately seventy-five Pueblo villages in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. Over the last 125 years, historians, archaeologists, and Pueblo tribal authorities have worked to untangle Ancestral Puebloan history to better understand how this tradition has shaped the customs and ways of life of modern Pueblo people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All Pueblo culture shares in common an agricultural heritage focused on the cultivation of maize (corn) and a sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyle centered on large village communities, or pueblos. The roots of this culture date back more than two millennia, to the very beginnings of agriculture and settled life in the northern Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture in the Northern Southwest (350 BC–AD 575<strong>)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The environment of the Four Corners made hunting and gathering difficult. The semiarid and arid upland landscape of the <strong>Colorado Plateau </strong>and Southern Rocky Mountains had patches of wild resources that were not reliable subsistence sources. In good years, the piñon nut harvest could be remarkable and large game such as <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, pronghorn, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a></strong> offered fine hunting opportunities at certain times and locales throughout the year. But these resources, even when teamed with the wild grasses, berries, and other native plants of the area, necessitated a mobile lifestyle and tremendous seasonal flexibility. Consequently, the population was restricted to small groups that used particular areas seasonally. Climatic shifts also limited human occupation in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 2100 to 1200 BC, increasingly reliable summer precipitation and the introduction of maize from the south allowed for early horticulture. The first corn was not well adapted to the short growing seasons and dry <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>, and the resulting corncobs were only an inch or two long. It would take 1,000–1,500 years before maize varieties were developed or introduced that could be successfully grown across a wide area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the transition from a limited horticulture and seminomadic lifeway to a more dedicated and sedentary agricultural lifeway was slow, small farming communities emerged in the late <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> to early <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods and the population began to increase steadily. In general, this early farming culture is still referred to as <strong>Basketmaker</strong> because basketry and woven goods remained the mainstays of storage, cooking, and serving vessels.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 350–200 BC and AD 300–350, there was a notable increase in multi-season and multi-household residential sites in certain regions. Evidence at these sites shows that the inhabitants were more dependent on maize cultivation, supplemented by localized hunting and gathering. These early farmers invested energy in more substantial and weatherproof pithouses and large, secure cists for food storage. The trash heaps, or middens, at these early residential sites indicate the inhabitants were at least semisedentary, residing at a single location for more than half a year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southern half of the Ancestral Pueblo area in New Mexico and Arizona is a source of innovation and many changes in the period between AD 200 and 600. The earliest Basketmaker brown ware pottery originates here and serves as a model for the first pottery in the Mesa Verde region. The original development and most widespread use of large community structures called great <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> also occurred in the south. Finally, beans, which offered a critical dietary pairing with maize, were more widely distributed in the south in early Basketmaker times. The south offered a historically secure and possibly more resilient locale for early agriculture, and at least half of the early farming populations in the Mesa Verde region likely could trace their origins to south of the San Juan River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Pueblos and <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a> (AD 575–900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The adoption of maize agriculture and the increasing use of beans and squash to achieve a more balanced diet helped to trigger a population increase, a demographic transition that characterizes many early agricultural societies. With decreased mobility, mothers can have and sustain more children and larger households are economically useful and viable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 600 the population south of the San Juan River had increased significantly, and immigrant populations began to move into the Mesa Verde region once again. The central part of this region holds evidence of early habitations built during the span of AD 575–700. <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>Tree-ring</strong></a> and pollen records suggest that for much of the seventh century climatic conditions for farming would have been good in this region, and the immigrants were moving into a landscape rich in natural and wild resources. By AD 725–750, there were at least 4,500 people spread across the whole Mesa Verde region, from Elk Ridge north of Blanding, Utah, to the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> valley near <strong>Durango</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The settlements of the mid-seventh century were most commonly single-household or paired-household hamlets. Small villages of eight to ten pithouses are known, but these were exceptional. Equally rare were great kivas, immense pit structures that could be from ten to twenty meters in diameter. <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>Rock art</strong></a> that dates to this period appears to portray community gatherings at great kivas and suggests the grand scale of these ritual events.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 750, the first small room blocks that would have housed two to four individual families are evident, foreshadowing a significant transformation in how settlements will be organized. Within a single generation after this architectural change, the first large villages with ten to twenty or more households emerge. Some of the earliest villages in the Ancestral Pueblo area occur in eastern and western Mesa Verde by about AD 775.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The period between AD 775 and 875 saw significant demographic shifts across the whole Ancestral Pueblo area, continued population growth, and a concentration of population in the central Mesa Verde region when compared to other Pueblo regions. Migration from the peripheries to the center of the Mesa Verde region, along with natural reproduction, concentrated as many 12,000 people into clusters of compact villages by AD 875. A mix of styles in the architecture, pottery, basketry, and organization of these villages suggests diversity within the regional population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest villages and the concentration of population in the Mesa Verde region lasted only two to three generations. After a demographic peak at approximately AD 860, the population began to decrease by 880, and by the middle of the next century, there were no more than 2,500 people in the core area of the Mesa Verde region. Social and environmental turmoil appear to have been accelerated by several extended periods of drought and shortened growing seasons, and three centuries of expanding human populations had taken a toll on the region’s natural resources, wild game, and clean water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, we see evidence of the failure of key sociopolitical organizations suggested by the ritual burning of specific community structures and patterned acts of ritual violence against particular individuals in villages with early great houses. Particular structures, which previously had been the center of community feasts and ritual events, were deliberately burned down when they were depopulated. The focus on specific structures and particular individuals suggests these were deliberate, internal acts. Apparently, the social “glue” and alliances within these community centers came apart under the stresses of the late ninth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Once again, the various Pueblo groups—with their particular histories, evolving languages, and increasingly interwoven traditions—chose to leave their communities in this region and head either west and southwest or south and southeast. It appears that out of the dust and ideas of these ninth-century Mesa Verde villages emerged the even greater houses of Chaco Canyon of the tenth and eleventh centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco World (AD 900–1125)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the tenth century the center of the Ancestral Pueblo world moved south of the San Juan River once again. The developments following the depopulation of the early Pueblo villages that resulted in the emergence of a southern great house system are still poorly understood. Current explanations argue that the large influx of people from the northern villages, combined with the germ of what was learned from the failure of the first great house experiments, gave rise to an organizational model in which great houses were placed at the center of a more dispersed rural community instead of within villages. Great houses were situated on prominent places within a landscape, and smaller residences were built around it. Between AD 900 and 1000, a great house system of over twenty-five communities appeared south of the San Juan, and throughout the period of AD 1020–1125. Chaco Canyon was the undisputed center of this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Chaco system influenced and at least partially united—if not dominated—much of the northern Southwest for at least a century. This is one of many elements of Ancestral Puebloan history that helps us understand the extraordinarily entangled histories of the modern Pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the century of the Chaco system’s florescence, the great houses in Chaco Canyon became truly monumental, rising four or five stories and having precisely laid masonry, massive walls, and striking symmetries. The reach of this system stretched from the <a href="/article/far-view-sites"><strong>Far View Group</strong></a> of sites at Mesa Verde National Park and <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> in the far north to the Andrews and Casamero sites near Grants, New Mexico, in the south. By AD 1125–1150, there may have been as many as 200 great houses aligned with or emulating this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco’s century of prominence coincided with a regional population increase. Population rebounded in Mesa Verde and other regions that had seen significant population loss in the tenth century. We are still uncertain about the extent to which these outlying regions were connected to Chaco Canyon, but it is clear that many outlying great houses were built in the same fashion as the great houses of the canyon. By the mid-to-late 1000s, there was a clear and strong connection between Chaco Canyon and particular groups of sites, such as the Aztec complex of sites in New Mexico, just south of Durango along the Animas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Chaco’s Decline and the Last Migration from the North (AD 1125–1300)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Southwest suffered one of the most severe droughts of the last millennium between AD 1130 and 1180. It is a period associated with a significant increase in violence, decreased population, and regional reorganization. Construction in Chaco Canyon all but ceased, and both its influence and population moved to other regions. It is uncertain whether the drought was the primary cause of Chaco’s dramatic decline or was simply one more factor bringing down a system that had become too top-heavy and costly for its adherents. Whatever the causes, Chaco’s decline was quick and decisive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the north, centers of influence emerged around Aztec—at the periphery of both the Chaco and Mesa Verde regional systems—and around several large Mesa Verde community centers, such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo and the Goodman Point–Shields Pueblo. The turbulence and violence of the late twelfth century subsided in the Mesa Verde region as Aztec’s leadership faltered and power struggles became more localized and smaller in scale. However, there still appears to have been a widespread perception of risk that may have propelled a growing number of people to seek refuge in large villages. The settlement pattern shifted from small villages on mesa tops close to farm fields to canyon rims closer to water and defensive positions. This shift resulted in significant increases in both the population and size of the largest villages, as outlying populations converged in the central Mesa Verde region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Community architecture and religious practices also changed. Great houses were no longer constructed but in some areas were replaced by villages with multi-walled structures. Multi-walled structures are uncommon in the western Mesa Verde region and not found in the late Pueblo villages of <a href="/.../hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a>. This absence is especially evident at western sites such as <strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong> that had large great houses only a century earlier.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After AD 1225 some villages, such as Yellow Jacket, became larger than the others. Village clusters became more tightly packed and competition for suitable agricultural land, trade partnerships, and access to wild resources and water appears to have intensified. The more competitive social landscape after AD 1250 is marked by a dramatic rise in the number of towers and walls dating to this period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Population in the core of the Mesa Verde region appears to have peaked between AD 1225 and 1260 at an estimated 26,000, with certainly more than 30,000 people across the whole region. Soon thereafter, people began to leave. Emigration accelerated markedly once it began, and the collapse of settlements on the peripheries, such as those at Hovenweep, must have contributed to the chaos. People within or adjacent to what is now Mesa Verde National Park used the protection afforded by cliff dwellings and the advantage of nearby agricultural lands to hold on longer than many other settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some of the first sites investigated by the Wetherills and <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf</strong> <strong>Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, such as <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> and <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, may have been among the last communities to depopulate. The entire region was largely depopulated by AD 1290, only thirty or forty years after it had reached its highest population. Many of the most defining characteristics of Mesa Verde architecture, pottery, social organization, and material culture were left behind. Where did these Ancestral Puebloans go? Subtle clues within the material culture of later sites, along with histories of the Pueblos, have helped experts identify the places where these migrants settled. People from the western communities largely moved into what is now Arizona and forged new relationships and identities with the Hopi. Central and eastern Mesa Verde groups appear to have had connections with groups in northern New Mexico such as the Keresan Pueblos (e.g., Acoma, <a href="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya"><strong>S</strong></a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya">anta Ana/Tamaya</a></strong>, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) and Tewa Pueblos (e.g., Ohkay Owingeh, San Ildefonso, and Santa Clara).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Interestingly, one of the very last occupied sites, <strong>Yucca House</strong>, is likely mentioned in T19 Pueblos of New Mexico ewa oral history as being a place of the ancestors. It is also the only late Mesa Verde village where a portion of its layout is built in a style not commonly seen until fourteenth-century pueblos of northern New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no single reason explains the final Mesa Verde migration, it is clear that social and political strife, the threat of violence, religious upheaval, and disruptions of interaction and trade networks all predate the most severe droughts of this period. The droughts must have been the final blow, especially with the promise of slightly better conditions to the south. Whether non-Pueblo groups—such as the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> or Athapaskans—forced the Ancestral Pueblo people to leave the Mesa Verde region is an old hypothesis that still has some adherents, but today there is little archaeological evidence that these groups constituted a significant presence in the Mesa Verde region in AD 1280, when the last Puebloans were leaving.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the depopulation of the Chaco, Mesa Verde, and other even more northerly regions and the establishment of the historically known pueblos of the Rio Grande and Little Colorado regions, the history of the Ancestral Pueblo becomes the “deep history” that is now remembered in the oral traditions of the modern Pueblo and researched by archaeologists and historians. These historic Pueblo groups built even larger villages and a more populous civilization, but structures of Mesa Verde and Chaco, as well as the lessons they offer, continue to intrigue us.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-hovenweep-national-monument-national-monuments-colorado-canyons-ancients-national" hreflang="en">hovenweep hovenweep national monument national monuments colorado canyons of the ancients national monument southwest colorado four corners region hiking southwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chimney-rock-archaeological-area" hreflang="en">chimney rock archaeological area</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. G. Matson, <em>The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul F. Reed, <em>Chaco’s Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after A.D. 1100</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark D. Varien, Scott G. Ortman, Timothy A. Kohler, Donna M. Glowacki, and C. David Johnson, “Historical Ecology in the Mesa Verde Region: Results from the Village EcoDynamics Project,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 72 (April 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John A. Ware, <em>A Pueblo Social History: Kinship, Sodality, and Community in the Northern Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/azru/index.htm">Aztec Ruins, National Monument, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” US Bureau of Land Management, last modified May 28, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 3, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument, Colorado</a>,” Chimney Rock Interpretive Association, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda S. Cordell and Maxine E. McBrinn, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em>, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado, Utah</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 1, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/index.htm">Learn About the Park</a>,” Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service, last modified November 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>A History of the Ancient Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://indianpueblo.org/pueblos-pigments-and-prominence-the-murals-of-ipcc/">The 19 Pueblos of New Mexico</a>,” Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>In Search of Chaco</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/who_were_the_anasazi.html">Who Were the Anasazi</a>?,” Anasazi Heritage Center, US Bureau of Land Management, last modified August 2, 2012.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 20:21:06 +0000 yongli 1353 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Kivas http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Kivas</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Puzzle%20House%20Aerial_0.jpg?itok=L-wtVsAi" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Puzzle House Aerial, 1993</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Kiva and room block from the Puzzle House site in Montezuma County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1187--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1187.html.twig x 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THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/P-1219_0.jpg?itok=PhGW2B6m" width="1000" height="570" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/harvest-dance-santo-domingo-pueblo-1910" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Harvest Dance, Santo Domingo Pueblo, 1910</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Turquoise or Squash Kiva at Santo Domingo Pueblo, Sandoval County, New Mexico.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas" data-a2a-title="Kivas"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fkivas&amp;title=Kivas"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Kivas were architecturally unique rooms or structures built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> </a>in southwest Colorado that served important ceremonial and social functions. Architecturally, they are recognized in the archaeological record in southwestern Colorado as far back as AD 500, although there are widespread inconsistencies in the use of the term. Although no longer used in Colorado, kivas remain important ceremonial structures and social units within contemporary Pueblo communities in the Southwest.</p> <h2>Definition</h2> <p>The term <em>Kiva </em>was originally derived from a Hopi word meaning “ceremonial room” and was adopted by early twentieth-century archaeologists. <strong>John Wesley Powell</strong> seems to be the first to use the Hopi term in describing a small site in Glen Canyon during the Colorado River exploration. He states: “In the space in the angle there is a deep excavation. From what we know of the people in the province of Tusayan, who are, doubtless, of the same race as the former inhabitants of these sites, we conclude that this was a “kiva” or underground chamber, in which their religious ceremonies were performed.”</p> <p>Jesse Walter Fewkes, in his description of <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, further explains: “The special chamber set apart by Pueblo Indians for ceremonial purposes was called by the early Spanish discoverers an <em>estufa</em>, or stove, a name no doubt suggested by the great heat of the room when occupied. An estufa is commonly designated by the Hopi Indians a <em>kiva</em>, which term is rapidly replacing the older name. It is found that prehistoric sites as well as modern pueblos have kivas.</p> <p>The way we understand the term <em>Kiva</em> today stems back to the first Pecos Conference held in 1927. Alfred V. Kidder clarified that after discussing the variety of shapes and internal features of kivas, the conference adopted this broad definition: “A kiva is a chamber specially constructed for ceremonial purposes.”</p> <p>This broad definition glosses over the wide range of variation that anthropologists observe over time and across the Southwest. For example, the shape of kivas varies. In Western Pueblos (Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, and Laguna) kivas are rectangular and usually incorporated into the room blocks. However, in Eastern Pueblos (such as <strong>Tamaya</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) kivas are generally round and are separate structures. There is also variation in size, design, and function. Using the presence of a specific ritual feature called a <em>sipapu</em>, Fewkes attempted to differentiate a circular structure with a ceremonial purpose (kiva) from a pithouse. He explains that “a sipapu is a small circular opening in the floor representing symbolically the entrance to the underworld.” In fact, some archaeologists argue today that the presence of ceremonial features is a much clearer indication of a kiva’s ceremonial use than its size, shape, or construction.</p> <h2>Small Kivas</h2> <p>The purpose of kivas has also changed over time. In Prehistoric times, at Ancestral Puebloan sites after AD 900, each small room block had a kiva. These “unit pueblos”—which consisted of a room block, kiva, and an associated midden for trash—have been called Prudden Units, after the archaeologist who first recognized them. It is unclear what purpose the kivas in these unit pueblos served but they usually contain diverse remains. This suggests they may have served many uses, both secular and ceremonial. Many archaeologists question the use of the term <em>kiva</em> for these types of structures because the term implies a ceremonial purpose that may or may not have been their primary function.</p> <p>Prudden cautions us not to see all these structures as kivas, and suggests that some may be the “last manifestation of a long standing tradition of pithouses.” He argues that many of these circular subterranean/semisubterranean rooms exhibit wide variations in features and probably function more as living rooms with multiple uses for men, women, and children. These rooms may have evolved out of earlier pithouse structures and over time their purpose changed to become more ceremonial and gender specific. While their exact purpose is unknown prehistorically, archaeologists have been calling them kivas for about a hundred years and it is likely that some ceremonial or ritual activities took place in them.</p> <p>During the Pueblo I through Pueblo III eras (AD 700–1300), Mesa Verde kivas in the Four Corners area of the Southwest typically have one proto-kiva or kiva for each block of six to nine rooms, and were probably used by relatively small social groups such as an extended family. Mesa Verde kivas also have a distinctive shape. They are keyhole shaped, having a larger southern recess than ones found farther south in the <strong>Chaco</strong> region. This recess results from building out the walls as opposed to simply containing a recess in the bench, as in the Chacoan great kivas. Mesa Verde kivas also have high masonry pilasters to support the cribbed roof.</p> <h2>Great Kivas</h2> <p>Great kivas, on the other hand, were ceremonial structures and public buildings that could accommodate large numbers of people. In the Mesa Verde region, great kivas appear as early as the Basketmaker III period (AD 500–750) and continued through the Pueblo III period (AD 1150–1300), when the region was largely depopulated. Great kivas served to integrate various sectors of the community through ceremony and meetings. They differed from small kivas not just in size and their unambiguous purpose but also in the distinctive internal features they contained. These distinctions include unique floor features (like foot drums), size (generally over 100 square meters of floor space), and artifacts (large bowls for serving, presumably related to feasting). Great kivas can be broken into Chacoan and non-Chacoan kivas, each with slightly different features.</p> <p>Chacoan great kivas appear in the Mesa Verde region during the Pueblo II era (AD 900-1150) in conjunction with Chaco-style <strong>great houses</strong>. They are associated with developments in <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> originating in New Mexico. Chacoan great kivas had a highly standardized construction design that included</p> <ul><li>a four-posthole arrangement in a square in the center of the structure designed to seat the large posts needed to the support the massive roof;</li> <li>benches around the interior circumference of the kivas (sometimes doubled)</li> <li>a series of wall niches around the circumference above the benches, varying in dimension and number and sometimes including more than one series on different levels;</li> <li>a staircase leading down from an antechamber, which can usually be found on the north side;</li> <li>a north/south axis with a fire box slightly offset to the south;</li> <li>a deflector (common in small kivas with a ventilation shaft on the south side), just south of the fire pit;</li> <li>two floor vaults.</li> </ul><h2>Tower Kivas</h2> <p>Tower kivas, another form found in southwest Colorado, are circular kivas with two or more stories. They can be freestanding; however, they are more commonly incorporated into a room block and enclosed by rectangular walls. The intervening spaces are filled with rubble. Tower kivas can be found throughout the Southwest.</p> <h2>Contemporary Kivas</h2> <p>Since most contemporary kivas are used for ritual and private ceremonies and activities, it is inappropriate for nonpueblo residents to press for information on what happens inside. However, the anthropologist and San Juan Pueblo native Alfonso Ortiz has offered a description of the underlying meaning from the perspective of a Tewa speaker: “The contemporary Tewa kiva … is regarded, when in use, as a symbolic representation of the primordial underworld home from which the Tewa believe they emerged to this world. The term used for the kiva when gods [kachinas] are impersonated, <em>Sipofene</em>, is the same name used for the primordial home. The impersonation of the gods is itself a reenactment of the original act of emergence from the underworld. Therefore, although there may be numerous sacred centers, the kiva itself is the center of centers, or the navel of navels.”</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/larkin-karin" hreflang="und">Larkin, Karin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Linda Cordell, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em> (San Diego: Academic Press, 1997).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895,” in <em>Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895-96</em>, by J. W. Powell (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Ventilators in Ceremonial Rooms of Pre Historic Cliff-Dwellings,” <em>American Anthropologist </em>New Series 10 (July–September 1908).</p> <p>A. V. Kidder, “Southwestern Archaeological Conference,” <em>Science</em> New Series 66 (November 18, 1927).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “The Idea of the Kiva in Anasazi Archaeology,” <em>Kiva </em>53 (Spring 1988).</p> <p>W. D. Lipe and Michelle Hegmon, “The Architecture of Social Integration in Prehistoric Pueblos,” <em>Occasional Papers of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center </em>No. 1 (Cortez, CO: Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 1989).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>J. W. Powell, <em>Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tributaries. Explored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, Under the Direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://crowcanyon.org/">Crow Canyon Archaeological Center</a> .</p> <p>Alfonso Ortiz, ed., <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 9:<em> The Southwest</em> (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1979).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Canyon National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” last modified December 3, 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</a>,” last modified December 11, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Mar 2016 17:39:35 +0000 yongli 1181 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lowry Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lowry-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lowry Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--970--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--970.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lowry-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo3%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=omY2Vkiq" width="1000" height="634" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lowry-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lowry Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Lowry pueblo is an Ancestral Puebloan ruin with thirty-seven rooms, eight kivas, and one Great Kiva. It dates to around 1100 CE and could have had several dozen residents at its height.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--972--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--972.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/rooms-lowry-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry2%5B1%5D%20%281%29.jpg?itok=jL2Ubc7W" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/rooms-lowry-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rooms in Lowry Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The initial core of the pueblo consisted of four rooms and possibly two kivas, to which more rooms and kivas were added over several decades. The pueblo might have had multiple stories, though probably no more than three.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--973--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--973.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/great-kiva"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo1%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=-c6BPSKk" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/great-kiva" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Kiva</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Great Kiva stands apart from the main pueblo at Lowry. Since 2000 the entire site has been part of Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-20T14:09:46-07:00" title="Friday, November 20, 2015 - 14:09" class="datetime">Fri, 11/20/2015 - 14:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lowry-site" data-a2a-title="Lowry Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flowry-site&amp;title=Lowry%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Named for early homesteader George Lowry, the Lowry ruin near Cortez (<span style="color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.87); font-family:roboto,arial,sans-serif">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, County Rd 7.25, Pleasant View, CO 81331)</span> is a pueblo with thirty-seven rooms, eight <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>, and one Great Kiva. Built between about 1090 and 1120 CE, the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>site dates to the late Pueblo II (900–1150 CE) and Pueblo III (1150–1350 CE) periods. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Lowry site is a “Chacoan outlier” related to contemporaneous settlements in New Mexico’s <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Original Construction and Use</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Lowry site is the only excavated room block, or aboveground building with multiple side-by-side rooms sharing walls, in a larger Ancestral Pueblo multisite community. Lowry probably served as a community center or focal site for the larger multisite community. Settlement in the community began around 600 CE and gradually grew to an estimated population of up to 400 residents at its height between 1100 and 1300.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Lowry pueblo was built in several distinct phases over the course of thirty years. In 1089–90, the initial core consisted of four rooms and possibly two kivas, plus the larger Great Kiva outside of it. Another round of construction in the first decade of the 1100s added twelve rooms and two kivas. No firm dates have been established for the south and east peripheral rooms. Some wall remnants are more than three meters (almost ten feet) tall, indicating that the pueblo had multiple stories, though probably no more than three.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The population of the pueblo could have reached fifty residents at its height in the early 1100s, depending on how many kivas were occupied at one time. (Archaeologists often assume one household of six for every kiva.) The pueblo’s use probably began to change in the mid-1100s, but there is evidence that it continued to be used into the mid-1200s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Initial Excavations</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1918 the anthropologist and archaeologist Jesse Walter Fewkes of the Smithsonian Institution’s Bureau of American Ethnology first professionally recorded the Lowry pueblo site. Calling it the “Acmen Ruin,” Fewkes described the site and photographed the unexcavated room block, noting that there was some evidence of digging near the site. A decade later, in 1928, the archaeologist Paul S. Martin examined the site as part of an expedition mounted by the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>). At the time, the unexcavated structure appeared as large mound overgrown with <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> and littered with wall stones.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Martin returned to the Lowry site in 1930–31 and 1933–34, this time under the auspices of Chicago’s Field Museum of Natural History, to conduct a thorough excavation of the room block. He excavated every room in the block, uncovering eight kivas in the room block as well as the separate Great Kiva. He documented his findings in great detail in “Lowry Ruin in Southwestern Colorado” (1936), which set a new standard for thoroughness in site reports.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Martin backfilled his excavations after each field season in an attempt to preserve the site. A few years later, Ben Williford, who had performed stabilization work at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, did some basic, small-scale stabilization at Lowry. After Williford completed his work in 1936, Lowry received no further excavations or stabilizations for thirty years. In the meantime, the structure began to deteriorate as a result of erosion and exposure to the elements.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Stabilization and Preservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1966–67 the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), which manages the Lowry site, contracted with the University of Colorado–<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> to stabilize the structure. The work was overseen by James A. “Al” Lancaster, who had served as field foreman on Martin’s 1930s excavations and had since become a pioneer in prehistoric site stabilization. The team graded the area around the room block for better drainage, reconstructed crumbling walls, repointed mortar, and capped exposed wall tops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In October 1967, the Lowry site was designated a National Historic Landmark. The area became popular as a local picnic area, and over the years the BLM has added restrooms, trails, and interpretive markers at the site.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1974–75 the BLM again contracted with the University of Colorado–Boulder to perform excavation and stabilization work at the site. The team, led by David A. Breternitz and the field directors Al Lancaster and Larry V. Nordby, included students from Boulder, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-lewis-college"><strong>Fort Lewis College</strong></a>, and Northern Arizona University. They reexcavated many areas Martin had backfilled in the 1930s, including the Great Kiva, and performed dozens of structural repairs throughout the room block. They also added a roof over some parts of the site for protection. More stabilization and repairs were necessary in the late 1970s, early 1980s, and early 1990s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 2000 the Lowry site has been part of <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong>. <a href="/article/fort-lewis-college"><strong>Fort Lewis College</strong></a> and Colorado State University use the site for research and archaeological field schools.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaco-canyon" hreflang="en">chaco canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jesse-walter-fewkes" hreflang="en">Jesse Walter Fewkes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paul-s-martin" hreflang="en">Paul S. Martin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canyons-ancients-national-monument" hreflang="en">canyons of the ancients national monument</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>K. Arrington, “Lowry Pueblo,” Colorado Cultural Resource Survey (November 3, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nancy Mahoney, Michael A. Adler, and James W. Kendrick, “The Changing Scale and Configuration of Mesa Verde Communities,” <em>Kiva</em> 66, no. 1 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul S. Martin, “Lowry Ruin in Southwestern Colorado,” Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series 23, no. 1 (1936).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William N. Morgan, <em>Ancient Architecture of the Southwest</em> (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Adrian S. White and David A. Breternitz, “Stabilization of Lowry Ruins,” Bureau of Land Management, Cultural Resources Series 1 (March 1976).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm/Archaeological_Sites/Lowry_Pueblo.html">Lowry Pueblo</a>,” Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Bureau of Land Management, US Department of the Interior.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://archive.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/anthropology/anthro_sites/paul_martin/martin_web/special_sitea.html">Lowry Ruin</a>,” Paul S. Martin Collection, Department of Anthropology, Field Museum.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Nov 2015 21:09:46 +0000 yongli 969 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org The Formative Period in Prehistory http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Formative Period in Prehistory</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-03T10:09:38-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 3, 2015 - 10:09" class="datetime">Tue, 11/03/2015 - 10:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory" data-a2a-title="The Formative Period in Prehistory"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fformative-period-prehistory&amp;title=The%20Formative%20Period%20in%20Prehistory"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Formative is the last of several periods in a sequence of cultural development that traces the overall progression from stone-tool-using, hunter- gatherer societies to fully developed agricultural societies. The process that occurred is analogous to the Old World’s “Neolithic Revolution.” It is evident in Colorado and led to the rise of cultures such as those at prehistoric <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>, although its origins lay far to the south in Mexico.</p> <h2>What Is Formative?</h2> <p>A prehistoric society is said to have reached a Formative stage of development when it is fully dependent on agriculture and completely settled with people living in permanent villages. The Formative was reached at different times in different parts of the world. In general, it happened later in the New World than in the Old World because people have been in North and South America for a shorter period of time than, for example, in Asia and Africa. Also, for the most part Formative development was achieved earlier in tropical and subtropical climates than in temperate latitudes, where more native plants existed that could be domesticated into crops.</p> <p>In Colorado, true Formative development only took place in the southwestern corner of the state, in the <strong>Four Corners</strong> region, where Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona come together. However, prehistoric agriculture was widespread in Colorado even if most people never came to rely completely on food crops for their survival. Outside the Four Corners region, people remained essentially hunters and gatherers of wild plant foods, but in some areas supplemented their diets with domesticated crops. The beginning date for Formative development is 1000 BC and the ending date is AD 1450. The actual dates vary from one area to the next. Establishing a beginning date is especially difficult because in any area the transition to full dependency on agriculture was a gradual process.</p> <h2>Domesticated Plants in Colorado</h2> <p>Three crops were grown prehistorically in Colorado: corn (maize), beans, and squash. These cultivated plants were not domesticated in Colorado. All native to Mexico, they arrived in western North America in fully domesticated form. Corn is basically a domesticated form of grass, and compared to other crops developed from wild grasses it is not especially nutritious. Archaeologists in the United States often refer to corn, beans, and squash as the “triad,” indicating that the most favorable diet for prehistoric farmers featured all three crops, which complemented each other in a nutritional sense. While this is true, the three crops have different histories of dispersion despite their common Mexican origin.</p> <p>Corn was the first to arrive in the American Southwest, where it has been found in archaeological sites in the Tucson, Arizona, area that date to around 2000 BC. Within a few centuries it had spread northward to the Colorado Plateau, the high-desert region that encompasses the Four Corners. Domesticated squash was the next to arrive. Its northward progress is not as well documented as that of corn, but it is known to have been present in the Southwest by sometime in the first millennium BC. Beans were the last to arrive, probably reaching the Southwest around 200 BC, but not appearing regularly in archaeological sites until the AD 300–600 interval, and possibly during the latter portion of that span. Clearly, the corn-beans-squash dietary combination is a relatively new when the overall history of agriculture in western North America is taken into consideration.</p> <p>Not all areas of Colorado were suitable for agriculture. The corn that spread from the southern deserts to the Colorado Plateau had adapted to a higher, colder <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> over time, but its usefulness as a food crop was still constrained by the length of the growing season as well as by water availability. Even areas where corn thrived during most years could be affected by drought, and both elevation and latitude affected the growing season. In general, valleys at lower elevations where water was most plentiful and the growing season reliably longer were the optimal locations for farming. South-facing mesa surfaces were also farmed. Such environments were present in the southwestern corner of the state. Farther north, along the western margin of Colorado, farming possibilities diminished as latitude increased, and only a few low-elevation settings have provided good archaeological evidence of prehistoric agriculture. Agriculture was also practiced to some degree in southeastern Colorado in the upper Purgatoire River Valley and adjacent Park Plateau east of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, and in the vast network of canyons in the dry plains to the east. There is virtually no evidence of plant cultivation in the Colorado mountains or on the northeastern plains.</p> <h2>Shift from Hunting/Gathering to Agriculture</h2> <p>Why do hunter-gatherers become farmers? The shift is not inevitable, as there are many historical examples of hunter-gatherers living near farming societies without adopting agriculture themselves. Commonly, there is interaction between such groups such as trade or even intermarriage. But adoption of agriculture is not automatic, and anthropologists have long noted that hunter-gatherers on average work less hard than farmers to obtain the food products needed for survival. Proximity to agricultural technology is not by itself an adequate explanation for the shift away from a hunting-gathering way of life.</p> <p>Population pressure may be a primary reason that hunter-gatherers turn to agriculture. Not long after the last Ice Age, which ended about 10,000 years ago, the world was essentially “full,” meaning that humans occupied most habitable areas, although in many places the population density was low. Human populations have a natural tendency to increase in numbers. With gradual population increases over time, and essentially no place for people to migrate to without creating conflict with other groups, it became necessary to improve food production capacity. In some places, at various times, environmental changes such as long-term drought also may have pushed people to adopt new methods of producing food. In essence, the beginnings of domestic plant cultivation in hunter-gatherer societies were about establishing greater food security rather than a newfound preference for farming.</p> <p>Agriculture may spread to new areas through either outright migration of people or by diffusion of crops and farming technology from one society to another. We may never learn which mechanism was mainly in play in prehistoric Colorado, and perhaps some of both are reflected in the various societies that adopted farming in different parts of the state. It should be noted, though, that hunter-gatherer groups were well-established in all parts of Colorado prior to the introduction of agriculture, and it seems probable that the part- and full-time farmers we see in the archaeological record were mainly descended from these indigenous groups.</p> <p>When hunter-gatherers first began to experiment with agriculture, there was little about the structure of their societies that changed. They remained highly mobile and lacked permanent dwellings because there was no reason to make investments of time and labor in building houses that would only see short-term use. Domesticated plants such as corn may have been planted in the spring and left to mature with little further attention as people followed traditional hunting-and-gathering routines. But domesticates generally don’t do well without human intervention, and some will not reproduce at all. Casual farming is often ineffective because crops, once planted, need to be watered, weeded, and protected against pests. Otherwise, crop yields are low and some crops will fail altogether. Over time, as the commitment to domesticated crops grew in some societies, patterns of human settlement changed. People became semisedentary as some members of the group were left behind to tend crops while others left to&nbsp; hunt and collect wild plant foods. The justification for building more permanent dwellings increased, while at the same time diets began to reflect a more even mix of domesticated and wild foods. Eventually some groups became reliant on agricultural products for most of their subsistence needs, a process that unfolded over the course of centuries or even a millennium or more. Permanent, year-round settlements were established near prime farming areas, with houses that could be occupied for a generation or longer.</p> <h2>Agriculture in Colorado, 1000 BC–AD 1450</h2> <p>Five prehistoric culture groups in Colorado are known to have practiced agriculture. However, only the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>people of the Four Corners region, with a culture sequence dating from 1000 BC to AD 1300, became completely dependent on agriculture and lived in permanent villages. The remaining four cultures combined hunting and gathering of wild foods with agriculture to varying degrees. The <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture">Fremont</a> tradition</strong> (AD 400–1300) extended into northwestern Colorado from Utah and is best known from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a> area. The <strong>Gateway tradition </strong>(400 BC–AD 1250) was located along the Colorado-Utah border midway between the Ancestral Pueblo and Fremont areas. In southeastern Colorado, people of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sopris-phase"><strong>Sopris phase</strong></a> (AD 1050–1200) occupied the upper Purgatoire River Valley and Park Plateau in the Trinidad vicinity, while the<a href="/article/apishapa-phase"> <strong>Apishapa phase</strong> </a>(AD 1050–1450) is associated with the extensive network of canyons of the lower Purgatoire River and other <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> tributaries. In southeastern Colorado there is archaeological evidence of small-scale experimentation with agriculture that predates the Sopris and Apishapa phases by a thousand years or more.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/zier-christian-j" hreflang="und">Zier, Christian J. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/neolithic-revolution" hreflang="en">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/maize" hreflang="en">maize</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-culture" hreflang="en">Fremont culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gateway-tradition" hreflang="en">Gateway Tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apishapa-phase" hreflang="en">Apishapa phase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sopris-phase" hreflang="en">Sopris phase</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Anne Birgette Gebauer and T. Douglas Price, eds.<em>, Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory</em>. Monographs in World Archaeology, no. 4 (Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, 1992).</p> <p>William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and Richard H. Wilshusen, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed, “Settlement and Subsistence during the Formative Era in West Central Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 71, no. 4 (December 2005).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed and Michael D. Metcalf, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>W. H. Wills, “Archaic Foraging and the Beginning of Food Production in the American Southwest,” in <em>Last Hunters—First Farmers</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1995).</p> <p>Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mary J. Adair, “Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains,” <em>University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology,</em> 16 (Lawrence: Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, 1988).</p> <p>Peter Bellwood, <em>First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies</em> (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> <p>Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).</p> <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds. <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest </em>(Los Angeles: UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 03 Nov 2015 17:09:38 +0000 yongli 751 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mesa Verde National Park http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mesa Verde National Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--614--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--614.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-kiva"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/A_Kiva%2C_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_%283455928466%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=-Y5t2dsF" width="1000" height="678" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-kiva" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace Kiva</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Kivas were used by many Puebloan for religious rituals and other ceremonies. The kivas at Mesa Verde are mostly round, subterranean rooms , although there are some kivas built above the ground while others differ architecturally.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--615--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--615.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Cliff_Canyon%2C_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_%284848757684%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=iGiURdSq" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cliff Canyon in Mesa Verde National Park is home to the Cliff House Sandstone, which can be seen in two cliffs beneath the broad, green mesa. Canyons such as this allowed for Puebloans to build their dwellings in the stone itself.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-21T11:50:51-06:00" title="Friday, August 21, 2015 - 11:50" class="datetime">Fri, 08/21/2015 - 11:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park" data-a2a-title="Mesa Verde National Park"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmesa-verde-national-park&amp;title=Mesa%20Verde%20National%20Park"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Mesa Verde National Park was established on June 29, 1906. It&nbsp;is the largest of the National Park Service parcels protecting cultural resources in Colorado, with nearly 5,000 documented sites, including about 600 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>. A majority of the sites are associated with <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> cultures and date to different time periods, ranging from AD 580 to 1290. Although the park offers some of the best-preserved examples of late Basketmaker to pre-1300 Pueblo sites, in many ways both the sites and the setting of Mesa Verde are atypical when compared with other contemporary sites in the surrounding central Mesa Verde region.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LlquWhdDlxQ" width="640"></iframe></p> <h2>Early Settlement</h2> <p>Mesa Verde, Spanish for “green mesa,” earned its name because of its relatively lush cover of piñon and juniper forest. The mesa’s higher-than-average elevation (6,000–8,570 feet above sea level), dependable precipitation (16.4 inches per year), fertile mantle of loamy soil, slight tilt to the south, and many associated drainages and springs made it an excellent setting for corn farmers who moved to the central Mesa Verde region from the south just before AD 600. Interestingly, there is little evidence of early Basketmaker or <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> period settlements within the park, which suggests that the rather uniform environmental setting required by dedicated corn farmers did not match the more diverse needs of hunter-gatherers or incipient farmers who depended on hunting and gathering for a significant amount of their daily caloric intake.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p> <p>The earliest well-established construction date for a small farming hamlet on Mesa Verde proper (i.e., Mesa Verde National Park, in contrast to the much more expansive Mesa Verde region) is approximately AD 580–90. Settlements and population increased rapidly over the next two centuries, so the population estimate for the entire mesa is 750 people between AD 725 and 800. Whereas the earliest farming settlements consist of one to two pithouses with less substantial outside storage features and shade structures, by the 750s the first small pueblos, with two to three households and a single associated pit structure, are evident. Archaeologists have recognized potentially large ninth-century villages in surveys of the mesa; however, these early Pueblo sites are relatively under-researched compared with other areas of the Mesa Verde region.</p> <h2>Depopulation, Revival, and Raids</h2> <p>Mesa Verde proper and much of the area north of the San Juan River lost significant numbers of people in the tenth century, and the reasons for and scale of this depopulation are just now being debated. By 1020, Mesa Verde’s population appears to have rebounded, with the initial increase much more rapid than elsewhere in the region. <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco</strong></a> era <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House </strong></a>communities, such as the fortress-like <strong><a href="/article/far-view-sites">Far View</a>&nbsp;</strong>complex, developed on the mesa, but researchers are still uncertain about the extent to which people living in the Mesa Verde region were connected to Chaco Canyon, the great cultural center seventy-five miles to the south.</p> <p>Chaco Canyon’s decline by 1125–50 coincided with one of the most severe drought intervals of the last thousand years, between 1130 and 1180, and the combined pressure of crop failures and regional upheaval rippled all the way north to Mesa Verde. A series of violent clashes date to this period, and there is evidence of significant conflict at sites close to the mesa. A variety of evidence supports the interpretation that the people of the Totah region, centered at the Great House complex Aztec approximately thirty-five miles southwest of the mesa, were the likely raiders. By the early 1200s stability had returned, and the population of the Mesa Verde region was increasingly drawn into large, walled villages in canyon-head settings or smaller settlements built into difficult-to-reach canyon-wall recesses.</p> <h2>Cliff Structures</h2> <p>The best-known sites associated with the park are those dating to 1220–90. These sites are built into the natural alcoves of the <strong>Cliff House Sandstone</strong> in the western half of the national park. The largest two or three of these sites are estimated to have had approximately 100 to 200 rooms in use at their peak. They are magnificent examples of Pueblo architecture, but they are significantly smaller than many of the large later villages of 200 rooms to more than 600 rooms found at the canyon edges of the farmlands north of <strong>Cortez</strong>. Because of the mesa’s restricted agricultural lands, the total population of Mesa Verde rarely accounted for more than one-fifth to one-tenth of the regional population.</p> <p>By the 1260s, unsettled times returned. A complex mix of environmental stressors, intra-site conflicts, and internal challenges to traditional cultural practices made smaller settlements less safe and farming increasingly risky. Present models suggest that areas close to where present-day Pueblo groups are found in New Mexico and Arizona would have been potentially less risky and more attractive, which may have contributed to the rapid Ancestral Pueblo depopulation of the Mesa Verde region over a twenty-year period. By 1290 even the well-protected communities of Mesa Verde proper, with their relatively rich mesa-top lands and somewhat isolated setting, succumbed to the turbulent conditions of the region.</p> <h2>Utes and Other Native Americans</h2> <p>Between 1400 and 1500, telltale material signs of <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> and possibly Athapaskan (present-day <strong>Apache</strong> and <strong>Navajo</strong>) use of the area are evident. Both groups originally shared a lifeway centered on hunting, gathering, and only limited use of domesticated crops. As the Navajo intensified their use of crops such as corn, their settlements became more fixed on the landscape in the sixteenth century. In addition, the Spanish entradas and occupation of the Rio Grande Valley in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries introduced horses and other potential trade goods into the regional economy.</p> <p>These changes allowed groups such as the Ute to play an increasingly dominant role in the northern Southwest as mobile raiders and traders. By 1750 they were largely in control of the Mesa Verde region. In the nineteenth century, they were often the brokers for early US explorers and immigrants. They, along with the Navajo, were the guides for the first US explorers in the area. The resulting reports accelerated popular curiosity about the cliff dwellers and ultimately led to the creation of Mesa Verde National Park.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwellers-mesa-verde" hreflang="en">cliff dwellers mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-colorado" hreflang="en">mesa verde colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-history" hreflang="en">mesa verde history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anasazi-pueblo" hreflang="en">anasazi pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Timothy A. Kohler and Mark D. Varien, <em>Emergence and Collapse of Early Villages: Models of Central Mesa Verde Archaeology</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).</p> <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p> <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p> <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p> <p>Arthur Rohn, <em>Mug House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Washington, DC: Archeological Research Series 7-D, National Park Service, 1971).</p> <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: University of California, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">National Park Service</a></p> <p>Judith Reynolds and David Reynolds, <em>Nordenskiöld of Mesa Verde</em> (Self-published: Xlibris, 2006).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 21 Aug 2015 17:50:51 +0000 yongli 584 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--555--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--555.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/NordenskioldCliffPalacePhoto%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=ffo7Nzwy" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photograph was taken by Gustaf Nordenskiöld during his initial investigations of the Mesa Verde region in 1891.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-20T09:34:37-06:00" title="Thursday, August 20, 2015 - 09:34" class="datetime">Thu, 08/20/2015 - 09:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region" data-a2a-title="Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region&amp;title=Gustaf%20Nordenski%C3%B6ld%20and%20the%20Mesa%20Verde%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In 1891 the young Swedish scientist Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1868–95) arrived in Colorado, seeking both a cure for his <a href="/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tuberculosis</strong></a> and a look at the wonders of the West. His experiences over the next two years set in motion a series of events that would ultimately lead to the passage of the first federal law protecting cultural resources in 1906 and the creation of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> later that same year. Nordenskiöld’s book (1893) on his work in the Mesa Verde region and his observations of the historic Pueblos remains a milestone in the early archaeological research on this region.</p> <h2>Archaeological Investigations</h2> <p>Soon after his arrival in <strong>Durango</strong> in the summer of 1891, Nordenskiöld traveled to <strong>Mancos</strong> and began exploring local <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> with the <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Wetherill</strong></a> family, the ranchers with whom he lodged. His experiences so inspired him that he spent a month excavating and surveying sites, with special focus on those&nbsp;sheltered by the overhanging cliffs of Wetherill and Chapin Mesas in what is now Mesa Verde National Park. Nordenskiöld had been trained as a natural scientist and been taught to be a careful observer of everything from geology to butterflies. His observations about the Mesa Verde region included descriptions of the region’s flora, fauna, and geography, as well as the sites and associated artifacts that were his primary focus.</p> <p>Nordenskiöld’s investigations in the Southwest accelerated archaeological practice and laid a foundation for our current preservation ethic. His extensive photographic documentation of archaeological sites and the materials he collected, along with his detailed descriptions of his finds, brought new discipline to the relatively young field of archaeology. His hired hands were deeply impressed by the rigor and scientific aims of his methods. This experience informed subsequent excavations and collections by the Wetherill brothers, especially Richard Wetherill, at Mesa Verde, Grand Gulch, and <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>.&nbsp;Nordenskiöld’s well-illustrated and thorough research report was published in both Swedish and English in 1893 and remains in print today. It endures as a valued resource on Mesa Verde archaeology and its early development.</p> <h2>Fate of the Artifacts and Legacy</h2> <p>In September 1891, Nordenskiöld attempted to ship his artifact collection back to Europe but was delayed in Durango and temporarily arrested on charges that he had illegally excavated the artifacts. The artifacts were impounded for the next month until the court ruled that no law had been broken. The publicity surrounding this episode and the increasingly wholesale excavation of sites throughout the region over the next decade led to the enactment of the <a href="/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a> in 1906 and, thereafter, to the establishment of a national park to protect Mesa Verde. The collections from Nordenskiöld’s 1891 investigations ultimately ended up at the Finnish national museum in Helsinki, where they remained for more than a century before the Finnish government agreed in 2019 to return many of the artifacts—including some human remains and funerary objects—to native tribes in the region.</p> <p>Nordenskiöld’s scientific contributions and his indirect but significant role in historic preservation legislation are all the more remarkable given that he died only four years after his visit to Mesa Verde, at age twenty-six.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold-mesa-verde" hreflang="en">gustaf nordenskiold mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gustav Nordenskiöld, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</em> (Stockholm: P. A Norstedt and Söner, 1893).</p> <p><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Kevin Simpson,&nbsp;</span><a class="ext" href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/10/10/mesa-verde-remains-nordenskiold/" style="color: rgb(0, 144, 235); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;" title=" (external link)">"More Than a Century Ago, a European Visitor Took More Than 600 Native American Remains and Artifacts From Colorado's Mesa Verde,"</a><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">&nbsp;</span><em style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Colorado Sun</em><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">, October 10, 2019.</span></p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p>Judith Reynolds and David Reynolds, <em>Nordenskiöld of Mesa Verde</em> (Self-published: Xlibris, 2006).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Women to the Rescue: Creating Mesa Verde National Park</em>, Andrew Gulliford, ed. (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 20 Aug 2015 15:34:37 +0000 yongli 553 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org