%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Sarah Platt Decker http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sarah-platt-decker <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sarah Platt Decker</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3702--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3702.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sarah-platt-decker"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mrs._Sarah_Platt_Decker_portrait%2C_LCCN94508346_%28cropped%29.tif__0.jpg?itok=A6aiXcbS" width="800" height="1067" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sarah-platt-decker" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sarah Platt Decker</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Sarah Platt Decker was an American <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>suffragist</strong></a> in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> who played a critical role in Colorado women gaining the vote in 1893. She founded the <strong>Woman's Club of Denver</strong> and served as the national president of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/general-federation-women%E2%80%99s-clubs"><strong>General Federation of Women's Clubs</strong></a> from 1904 to 1908.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T14:18:42-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 14:18" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 14:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sarah-platt-decker" data-a2a-title="Sarah Platt Decker"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsarah-platt-decker&amp;title=Sarah%20Platt%20Decker"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Sarah Platt Decker (1855–1912) was a beloved leader of women, known nationwide for her advocacy of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> and social reform. Her influence was instrumental in the 1893 vote that gave Colorado women equal suffrage. She later became the founder and first president of the <strong>Woman’s Club of Denver</strong> and served as president of the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/general-federation-women%E2%80%99s-clubs">General Federation of Women’s Clubs</a></strong>, which evolved under her leadership to become a national platform for women’s issues. In addition to working for social reform, she also championed conservation and successfully pushed for the establishment of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Sophia Chase was born on October 1, 1855, in McIndoe Falls, Vermont, the fifth of seven children born to Edwin and Lydia (Adams) Chase. The family moved to Mt. Holyoke, Massachusetts, where her father started a lumber and paper-manufacturing business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s mother was a descendant of the famous Adams family of Massachusetts. Her father was a prominent antislavery and temperance advocate. He was a passionate orator known as “the fighting deacon.” Sarah, too, became involved in social reform. As a young woman, she was named a trustee of a fund for the poor of Mt. Holyoke. Helping the less fortunate became her lifelong passion.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s formal schooling ended when she graduated from high school. In 1875, at age twenty, she married Charles B. Harris, a Mt. Holyoke merchant. When he died two years later, she experienced the lack of legal rights that women faced at the time. All her possessions, many of them wedding gifts and items she had inherited from her own family, were divided among members of her husband’s family. They left her with only one-third of her possessions, known as “a widow’s third.” She was so distressed and disgusted that she dropped her husband’s last name. The experience helped cement her lifelong beliefs in women’s suffrage and legal rights for women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1884, at age twenty-eight, she met and married Colonel <strong>James H. Platt</strong>, a Civil War veteran, physician, and three-term US congressman from Virginia. They lived briefly in Queens, New York, where they worked at the Mineola Children’s Home and where Sara became involved in the child-welfare movement. In 1885 their only child, Harriet Platt, was born.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Move to Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1887 the Platts moved to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, where James founded a paper mill and Sarah became involved in civic life. For example, she led the relief efforts for Coloradans devastated by the <a href="/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a> and the repeal of the <strong>Sherman Silver Purchase Act</strong>, which shuttered mines across the state. She helped the city provide a tent camp for homeless men and relief for others affected by the economic slump. At the same time, she served as a powerful campaigner for the referendum that won the vote for Colorado women in 1893. In her obituary many years later, the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> assigned her “a great share of the credit” for the victory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With suffrage achieved, Platt extended her influence into other areas of political and social reform. In 1896 she worked for presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan and gained recognition as an organizer and speaker. She also remained involved in local civic affairs throughout her life, serving on the Colorado State Board of Pardons, the State Board of Charities and Corrections, the Advisory Board of the Denver County Hospital, and the Child Labor League.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Woman’s Club of Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Platt found her true calling when she became involved in the women’s club movement. Starting in the mid-1800s, women’s clubs had become a popular venue for women to meet, providing them an intellectual and social outlet. By the 1890s, these clubs were shifting from social and study clubs to civic and social welfare groups. Platt played a key role in this transition, especially in Colorado. In 1894 she helped to organize and was elected the first president of the Woman’s Club of Denver, which united women’s clubs across Denver under a single organization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under Platt’s leadership, club members throughout the Denver area were challenged to consider “women’s work” to be the improvement of society. She instituted standing committees on public service, city improvement, temperance, public health, civil service, and legislation. Denver benefited from this new agenda as women’s clubs moved into the public realm. For example, women’s clubs opened libraries and sponsored traveling libraries, set up supervised playgrounds for children, established night classes and English-language classes for immigrant workers, opened free employment bureaus, sought to end child labor, offered medical care for the poor and working mothers, and opened nursery schools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1896 Platt won acclaim for her speech at the biennial convention of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Kentucky, in which she emphasized the importance of the clubs’ social service work and cited the work being done in Colorado. Two years later, the Woman’s Club of Denver hosted the federation’s convention. Platt’s ability to manage the conference and her inspiring oratory vaulted her to national attention. She was elected vice president of the General Federation that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As her profile rose on the national stage, Platt suffered significant losses at home. In 1894 James Platt died in a boating accident. Five years later, she married Judge <strong>Westbrook S. Decker</strong>, a friend of her late husband and the attorney for his estate. In 1902 Sarah Platt Decker declined to run for president of the General Federation, perhaps out of concerns for her husband’s health. Judge Decker died in 1903; thus, by the age of forty-eight, she had outlived all three of her husbands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Judge Decker’s death, Sarah Platt Decker accepted the presidency of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs and served two terms, from 1904 to 1908. Established in 1890, the General Federation served as an umbrella group for thousands of women’s clubs that represented more than 1 million women by 1910. Decker is credited with expanding the organization into a national force and a voice for American women during her presidency. She travelled extensively, visiting more than forty state federations and delivering speeches lauded for their wit, wisdom, and common sense. She also reached beyond the federation by publishing articles that made her widely known and admired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of Decker’s lasting organizational contributions to the federation was the establishment of the Bureau of Information, which collected and distributed reports of club activities across the nation. The bureau facilitated communication between and among clubs and forged a closer link between the General Federation and individual clubs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker also enlarged the federation’s range of interest and activism. Civil service reform, public education, child labor, juvenile justice, and public health were high on her agenda. Other issues tackled by the General Federation during Decker’s presidency centered on women’s lives at home. These concerns included promotion of home economics classes in public schools; national lobbying to pass the Pure Food and Drug Act to protect the public from misrepresentation of food, drugs, and cosmetics; and dress reform to allow women to wear practical-yet-modest clothing that did not restrict their movement.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, Decker believed in the conservation of national resources and inspired women in the federation to advocate for new state and national parks. Her signature achievement was the establishment of Colorado’s <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park">Mesa Verde National Park</a></strong> in 1906. In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt invited Decker to attend the Governors’ Conference on Conservation of Natural Resources at the White House; she was the only female delegate.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1908 Decker stepped down from the presidency of the General Federation but maintained her active involvement in the organization. She chaired committees, gave speeches, and advocated for a variety of issues. She also remained active in Colorado and Denver politics, and helped to establish the liberal Citizen’s Party.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In early 1912, some Coloradans suggested Decker as a candidate for the US Senate, with a few even proposing her as a potential presidential candidate. At a time when only a handful of western states, including Colorado, allowed women the vote, it was extraordinary for a woman to be considered for national political office. She was seen as a strong contender for the Senate nomination, but it was not to be. In July 1912, she was in San Francisco for the General Federation’s biennial convention when she collapsed from an abdominal obstruction. Despite emergency surgery, Decker died two days later at the age of fifty-six.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker’s death was front-page news in Colorado and across the nation. She was the first woman to be given the honor of lying in state in the Colorado <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>State Capitol</strong></a>. Flags were lowered to half-mast and government offices closed for her funeral. Three Colorado governors—including the sitting governor, <strong>John Shafroth</strong>—served as her pallbearers. In a tribute to Decker, former governor <strong>Alva Adams</strong> declared, “She was the most popular and perhaps the greatest citizen of the state.” Women’s clubs across the country mourned her passing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Decker Branch of the <strong>Denver Public Library</strong>, which opened in 1913, was named in her honor; it is located at the corner of <strong>Platt Park</strong>, whose name honors her second husband. The <strong>University of Northern Colorado</strong> offers a Sarah Platt Decker Memorial Scholarship for female students interested in social justice. In 1990 Decker was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/duncan-elizabeth" hreflang="und">Duncan, Elizabeth</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sarah-platt-decker" hreflang="en">sarah platt decker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/james-platt" hreflang="en">james platt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s Suffrage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womans-club-denver" hreflang="en">Woman&#039;s Club of Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/general-federation-womens-clubs" hreflang="en">general federation of women&#039;s clubs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/westbrook-decker" hreflang="en">westbrook decker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/decker-branch-library" hreflang="en">Decker Branch Library</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Denver Public Library, “The Decker Branch Library,” pamphlet available at Decker Branch Library, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver Public Library, “Sarah S. Platt Decker,” pamphlet available at Decker Branch Library, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.gfwc.org/">General Federation of Women’s Clubs</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ellis Meredith, ed., <em>Favorite Poems of Sarah Platt Decker </em>(Denver: Smith-Brooks Press, 1912).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Clifford E. Rinehart, “Decker, Sarah Sophia Chase Platt,” in <em>Notable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary</em>, ed. Edward T. James, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeanne Varnell, <em>Women of Consequence: The Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame </em>(Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mildred White Wells, <em>Unity in Diversity: The History of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs</em> (Washington, DC: General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1953).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Diane Harrison Werne, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1500907">Decker, Sarah Sophia Chase Platt</a>,” <em>American National Biography Online</em>, February 2000.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Gail M. Beaton, <em>Colorado Women: A History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Sarah Platt Decker (1855–1912) was an important leader in the 1893 vote that gave Colorado women the vote. This is called equal suffrage. She was the first president of the <strong>Woman’s Club of Denver</strong>. Then she served as president of the <strong>General Federation of Women’s Clubs</strong>. She helped to establish Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Sophia Chase was born on October 1, 1855, in McIndoe Falls, Vermont. She was the fifth of seven children. Her parents were Edwin and Lydia (Adams) Chase. The family moved to Mt. Holyoke, Massachusetts, where her father owned a lumber and paper mill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Her father spoke against slavery. He was known as “the fighting deacon.” Sarah became involved in helping others. As a young woman, she helped with a fund for the poor. Helping the less fortunate became her lifelong passion.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s schooling ended when she graduated from high school. In 1875, at age twenty, she married Charles B. Harris. When he died two years later, she experienced unfairness of the law. According to the law, most of what she owned was given to her husband’s family. Many of the items were wedding gifts or things she had inherited from her own family. She was so upset that she dropped her husband’s last name. This helped Sarah form her lifelong beliefs in voting and legal rights for women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1884, at age twenty-eight, she met and married Colonel <strong>James H. Platt</strong>. He was a Civil War veteran and a physician. They lived in Queens, New York, where they worked at a children’s home. In 1885, their only child, Harriet Platt, was born.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Move to Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1887 the Platts moved to <strong>Denver.</strong> James founded a paper mill. Sarah became involved in Denver’s community life.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah was an important voice for suffrage for women in Colorado. In 1893, women got the vote in Colorado. The<strong><em> Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> said that Platt had “a great share of the credit” for the victory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Woman’s Club of Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Platt became involved with women’s clubs. These were a popular way for women to get together. In the 1890s, these clubs started working on social issues. In 1894 Platt was elected the first president of the Woman’s Club of Denver. This group united women’s clubs across Denver under a single organization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under Platt’s leadership, club members worked to improve society. For example, they opened libraries, set up playgrounds for children, and started English-language classes. They opened job centers, offered medical care for the poor, and started preschools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1896 Platt gave a speech at the meeting of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Kentucky. The speech told about the kind of work being done in Colorado. Two years later, the Woman’s Club of Denver hosted the next meeting. Platt’s gave another inspiring speech. As a result, she was elected vice president of the General Federation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During this time, some sad things happened in her life. In 1894 James Platt died in a boating accident. Five years later, she married Judge <strong>Westbrook S. Decker</strong> who died in 1903. By the time she was forty-eight, she had outlived all three of her husbands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Judge Decker’s death, Sarah Platt Decker became the president of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. She served from 1904 to 1908. The General Federation was a group of thousands of women’s clubs. It  represented more than 1 million women by 1910. She visited more than forty states. She gave speeches filled with wisdom and common sense. She wrote articles that made her known and admired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker inspired women to advocate for new state and national parks. She helped to establish of Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1908 her term with the General Federation ended. She was still involved in the organization. She chaired committees, gave speeches, and supported different issues. She remained active in Colorado and Denver politics.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1912, some Coloradans wanted Decker to be a candidate for the US Senate. This was at a time when only a handful of states, including Colorado, allowed women the vote. It was extraordinary for a woman to be considered for national political office. But sadly, it was not to be.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1912, she was in San Francisco for the General Federation’s meeting. She collapsed from stomach pains. Despite emergency surgery, Decker died two days later. She was fifty-six years old.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker’s death was front-page news in Colorado and across the nation. She lay in state in the Colorado <strong>State Capitol</strong>. Flags were lowered to half-mast. Government offices closed for her funeral. Three Colorado governors carried her casket. Governor <strong>Alva Adams</strong> declared, “She was the most popular and perhaps the greatest citizen of the state.” Women’s clubs across the country mourned her passing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Decker Branch of the <strong>Denver Public Library</strong> was named in her honor. It opened in 1913. It is located at the corner of <strong>Platt Park</strong>, whose name honors her second husband. The <strong>University of Northern Colorado o</strong>ffers a Sarah Platt Decker Memorial Scholarship. It is for female students interested in social justice. In 1990 Decker was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Sarah Platt Decker (1855–1912) was known across America for her advocacy of <strong>women’s suffrage</strong> and social reform. She was an important leader in the 1893 vote that gave Colorado women the vote. This is called equal suffrage. She became the founder and first president of the <strong>Woman’s Club of Denver</strong>. Then she served as president of the <strong>General Federation of Women’s Clubs</strong>. Under her leadership it became a national platform for women’s issues and social reform. She championed conservation and helped to push for the establishment of Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Sophia Chase was born on October 1, 1855, in McIndoe Falls, Vermont. She was the fifth of seven children born to Edwin and Lydia (Adams) Chase. The family moved to Mt. Holyoke, Massachusetts, where her father owned a lumber and paper mill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s mother was a descendant of the famous Adams family of Massachusetts. Her father was a prominent antislavery and temperance advocate. He was a passionate speaker known as “the fighting deacon.” Sarah, also, became involved in social reform. As a young woman, she was named a trustee of a fund for the poor of Mt. Holyoke. Helping the less fortunate became her lifelong passion.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s schooling ended when she graduated from high school. In 1875, at age twenty, she married Charles B. Harris, a Mt. Holyoke merchant. When he died two years later, she experienced the lack of legal rights that women faced at the time. All her possessions were divided among members of her husband’s family. Many of the items were wedding gifts or things she had inherited from her own family. She was left with only one-third of her possessions, known as “a widow’s third.” She was so upset that she dropped her husband’s last name. The experience helped cement her lifelong beliefs in suffrage and legal rights for women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1884, at age twenty-eight, she met and married Colonel <strong>James H. Platt</strong>. He was a Civil War veteran, physician, and US congressman from Virginia. They lived in Queens, New York, where they worked at a children’s home. In 1885, their only child, Harriet Platt, was born.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Move to Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1887 the Platts moved to <strong>Denver</strong>, where James founded a paper mill. Sarah became involved in Denver’s civic life. In 1893, she helped Coloradans devastated by the repeal of the <strong>Sherman Silver Purchase Act</strong>. Mines across the state were closed. She helped the city provide a tent camp and relief for the unemployed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>She became an influential voice for suffrage for women in Colorado. In 1893, women got the vote in Colorado. In her obituary, the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News </em></strong>said that Platt had “a great share of the credit” for the victory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Platt extended her influence into other areas of political and social reform. In 1896 she worked for presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan and gained recognition as an organizer and speaker. She remained involved in local affairs throughout her life. She served on the Colorado State Board of Pardons, the State Board of Charities and Corrections, the Advisory Board of the Denver County Hospital, and the Child Labor League.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Woman’s Club of Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Platt found her true calling when she became involved in the women’s club movement. Starting in the mid-1800s, women’s clubs were a popular way for women to have intellectual and social interactions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1890s, these clubs were changing. They began to work on social issues. Platt played a key role in this transition, especially in Colorado. In 1894 she was elected the first president of the Woman’s Club of Denver. This group united women’s clubs across Denver under a single organization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under Platt’s leadership, club members worked toward the improvement of society. She created committees on public service, city improvement, temperance, public health, civil service, and legislation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women’s clubs worked to improve the Denver community. For example, they opened libraries, set up playgrounds for children, established night classes and English-language classes for immigrant workers. They opened employment bureaus, sought to end child labor, offered medical care for the poor, and opened nursery schools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1896 Platt gave a speech at the convention of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Kentucky. The speech emphasized the importance of clubs’ social service work and cited the work being done in Colorado. Two years later, the Woman’s Club of Denver hosted the convention. Platt’s ability to manage the conference and another inspiring speech vaulted her to national attention. She was elected vice president of the General Federation that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During this time, Platt suffered personal losses at home. In 1894 James Platt died in a boating accident. Five years later, she married Judge<strong> Westbrook S. Decker</strong>. In 1902, Sarah Platt Decker declined to run for president of the General Federation, perhaps out of concerns for her husband’s health. Judge Decker died in 1903. Thus, by the age of forty-eight, she had outlived all three of her husbands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Judge Decker’s death, Sarah Platt Decker became the president of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. She served two terms, from 1904 to 1908. The General Federation was a group of thousands of women’s clubs that represented more than 1 million women by 1910. Decker expanded the organization to become a voice for American women. She travelled extensively, visiting more than forty state federations. She delivered speeches known for their wit, wisdom, and common sense. She also published articles that made her widely known and admired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker enlarged the federation’s range of interest and activism. Civil service reform, public education, child labor, juvenile justice, and public health were high on her agenda. The organization promoted home economics classes in public schools. She also championed dress reform to allow women to wear practical-yet-modest clothing that did not restrict their movement.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, Decker believed in the preservation of national resources. She inspired women in the federation to advocate for new state and national parks. Her largest achievement was the establishment of Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in 1906. In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt invited Decker to attend the Governors’ Conference on Conservation of Natural Resources at the White House. She was the only female delegate.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1908 Decker stepped down from the presidency of the General Federation. She remained active in the organization. She chaired committees, gave speeches, and supported a variety of issues. She stayed active in Colorado and Denver politics, and helped to establish the liberal Citizen’s Party.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In early 1912, some Coloradans suggested Decker as a candidate for the US Senate. Some even proposed her as a potential presidential candidate. This was at a time when only a handful of western states, including Colorado, allowed women the vote. It was extraordinary for a woman to be considered for national political office. She was a strong candidate for the Senate nomination, but it was not to be.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1912, she was in San Francisco for the General Federation’s biennial convention. She collapsed from an abdominal obstruction. Despite emergency surgery, Decker died two days later at the age of fifty-six.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker’s death was front-page news in Colorado and across the nation. She was the first woman to be given the honor of lying in state in the Colorado <strong>State Capitol</strong>. Flags were lowered to half-mast and government offices closed for her funeral. Three Colorado governors—including the current governor, <strong>John Shafroth</strong>—served as her pallbearers. In a tribute to Decker, former governor <strong>Alva Adams</strong> declared, “She was the most popular and perhaps the greatest citizen of the state.” Women’s clubs across the country mourned her passing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Decker Branch of the <strong>Denver Public Library</strong>, which opened in 1913, is named in her honor. It is located at the corner of <strong>Platt Park</strong>, whose name honors her second husband. The <strong>University of Northern Colorado</strong> offers a Sarah Platt Decker Memorial Scholarship for female students interested in social justice. In 1990 Decker was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Sarah Platt Decker (1855–1912) was known nationwide for her advocacy of <strong>women’s suffrage</strong> and social reform. Her influence was instrumental in the 1893 vote that gave Colorado women equal suffrage. She later became the founder and first president of the <strong>Woman’s Club of Denver</strong>. Then she served as president of the <strong>General Federation of Women’s Clubs</strong>, which evolved under her leadership to become a national platform for women’s issues. In addition to working for social reform, she also championed conservation and successfully pushed for the establishment of Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Sophia Chase was born on October 1, 1855, in McIndoe Falls, Vermont. She was the fifth of seven children born to Edwin and Lydia (Adams) Chase. The family moved to Mt. Holyoke, Massachusetts, where her father owned a lumber and paper mill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s mother was a descendant of the famous Adams family of Massachusetts. Her father was a prominent antislavery and temperance advocate. He was a passionate orator known as “the fighting deacon.” Sarah, too, became involved in social reform. As a young woman, she was named a trustee of a fund for the poor of Mt. Holyoke. Helping the less fortunate became her lifelong passion.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah’s formal schooling ended when she graduated from high school. In 1875, at age twenty, she married Charles B. Harris, a Mt. Holyoke merchant. When he died two years later, she experienced the lack of legal rights that women faced at the time. All her possessions were divided among members of her husband’s family. Many of the items were wedding gifts or things she had inherited from her own family. She was left with only one-third of her possessions, known as “a widow’s third.” She was so distressed and disgusted that she dropped her husband’s last name. The experience helped cement her lifelong beliefs in women’s suffrage and legal rights for women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1884, at age twenty-eight, she met and married Colonel <strong>James H. Platt</strong>, a Civil War veteran, physician, and three-term US congressman from Virginia. They lived briefly in Queens, New York, where they worked at the Mineola Children’s Home and where Sarah became involved in the child-welfare movement. In 1885 their only child, Harriet Platt, was born.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Move to Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1887 the Platts moved to <strong>Denver</strong>, where James founded a paper mill and Sarah became involved in civic life. In 1893, for example, she led the relief efforts for Coloradans devastated by the repeal of the <strong>Sherman Silver Purchase Act</strong>. Mines across the state were closed. She helped the city provide a tent camp for the unemployed and relief for those affected.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>She was a powerful campaigner for the referendum that won the vote for Colorado women in 1893. In her obituary many years later, the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> assigned her “a great share of the credit” for the victory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With suffrage achieved, Platt extended her influence into other areas of political and social reform. In 1896 she worked for presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan and gained recognition as an organizer and speaker. She remained involved in local civic affairs throughout her life. She served on the Colorado State Board of Pardons, the State Board of Charities and Corrections, the Advisory Board of the Denver County Hospital, and the Child Labor League.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Woman’s Club of Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Platt found her true calling when she became involved in the women’s club movement. Starting in the mid-1800s, women’s clubs had become a popular way for women to meet. The clubs provided them with an intellectual and social outlet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p> By the 1890s, these clubs were changing and becoming groups that worked on social issues. Platt played a key role in this transition, especially in Colorado. In 1894 she was elected the first president of the Woman’s Club of Denver, which united women’s clubs across Denver under a single organization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under Platt’s leadership, club members throughout Denver were asked to consider “women’s work” to be the improvement of society. She instituted standing committees on public service, city improvement, temperance, public health, civil service, and legislation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver benefited from this new agenda as women’s clubs moved into the public realm. For example, women’s clubs opened libraries, set up playgrounds for children, established night classes and English-language classes for immigrant workers, opened free employment bureaus, sought to end child labor, offered medical care for the poor, and opened nursery schools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1896 Platt won acclaim for her speech at the convention of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Kentucky.  She emphasized the importance of social service work and cited the work being done in Colorado. Two years later, the Woman’s Club of Denver hosted the federation’s convention. Platt’s ability to manage the conference and an inspiring speech vaulted her to national attention. She was elected vice president of the General Federation that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During this time, Platt suffered significant losses at home. In 1894 James Platt died in a boating accident. Five years later, she married Judge <strong>Westbrook S. Decker</strong>, a friend of her late husband and the attorney for his estate. In 1902 she declined to run for president of the General Federation, perhaps out of concerns for her husband’s health. Judge Decker died in 1903. Thus, by the age of forty-eight, she had outlived all three of her husbands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Judge Decker’s death, Sarah Platt Decker accepted the presidency of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs and served two terms, from 1904 to 1908. Established in 1890, the General Federation served as an umbrella group for thousands of women’s clubs that represented more than 1 million women by 1910. Decker expanded the organization into a national force and a voice for American women. She travelled extensively, visiting more than forty state federations. She delivered speeches lauded for their wit, wisdom, and common sense. She also reached beyond the federation by publishing articles that made her widely known and admired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of Decker’s lasting contributions to the federation was the establishment of the Bureau of Information, which collected and distributed reports of club activities across the nation. The bureau facilitated communication between clubs and forged a closer link between the General Federation and individual clubs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker also enlarged the federation’s range of interest and activism. Civil service reform, public education, child labor, juvenile justice, and public health were high on her agenda. Other issues tackled by the General Federation during Decker’s presidency centered on women’s lives at home. These concerns included promoting home economics classes in public schools; national lobbying to pass the Pure Food and Drug Act to protect the public from misrepresentation of food, drugs, and cosmetics; and dress reform to allow women to wear practical-yet-modest clothing that did not restrict their movement.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, Decker believed in the conservation of national resources. She inspired women in the federation to advocate for new state and national parks. Her signature achievement was the establishment of Colorado’s <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong> in 1906. In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt invited Decker to attend the Governors’ Conference on Conservation of Natural Resources at the White House where she was the only female delegate.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Years and Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1908 Decker stepped down from the presidency of the General Federation but maintained her active involvement in the organization. She chaired committees, gave speeches, and advocated for a variety of issues. She also remained active in Colorado and Denver politics, and helped to establish the liberal Citizen’s Party.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In early 1912, some Coloradans suggested Decker as a candidate for the US Senate. A few even proposed her as a potential presidential candidate. At a time when only a handful of western states, including Colorado, allowed women the vote, it was extraordinary for a woman to be considered for national political office. She was seen as a strong contender for the Senate nomination, but it was not to be.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In July 1912, she was in San Francisco for the General Federation’s biennial convention when she collapsed from an abdominal obstruction. Despite emergency surgery, Decker died two days later at the age of fifty-six.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Decker’s death was front-page news in Colorado and across the nation. She was the first woman to be given the honor of lying in state in the Colorado <strong>State Capitol</strong>. Flags were lowered to half-mast and government offices closed for her funeral. Three Colorado governors—including the sitting governor, <strong>John Shafroth</strong>—served as her pallbearers. In a tribute to Decker, former governor <strong>Alva Adams</strong> declared, “She was the most popular and perhaps the greatest citizen of the state.” Women’s clubs across the country mourned her passing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Decker Branch of the <strong>Denver Public Library</strong>, which opened in 1913, was named in her honor. It is located at the corner of <strong>Platt Park</strong>, whose name honors her second husband. The <strong>University of Northern Colorado </strong>offers a Sarah Platt Decker Memorial Scholarship for female students interested in social justice. In 1990 Decker was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 20:18:42 +0000 yongli 3176 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org General Federation of Women’s Clubs http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/general-federation-womens-clubs <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">General Federation of Women’s Clubs</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T11:16:36-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 11:16" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 11:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/general-federation-womens-clubs" data-a2a-title="General Federation of Women’s Clubs"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgeneral-federation-womens-clubs&amp;title=General%20Federation%20of%20Women%E2%80%99s%20Clubs"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) is an international women’s organization dedicated to community improvement and enhancing the lives of others. In 1906 the group’s Colorado chapter helped establish <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, its most enduring contribution to the state. Founded in 1890 by New York journalist Jane Cunningham Croly, the GFWC was established to advance the rights of women and children in education, working environments, and health care. Today, the GFWC continues to support various women, youth, and overall equality reforms worldwide.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Birth of GFWC</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC initially focused on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage movement</strong></a> by encouraging education and civic responsibility for young women across America. The club’s roots stem from 1868, when the New York Press Club denied, because of their gender, Jane Cunningham Croly and other women access to a dinner honoring Charles Dickens. This action motivated Croly into forming a women’s association, Sorosis, later that year. The club quickly became the center of educational advocacy for women across the country.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the twenty-first-anniversary celebration of Sorosis in 1889, Croly invited members from more than sixty women’s clubs across the United States to attend the next National Women’s Suffrage Convention in New York City. At the same time, Emma Brainard Ryder of the New York City Sorosis Club placed an advertisement in a newspaper in Bombay, India, inviting young women of all classes and nationalities to the New York convention in 1890. On April 24, 1890, sixty-three clubs from around the world officially formed the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, with Bombay being the first international club to join.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The federation soon grew to represent 200 groups and 20,000 women. By 1900 it tallied 150,000 members. In 1904 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sarah-platt-decker"><strong>Sarah Platt-Decker</strong></a> became the GFWC’s fifth president and its first from Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Suffrage Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1914 Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, formally invited the General Federation of Women’s Clubs to participate in the women’s suffrage movement. At the time, those two organizations were the most influential women’s groups in the country. The president of the GFWC, Anna Pennybacker, a proponent of suffrage, often stated that the highest-caliber woman must be interested in politics to fulfill her mission as a wife and mother. That June, the GFWC officially began advocating for suffrage, and by the end of 1914, the GFWC had established seventeen state federations that all supported women’s suffrage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Clubwomen such as Frances Elizabeth Willard—head of the <strong>Women’s Christian Temperance Union</strong>—and Julia Ward Howe became prominent leaders in the fight for women’s suffrage. In 1917 clubwomen and suffragists, including Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, Dora Lewis, and others, were imprisoned at the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia, for picketing the White House and demanding the right to vote. <em>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs magazine </em>kept the public updated on the inhumane treatment of the jailed women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC played a crucial role in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment by providing rhetorical training and education for women. Members of local clubs not only assisted with that training but also gave public speeches and took part in town hall meetings to push the amendment forward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The GFWC in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s roots in Colorado began in 1895 when the Mountain Pine Woman’s Club received its certificate of membership. The GFWC started with simple volunteer work and public gatherings to announce its goals, yet it was not until the establishment of the GFWC Women’s Club of <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a> in 1902 that Colorado turned into the western vanguard of the women’s movement. The state made history as the most western state ever to hold a GFWC Convention when the <strong>Denver Woman’s Club</strong> hosted the Fourth Biennial GFWC Convention in 1898. Platt-Decker, president of the Denver Woman’s Club, unified the clubwomen with her opening speech. By the end of the convention, the GFWC unanimously passed a resolution against child labor, stating that no child younger than fourteen should be employed in any hazardous conditions and that businesses must always provide proper sanitation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s most significant accomplishment in Colorado, however, was its work in establishing Mesa Verde National Park in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county"><strong>Montezuma County</strong></a>. At the state convention of the GFWC in <a href="/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> in 1897, members <strong>Virginia McClurg</strong> and <strong>Lucy Peabody</strong> gave an impassioned speech about the need to protect the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> cultural sites near Mesa Verde. They pointed out that vandals and looters were allowed to despoil the ancient ruins, and that the structures and valuable artifacts within them were in danger of being lost to history unless the area was preserved. The clubwomen in Colorado began lobbying the federal government, and in 1906 Mesa Verde National Park was finally established under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a> of that same year. For their essential role in the park’s creation, McClurg and Peabody are often referred to as the “mothers of Mesa Verde.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Current Work</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, the GFWC includes twelve women’s clubs with over 300 members across Colorado, the most prominent clubs being Boulder Valley, Mountain Pine, Southwest Region, and Colorado Springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These four lead clubs continue to take the most hands-on action within their communities. The GFWC Boulder Valley club and Women’s Club of Colorado Springs regularly hold food drives at local supermarkets. Since the early 2000s, the GFWC has partnered with the March of Dimes, a nonprofit organization dedicated to improving the lives of mothers and babies and working against premature birth and infant mortality.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC has at least one head club in all fifty states—plus the District of Columbia—and twelve foreign countries. The federation includes 3,000 local clubs within the United States that focus on various community projects. It supports and donates to Partners in Housing, Kid’s Hope, Make-A-Meal, and many other charitable organizations. It also supports and donates to causes such as the GFWC Signature Project Fund—in partnership with Domestic Violence Awareness Month—and providing aid to the Grand Bahama American Women’s Club after Hurricane Dorian. Meanwhile, the GFWC’s Youth Literacy grants program helps schools, public libraries, and nonprofit organizations assist students who are below grade level in reading and writing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, GFWC Colorado decided to raise funds to replace the weather-beaten sign in front of the Hemenway House, a sign commemorating the group’s role in founding Mesa Verde. On September 28, 2019, clubwomen and their families traveled to Mesa Verde National Park to unveil the new sign and celebrate their partnership with <strong>National Park Service</strong> staff. In addition, GFWC Colorado obtained a proclamation from Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jared-polis"><strong>Jared Polis</strong></a> that declares September 28, 2019, as Colorado Federation of Women’s Clubs Day.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Lorton, Virginia, the GFWC plans to build a “Turning Point Suffragist Memorial” that will open in 2020 to mark the 100th anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment. The memorial will commemorate the women imprisoned for their nonviolent protest outside the White House in 1917.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mungai-matthew-s" hreflang="und">Mungai, Matthew S. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/general-federation-womens-clubs" hreflang="en">general federation of women&#039;s clubs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s Suffrage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/suffrage-movement" hreflang="en">suffrage movement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/social-clubs" hreflang="en">social clubs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sarah-platt-decker" hreflang="en">sarah platt decker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Jennie Cohen, “<a href="https://www.history.com/news/the-mother-who-saved-suffrage-passing-the-19th-amendment">The Mother Who Saved Suffrage: Passing the 19th Amendment</a>,” History.com, A&amp;E Television Networks, August 16, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dawson, Henry Hollister, <em>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs Tenth Biennial Convention, May 11 to May 18, 1910, Cincinnati, Ohio: Official Report</em> (Newark, NJ: Published by the Federation, 1910).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://alamosanews.com/article/gfwc-active-in-alamosa-and-beyond">GFWC Active in Alamosa and Beyond</a>,” <em>Valley Courier</em>, “Alamosa News,” May 10, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/about/gfwc-leadership/">GFWC Leadership</a>,” 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/news-notes-october-10-2019/">GFWC News &amp; Notes—October 10, 2019</a>,” October 10, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/history-child-advocacy/">A History of Child Advocacy</a>,” October 22, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/about/history-and-mission/">History and Mission</a>,” 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/what-we-do/impact-accomplishments/">Impact &amp; Accomplishments,”</a> n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/news-notes-january-31-2019/">News &amp; Notes—January 31, 2019</a>,” .</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elaine Ko-Talmadge, “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/making-international-impact-gfwc-affiliates-around-world/">Making an International Impact: GFWC Affiliates Around the World</a>,” GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs), March 4, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rebecca J. Mead, “The <a href="https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-17">Woman Suffrage Movement in the United States—Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History,</a>” Oxford Research Encyclopedias, May 16, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Patricia Miller, “<a href="https://suffragistmemorial.org/gfwc-and-suffrage/">GFWC and Suffrage</a>,” Turning Point Suffragist Memorial, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mary Jane Smith, “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41304225">The Fight to Protect Race and Regional Identity Within the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1895–1902</a>,” <em> Georgia Historical Quarterly</em> 94, no. 4 (2010): 479–513.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.facebook.com/GFWCMembers/">GFWC</a>,” Facebook, General Federation of Women’s Clubs, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC, “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/what-we-do/impact-accomplishments/">Impact &amp; Accomplishments</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>GFWC (General Federation of Women’s Clubs),  “<a href="https://www.gfwc.org/about/club-websites/">State Federation and Club Websites,”</a>  n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) is an international women’s organization. It is dedicated to community improvement. In 1906 the group’s Colorado chapter helped create <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong>. Today, the GFWC continues to support reforms worldwide.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Birth of GFWC</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC first focused on the <strong>women’s suffrage movement</strong>. It encouraged education for young women across America.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The club’s roots come from an event in 1868. That year, The New York Press Club denied Jane Cunningham Croly access to a dinner honoring Charles Dickens. She could not go because she was a woman. This motivated Croly to form a women’s association called Sorosis.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sorosis had its twenty-first-anniversary celebration in 1889. There, Croly invited women’s clubs across the United States to the 1890 National Women’s Suffrage Convention. At the same time, a member of the New York City Sorosis Club placed a newspaper ad in Bombay, India. The ad invited women from all countries to the convention. On April 24, 1890, sixty-three clubs from around the world formed the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. Bombay was the first international club to join.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The federation grew to represent 200 groups and 20,000 women. By 1900 it had 150,000 members. In 1904 <strong>Sarah Platt-Decker</strong> became the GFWC’s fifth president. She was the first from Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Suffrage Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1914 the General Federation of Women’s Clubs began advocating for suffrage. By the end of that year, the GFWC had established seventeen state federations. They all supported women’s suffrage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1917 clubwomen and suffragists were jailed at the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia. They had been picketing the White House. They were demanding the right to vote. <em>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs magazine</em> reported on the poor treatment of the jailed women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC played a crucial role in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. It provided training and education for women. Members of local clubs helped with that training. They gave public speeches and took part in town hall meetings to push the amendment forward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The GFWC in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s roots in Colorado began in 1895. That's when the Mountain Pine Woman’s Club got its membership. The GFWC started with volunteer work and public gatherings to announce its goals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1902, the GFWC Women’s Club of <strong>Colorado Springs</strong> was established. It turned Colorado into the western forefront of the women’s movement. The state made history 1898. It became the most western state to hold a GFWC Convention. By the end of the convention, the GFWC passed a resolution against child labor. It stated that no child younger than fourteen should work in hazardous conditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s biggest achievement in Colorado was its work in establishing Mesa Verde National Park. At the GFWC state convention in 1897, members gave speeches. They wanted to protect cultural sites near Mesa Verde. They pointed out that vandals and looters were spoiling the ancient ruins. The structures and valuable artifacts would be lost unless the area was preserved. The clubwomen in Colorado began lobbying the federal government. In 1906 Mesa Verde National Park was created.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Current Work</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, the GFWC included twelve women’s clubs. There were over 300 members across Colorado. The biggest clubs were in Boulder Valley, Mountain Pine, Southwest Region, and Colorado Springs. These four lead clubs continue to take the most action.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC has at least one head club in all fifty states and twelve foreign countries. This includes 3,000 local clubs within the United States. They focus on community projects. They also donate to many charitable groups.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) is an international women’s organization. It is dedicated to community improvement. In 1906 the group’s Colorado chapter helped establish <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong>. Today, the GFWC continues to support reforms worldwide.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Birth of GFWC</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC first focused on the <strong>women’s suffrage movement</strong>. It encouraged education for young women across America.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The club’s roots stem from an event in 1868. That year, The New York Press Club denied Jane Cunningham Croly access to a dinner honoring Charles Dickens because she was a woman. This motivated Croly to form a women’s association called Sorosis. The club became the center of educational advocacy for women across the country.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the twenty-first-anniversary celebration of Sorosis in 1889, Croly invited members from more than sixty women’s clubs across the United States to attend the next National Women’s Suffrage Convention in New York City. Emma Brainard Ryder of the New York City Sorosis Club placed an ad in a newspaper in Bombay, India. The ad invited young women of all classes and nationalities to the New York convention in 1890. On April 24, 1890, sixty-three clubs from around the world formed the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. Bombay was the first international club to join.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The federation grew to represent 200 groups and 20,000 women. By 1900 it had 150,000 members. In 1904 <strong>Sarah Platt-Decker</strong> became the GFWC’s fifth president and its first from Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Suffrage Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1914 Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, invited the General Federation of Women’s Clubs to participate in the women’s suffrage movement. At the time, those two organizations were the most influential women’s groups in the country. That June, the GFWC began advocating for suffrage. By the end of 1914, the GFWC had established seventeen state federations. They all supported women’s suffrage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1917 clubwomen and suffragists were imprisoned at the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia. They had been picketing the White House. They were demanding the right to vote. <em>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs magazine</em> kept the public updated on the poor treatment of the jailed women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC played a crucial role in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. It provided training and education for women. Members of local clubs assisted with that training. They gave public speeches and took part in town hall meetings to push the amendment forward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The GFWC in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s roots in Colorado began in 1895. That's when the Mountain Pine Woman’s Club received its certificate of membership. The GFWC started with volunteer work and public gatherings to announce its goals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1902, the GFWC Women’s Club of <strong>Colorado Springs</strong> was established. It turned Colorado into the western forefront of the women’s movement. The state made history 1898. It became the most western state to hold a GFWC Convention when the Denver Woman’s Club hosted the Fourth Biennial GFWC Convention. By the end of the convention, the GFWC passed a resolution against child labor. It stated that no child younger than fourteen should work in hazardous conditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s biggest achievement in Colorado was its work in establishing Mesa Verde National Park in <strong>Montezuma County</strong>. At the state convention of the GFWC in <strong>Pueblo </strong>in 1897, members gave a speech about the need to protect the <strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong> cultural sites near Mesa Verde. They pointed out that vandals and looters were spoiling the ancient ruins. The structures and valuable artifacts would be lost unless the area was preserved. The clubwomen in Colorado began lobbying the federal government. In 1906 Mesa Verde National Park was established under the <strong>Antiquities Act</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Current Work</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, the GFWC includes twelve women’s clubs with over 300 members across Colorado. The biggest clubs were in Boulder Valley, Mountain Pine, Southwest Region, and Colorado Springs. These four lead clubs continue to take the most hands-on action within their communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC has at least one head club in all fifty states and twelve foreign countries. The federation includes 3,000 local clubs within the United States. They focus on community projects. They also donate to many charitable groups.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, GFWC Colorado decided to raise funds to replace the sign in front of the Hemenway House. The sign commemorates the group’s role in founding Mesa Verde. On September 28, 2019, clubwomen and their families traveled to Mesa Verde National Park to unveil the new sign.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) is an international women’s organization. It is dedicated to community improvement. In 1906 the group’s Colorado chapter helped establish <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong>. Today, the GFWC continues to support overall equality reforms worldwide.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Birth of GFWC</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC first focused on the <strong>women’s suffrage movement</strong>. It encouraged education and civic responsibility for young women across America.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The club’s roots stem from 1868, when the New York Press Club denied Jane Cunningham Croly access to a dinner honoring Charles Dickens because of her gender. This action motivated Croly to form a women’s association called Sorosis. The club became the center of educational advocacy for women across the country.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the twenty-first-anniversary celebration of Sorosis in 1889, Croly invited members from more than sixty women’s clubs across the United States to attend the next National Women’s Suffrage Convention in New York City. At the same time, Emma Brainard Ryder of the New York City Sorosis Club placed an ad in a newspaper in Bombay, India. The ad invited young women of all classes and nationalities to the New York convention in 1890. On April 24, 1890, sixty-three clubs from around the world formed the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. Bombay was the first international club to join.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The federation soon grew to represent 200 groups and 20,000 women. By 1900 it had 150,000 members. In 1904 <strong>Sarah Platt-Decker</strong> became the GFWC’s fifth president and its first from Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Suffrage Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1914 Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, invited the General Federation of Women’s Clubs to participate in the women’s suffrage movement. At the time, those two organizations were the most influential women’s groups in the country. The president of the GFWC, Anna Pennybacker was a proponent of suffrage. She often stated that the highest-caliber woman must be interested in politics to fulfill her mission as a wife and mother. That June, the GFWC began advocating for suffrage. By the end of 1914, the GFWC had established seventeen state federations that all supported women’s suffrage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1917 clubwomen and suffragists were imprisoned at the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia, for picketing the White House. They were demanding the right to vote. <em>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs magazine</em> kept the public updated on the inhumane treatment of the jailed women.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC played a crucial role in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment by providing training and education for women. Members of local clubs assisted with that training. They also gave public speeches and took part in town hall meetings to push the amendment forward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The GFWC in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s roots in Colorado began in 1895 when the Mountain Pine Woman’s Club received its certificate of membership. The GFWC started with simple volunteer work and public gatherings to announce its goals. It was not until the establishment of the GFWC Women’s Club of <strong>Colorado Springs</strong> in 1902 that Colorado turned into the western vanguard of the women’s movement. The state made history as the most western state ever to hold a GFWC Convention when the <strong>Denver Woman’s Club</strong> hosted the Fourth Biennial GFWC Convention in 1898. Platt-Decker, president of the Denver Woman’s Club, unified the clubwomen with her opening speech. By the end of the convention, the GFWC passed a resolution against child labor. It stated that no child younger than fourteen should be employed in hazardous conditions and that businesses must provide proper sanitation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC’s biggest accomplishment in Colorado was its work in establishing Mesa Verde National Park in <strong>Montezuma County</strong>. At the state convention of the GFWC in <strong>Pueblo </strong>in 1897, members gave a speech about the need to protect the <strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong> cultural sites near Mesa Verde. They pointed out that vandals and looters were allowed to spoil the ancient ruins. The structures and valuable artifacts within them were in danger of being lost unless the area was preserved. The clubwomen in Colorado began lobbying the federal government. In 1906 Mesa Verde National Park was established under the <strong>Antiquities Act</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Current Work</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, the GFWC includes twelve women’s clubs with over 300 members across Colorado. The biggest clubs were in Boulder Valley, Mountain Pine, Southwest Region, and Colorado Springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These four lead clubs continue to take the most hands-on action within their communities. The GFWC Boulder Valley club and Women’s Club of Colorado Springs hold food drives at local supermarkets.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The GFWC has at least one head club in all fifty states and twelve foreign countries. The federation includes 3,000 local clubs within the United States. They focus on various community projects. It supports and donates to many charitable groups. The GFWC’s Youth Literacy grants program helps schools and public libraries assist students who are below grade level in reading and writing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the start of 2019, GFWC Colorado decided to raise funds to replace the sign in front of the Hemenway House. The sign commemorates the group’s role in founding Mesa Verde. On September 28, 2019, clubwomen and their families traveled to Mesa Verde National Park to unveil the new sign. In addition, GFWC Colorado obtained a proclamation from Governor <strong>Jared Polis</strong> that declares September 28, 2019, as Colorado Federation of Women’s Clubs Day.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Lorton, Virginia, the GFWC plans to build a “Turning Point Suffragist Memorial.” It will open in 2020 to mark the 100th anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment. The memorial will commemorate the women imprisoned for their nonviolent protest outside the White House in 1917.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 18:16:36 +0000 yongli 3105 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Spruce Tree House http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spruce-tree-house <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Spruce Tree House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2549--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2549.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/spruce-tree-house-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Spruce-Tree-House_May-2014-%28002%29_1.jpg?itok=MtKDKc0c" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/spruce-tree-house-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Spruce Tree House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Spruce Tree House is the third largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde National Park. Located near park headquarters, it received heavy visitation before rock falls forced its closure in 2015.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-05T10:51:05-06:00" title="Friday, May 5, 2017 - 10:51" class="datetime">Fri, 05/05/2017 - 10:51</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spruce-tree-house" data-a2a-title="Spruce Tree House"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fspruce-tree-house&amp;title=Spruce%20Tree%20House"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Spruce Tree House is the third-largest <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwelling</strong></a> in <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park">Mesa Verde National Park</a>, and the first seen by most visitors because of its location near park headquarters. Built by the&nbsp;<strong><a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region">Ancestral Pueblo</a></strong>&nbsp;in the 1200s, Euro-Americans came to know&nbsp;the 114-room dwelling through&nbsp;rancher <strong><a href="/article/richard-wetherill">Richard Wetherill</a></strong> and Charles Mason in December 1888. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Spruce Tree House was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House is on the northeast wall of Spruce Tree Canyon, just across from the <strong><a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-administrative-district">Mesa Verde Administrative District</a> </strong>on Chapin Mesa. Like the other cliff dwellings in the area, Spruce Tree House was built during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE) of the Ancestral Pueblo&nbsp;tradition, when Mesa Verde residents began to move from mesa tops to cliff alcoves, perhaps for greater protection. It probably housed about 100 people at any given time.</p> <p><a href="/image/spruce-tree-house-interior"><img alt="Spruce Tree House Interior" src="/sites/default/files/Spruce_Tree_House_Media%203.jpg" style="float:right; height:320px; margin:15px; width:480px" /></a>Spruce Tree House was built in pieces between about 1200 and 1280, with each family constructing its own <strong><a href="/article/kivas">kiva</a></strong> and room suite, and grew to include 114 rooms and eight kivas. Kivas—circular areas excavated into the ground—were the central residential structures at sites such as Spruce Tree House. They could be used for residences and ritual gatherings, and they could also be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Suites of small rooms arranged around each kiva made up a courtyard complex shared by an extended family or clan. Front rooms were used for sleeping, back rooms for storage. As with nearby <strong><a href="/article/cliff-palace">Cliff Palace</a></strong>, Spruce Tree House was separated into two sections, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups. An imposing three-story central tower at the dwelling may have served to unify the two groups.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Spruce Tree House was evacuated in the final decades of the 1200s, when the Ancestral Pueblo&nbsp;migrated to the south and southwest. Although the exact reasons for the migration remain unknown, there is evidence that colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, made it harder for residents to survive.</p> <h2>"Rediscovery"</h2> <p><a href="/image/spruce-tree-house-excavation"><img alt="Spruce Tree House Before Excavation" src="/sites/default/files/Spruce-Tree-Media-2.jpg" style="float:left; height:372px; margin:15px; width:480px" /></a>Local Indigenous people knew about sites like Spruce Tree House for generations before&nbsp;rancher Richard Wetherill and his brother-in-law, Charles Mason, found such sites in December 1888. The men were searching for cattle with their <strong><a href="/search/google/ute">Ute</a></strong> guide, Acowitz, when they first saw Cliff Palace. They discovered Spruce Tree House either later that day or the next day, naming it for what they believed to be a spruce tree growing in the ruins (it was a Douglas fir). Wetherill spent most of the winter digging for artifacts in Cliff Palace and Spruce Tree House; he later sold his collection to the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>).</p> <p>In 1891 Wetherill, his brothers, and Mason showed Mesa Verde to the visiting Swedish scholar <strong><a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region">Gustaf Nordenskiöld</a></strong>, who spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings in the area, including Spruce Tree House. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (1893) played a crucial role in stimulating interest in the area’s archaeology. The&nbsp;artifacts he plundered during his excavations were long housed at the National Museum of Finland, but in 2019 the Finnish government agreed to return many of them—including some human remains and funerary objects—to native tribes in the region.</p> <p>The decay of the cliff dwellings accelerated rapidly after their rediscovery, as they started to receive increased visitation from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. In response, a movement developed in the 1890s and early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a national park and to pass the <strong><a href="/article/antiquities-act">Antiquities Act</a></strong> (1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Early Archaeological Work</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Spruce Tree&nbsp;House, became a national park. Most of the structures in the park were still filled with debris and in danger of collapsing, so the Department of the Interior asked&nbsp;<strong>Jesse Walter Fewkes</strong>&nbsp;of the Bureau of American Ethnology to perform excavation, preservation, and repair work at the park. From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes excavated and stabilized a number of cliff dwellings.</p> <p>In 1908 Fewkes started his work at Spruce Tree House because of its easy accessibility, proximity to where visitors camped, and better state of preservation compared to most other ruins in the park. To prepare the dwelling for visitors, Fewkes and his team cleared debris from the interior, repaired and stabilized the structure’s walls, improved drainage away from the site, and constructed trails for visitor access. Despite heavy looting over the previous two decades, they also found more than 500 artifacts.</p> <h2>Rock Stabilization</h2> <p><a href="/image/spruce-tree-house-and-alcove"><img alt="Spruce Tree House and Alcove" src="/sites/default/files/Spruce_Tree_House_Media4.jpg" style="float:right; height:320px; margin:15px; width:480px" /></a>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the park has focused on preservation. Other than a trash mound excavation funded by John D. Rockefeller Jr. and carried out by park superintendent <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jesse-nusbaum"><strong>Jesse Nusbaum</strong></a> in 1923–24, nearly all work at Spruce Tree House has been part of an ongoing effort to stabilize the rock alcove in which the dwelling was built.</p> <p>The same forces that formed Spruce Tree Cave continue to act, leading to large rockfalls as the arch above Spruce Tree House grows. In 1923 a fifty-foot slab fell from the roof of Spruce Tree Cave, but luckily it did little damage to the dwelling. In 1940 workers removed plants and rock debris from the main crack in the ledge above Spruce Tree House and applied a protective covering to try to keep water from widening it. A rockfall in 1960 led to the removal of the earlier protective covering, the application of cement grout in the crack, and the installation of a copper lip to divert drainage away from the ledge. Those precautions could not prevent three major rockfalls in the summer of 1964. The park closed the north end of the dwelling and kept visitors thirty feet away for safety until stabilization work was completed.</p> <p>Stability at Spruce Tree House became a major concern again in 2015, when a rockfall led the dwelling to be closed to the public. A climbing team investigated the ledge above the dwelling and removed sixty cubic feet of rock. During their work, the team saw evidence that more rockfalls were likely to occur, so the park decided to keep Spruce Tree House closed until a full assessment and stabilization can be completed. The park plans to use Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) to map the crack and prepare a stabilization plan. In the meantime, visitors can still view the dwelling from overlooks near park headquarters.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jesse-walter-fewkes" hreflang="en">Jesse Walter Fewkes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-houses" hreflang="en">historic houses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>William M. Ferguson, <em>The Anasazi of Mesa Verde and the Four Corners</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p> <p><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Kevin Simpson,&nbsp;</span><a class="ext" href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/10/10/mesa-verde-remains-nordenskiold/" style="color: rgb(0, 144, 235); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;" title=" (external link)">"More Than a Century Ago, a European Visitor Took More Than 600 Native American Remains and Artifacts From Colorado's Mesa Verde,"</a><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">&nbsp;</span><em style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Colorado Sun</em><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">, October 10, 2019.</span></p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/planyourvisit/sth_closure.htm">“Spruce Tree House Closure,”</a> Mesa Verde National Park.</p> <p>Ricardo Torres-Reyes, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: An Administrative History, 1906–1970</em> (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1970).</p> <p>Barbara Wyatt, “Mesa Verde National Park Archeological District,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form (December 8, 1976).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Jesse Walter Fewkes, <em>Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-Tree House</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 41 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1909).</p> <p>Florence C. Lister, <em>Troweling through Time: The First Century of Mesa Verdean Archaeology</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).</p> <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>The Mesa Verde World: Explorations in Ancestral Pueblo Archaeology</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Spruce Tree House is a <strong>cliff dwelling</strong> in <strong>Mesa Verde National Park. </strong>It is located near the park headquarters. It was built by <strong>Ancestral Puebloans </strong>in the 1200s. In 1888 local ranchers rediscovered the 114-room dwelling. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Spruce Tree House was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House is on a cliff wall in Spruce Tree Canyon, across from the Mesa Verde Park Headquarters. Mesa Verde residents had lived on the open flat mesa tops in the area. They later moved their homes to the cliffs for greater protection.</p> <p>Spruce Tree House was built between about 1200 and 1280. About 100 people lived in the dwelling. Each family built their own <strong>kiva</strong> (circular areas dug into the ground) and rooms. Spruce Tree House included 114 rooms and eight kivas. The kivas were the main living spaces. They were used as homes and rituals. They could also be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Suites of small rooms were arranged around each kiva. These made a courtyard that was shared by an extended family or clan. Front rooms were used for sleeping and the back rooms were used for storage. As with nearby <strong>Cliff Palace</strong>, Spruce Tree House was separated into two sections. There may have been two distinct groups that lived there. Both groups may have used a three-story tower.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Spruce Tree House was abandoned in the 1200s. The Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the south. It is not known why they left Mesa Verde. Changes in the weather and conflict in the area may have forced them to leave.</p> <h2>Rediscovery</h2> <p>The Wetherill family had a ranch in the Mesa Verde area. On December 18, 1888, <strong>Richard Wetherill</strong> and his brother-in-law Charles Mason rediscovered Mesa Verde. The men were searching for cattle with their <strong>Ute</strong> guide, Acowitz, when they saw Cliff Palace. They discovered Spruce Tree House the next day. They named it for a spruce tree growing in the ruins (the tree was actually a Douglas fir). Wetherill spent the winter digging for artifacts in Cliff Palace and Spruce Tree House. He later sold his collection to the Colorado Historical Society.</p> <p>In 1891 the site was shown to a Swedish scholar named <strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong>. He spent the summer excavating the cliff dwellings, including Spruce Tree House. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (1893) made people interested the area. He took many artifacts from his excavations. Many of Mesa Verde’s treasures are now housed at the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>The cliff dwellings were damaged after their rediscovery. There were more visits from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. In response, people who cared about Mesa Verde started a movement to make it a National Park. The <strong>Antiquities Act</strong> (1906) was passed to prevent people from taking items or harming the park.</p> <h2>Early Archaeological Work</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area became a National Park. Most of the structures in the park were in bad shape. They were filled with debris and in danger of collapsing. The park hired <strong>Jesse Walter Fewkes&nbsp;</strong>of the Bureau of American Ethnology to excavate, preserve, and do repair work at the park. From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes dug out and stabilized the cliff dwellings.</p> <p>In 1908 Fewkes started his work at Spruce Tree House. The site had easy access and was near the campsite. It was in better shape than the other ruins in the park. Fewkes and his crew prepared the site for visitors. They cleared rocks and repaired the walls. They improved its water drainage and constructed trails for visitors. They also found more than 500 artifacts.</p> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the site has focused on preserving Spruce Tree House by stabilizing the rocks in which the dwelling was built.</p> <p>Still, the forces of erosion continue to damage Spruce Tree House. Large rockfalls have created problems with the arch above the dwellings. In 1923 a fifty-foot slab of rock fell from the roof of Spruce Tree Cave. Luckily, it did not damage the dwelling. In 1940 workers removed plants and rocks from a large crack above Spruce Tree House. They installed a protective cover to keep water from widening it. In 1960 they had to remove the protective cover because of another rockfall. Cement was put in the crack and a copper covering was added. This, however, did not prevent three rockfalls in the summer of 1964. The park had to close the north end of the dwelling. Visitors were kept thirty feet away for safety until work was completed.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House had another rockfall in 2015. The dwelling was closed to the public. A climbing team studied the ledge above the dwelling. They removed sixty feet of rock. The team decided that more rockfalls were likely to occur, so Spruce Tree House has been closed to the public for safety. The park is creating a plan to make it safe. In the meantime, visitors can still see the site from overlooks near park headquarters.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Spruce Tree House is a cliff dwelling in <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong>. It was built by <strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> in the 1200s. The 114-room dwelling was rediscovered by rancher <strong>Richard Wetherill</strong> and Charles Mason in December 1888. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Spruce Tree House was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House is built into the northeast wall of Spruce Tree Canyon. It is located across from the <strong>Mesa Verde Administrative District </strong>on Chapin Mesa. Like the other cliff dwellings in the area, it was built during the Pueblo III period from 1150–1300 CE. During this time, Mesa Verde residents moved from flat, open mesa tops to cliff alcoves, perhaps for greater protection. The site housed about 100 people.</p> <h2>Spruce Tree House Interior</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House was built between about 1200 and 1280. Each family constructed their own <strong>kiva</strong> and suites of rooms. Spruce Tree House grew to include 114 rooms and eight kivas. Kivas are circular areas that are excavated into the ground. The kivas were the central residential living spaces. They were used for homes and rituals, and they could be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Suites of small rooms were arranged around each kiva. These made up a courtyard that was shared by an extended family or clan. Front rooms were used for sleeping, while the back rooms were used for storage. As with nearby <strong>Cliff Palace</strong>, Spruce Tree House was separated into two sections, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups. An imposing three-story central tower may have served to unify the two groups.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Spruce Tree House was abandoned in the final decades of the 1200s. The Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the south and southwest, although the exact reasons for the move remain unknown. Colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, might have made it harder for residents to survive.</p> <h2>Rediscovery</h2> <p>On December 18, 1888, local rancher <strong>Richard Wetherill</strong> and his brother-in-law Charles Mason rediscovered Mesa Verde. The men were searching for cattle with their <strong>Ute</strong> guide, Acowitz, when they saw Cliff Palace. They discovered Spruce Tree House the next day, naming it for what they believed to be a spruce tree growing in the ruins (the tree was actually a Douglas fir). Wetherill spent the winter digging for artifacts in Cliff Palace and Spruce Tree House. He later sold his collection to the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado).</p> <p>In 1891 Wetherill and Mason showed the site to visiting Swedish scholar <strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong>. He spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings, including Spruce Tree House. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (1893) stimulated interest in the area’s archaeology. The many artifacts he removed during his excavations are now housed at the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>The cliff dwellings deteriorated rapidly after their rediscovery. Visits from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists took their toll on the structures. In response, a movement developed in the 1890s and early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a National Park. The <strong>Antiquities Act</strong> (1906) was passed to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Early Archaeological Work</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area became a National Park. Most of the structures in the park were filled with debris and in danger of collapsing. The Department of the Interior hired <strong>Jesse Walter Fewkes&nbsp;</strong>of the Bureau of American Ethnology. His task was to excavate, preserve, and do repair work at the park. From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes excavated and stabilized the cliff dwellings.</p> <p>In 1908 Fewkes started his work at Spruce Tree House. The site had easy access, the location was near the campsite, and it was in a better state of preservation compared to most other ruins in the park. To prepare the dwelling for visitors, Fewkes and his team cleared debris from the interior and repaired and stabilized the structure’s walls. They also improved drainage away from the site and constructed trails for visitors. Despite heavy looting over the previous two decades, they managed to find more than 500 artifacts.</p> <h2>Preservation Work</h2> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at Spruce Tree House has focused on preservation. Efforts have been made to stabilize the rock alcove in which the dwelling was built. At one point, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. funded a trash mound excavation.</p> <p>The same forces of erosion that formed Spruce Tree Cave have caused damage to the site. Large rockfalls have damaged the arch above Spruce Tree House. In 1923 a fifty-foot slab fell from the roof of Spruce Tree Cave. Luckily, it did little damage to the dwelling. In 1940 workers removed plants and rocks from a large crack in the ledge above Spruce Tree House. Then they applied a protective covering to try to keep water from widening it. A rockfall in 1960 led to the removal of the earlier protective covering. Cement grout was put in the crack and a copper lip was installed to divert drainage away from the ledge. Those precautions still did not prevent three major rockfalls in the summer of 1964. The park was forced to close the north end of the dwelling. Visitors were kept thirty feet away for safety until stabilization work was completed.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Stabilization at Spruce Tree House became a major concern again in 2015, when another rockfall occurred. The dwelling was closed to the public. A climbing team investigated the ledge above the dwelling and removed sixty cubic feet of rock. During its work, the team saw evidence that more rockfalls were likely to occur. Spruce Tree House has been closed until a full assessment and stabilization can be completed. The park plans to use Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) to prepare a stabilization plan. In the meantime, visitors can still view the dwelling from overlooks near park headquarters.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Spruce Tree House is a cliff dwelling in <strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong>. It was built by <strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> in the 1200s. The 114-room dwelling was rediscovered by rancher <strong>Richard Wetherill</strong> and Charles Mason in December 1888. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Spruce Tree House was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House is on the northeast wall of Spruce Tree Canyon, just across from the <strong>Mesa Verde Administrative District</strong> on Chapin Mesa. Like the other cliff dwellings in the area, it was built during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE). Mesa Verde residents had lived on the flat mesa tops, but moved to cliff alcoves during this period, perhaps for greater protection. The site probably housed about 100 people at any given time.</p> <h2>Spruce Tree House</h2> <p>Spruce Tree House was built between about 1200 and 1280. Each family constructed its own <strong>kiva</strong> and room suite and the site grew to include 114 rooms and eight kivas. Kivas are circular areas that are excavated into the ground. These were the central residential structures and were used for homes and ritual gatherings. They could be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Suites of small rooms arranged around each kiva made up a courtyard that was shared by an extended family or clan. Front rooms were used for sleeping, while the back rooms were used for storage. As with nearby <strong>Cliff Palace</strong>, Spruce Tree House was separated into two sections, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups. An imposing three-story central tower may have served to unify the two groups.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Spruce Tree House was abandoned in the final decades of the 1200s when the Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the south and southwest. Although the exact reasons for the migration remain unknown, there is evidence that colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, made it harder for residents to survive.</p> <h2>Rediscovery</h2> <p>On December 18, 1888, rancher <strong>Richard Wetherill</strong> and his brother-in-law Charles Mason rediscovered Mesa Verde. The men were searching for cattle with their <strong>Ute</strong> guide, Acowitz, when they first saw Cliff Palace. They discovered Spruce Tree House the next day, naming it for what they believed to be a spruce tree growing in the ruins (the tree was actually a Douglas fir). Wetherill spent the winter digging for artifacts in Cliff Palace and Spruce Tree House. He later sold his collection to the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado).</p> <p>In 1891 Wetherill and Mason showed the site to a visiting Swedish scholar named <strong>Gustaf</strong> <strong>Nordenskiöld</strong>. He spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings, including Spruce Tree House. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (1893) stimulated interest in the area’s archaeology. The many artifacts he removed during his excavations are now housed at the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>The cliff dwellings deteriorated rapidly after their rediscovery. The area started to receive increased visitation from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. In response, a movement developed in the 1890s and early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a National Park and to pass the <strong>Antiquities Act</strong> (1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Early Archaeological Work</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Spruce Tree&nbsp;House, became a National Park. Most of the structures in the park were filled with debris and in danger of collapsing. The Department of the Interior hired <strong>Jesse Walter Fewkes&nbsp;</strong>of the Bureau of American Ethnology to perform excavation, preservation, and repair work at the park. From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes excavated and stabilized a number of cliff dwellings.</p> <p>In 1908 Fewkes started his work at Spruce Tree House. It was chosen because of its easy access, location near the campsite, and because it was better preserved than most other ruins in the park. To prepare the dwelling for visitors, Fewkes and his team cleared debris from the interior areas and repaired and stabilized the structure’s walls. They improved drainage away from the site and constructed trails for visitor access. Despite heavy looting over the previous two decades, they also found more than 500 artifacts.</p> <h2>Erosion Control</h2> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the park has focused on preservation. A trash mound excavation was funded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Most other work at Spruce Tree House has been an ongoing effort to stabilize the rock alcove in which the dwelling was built.</p> <p>The same forces of erosion that formed Spruce Tree Cave have caused damage to the site. Large rockfalls from the arch above Spruce Tree House are the cause. In 1923 a fifty-foot slab fell from the roof of Spruce Tree Cave, but luckily it did little damage to the dwelling. In 1940 workers removed plants and rock debris from a large crack in the ledge above Spruce Tree House. Then a protective covering was applied to keep water from widening it. A rockfall in 1960 led to the removal of the earlier protective covering. Cement grout was put in the crack and a copper lip was installed to divert drainage away from the ledge. Those efforts did not prevent three major rockfalls in the summer of 1964. The park closed the north end of Spruce House and kept visitors thirty feet away for safety until stabilization work was completed.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Stabilization at Spruce Tree House became a major concern again in 2015, when another rockfall occurred. The dwelling was closed to the public. A climbing team investigated the ledge above the dwelling and removed sixty cubic feet of rock. During their work, the team saw evidence that more rockfalls were likely to occur, so Spruce Tree House has been closed until a full assessment and stabilization can be completed. The park plans to use Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) to map the crack in the rock and prepare a stabilization plan. In the meantime, visitors can still view the dwelling from overlooks near park headquarters.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 05 May 2017 16:51:05 +0000 yongli 2548 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Long House http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/long-house <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Long House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2540--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2540.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/long-house"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Long%20House%20Media%201.jpeg?itok=FYW683PN" width="1024" height="683" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/long-house" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Long House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Built by Ancestral Puebloans in the 1200s, Long House was rediscovered in early 1890 and excavated in 1958–61 as part of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project. Along with Cliff Palace, it is one of the largest cliff dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-04T14:42:35-06:00" title="Thursday, May 4, 2017 - 14:42" class="datetime">Thu, 05/04/2017 - 14:42</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/long-house" data-a2a-title="Long House"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flong-house&amp;title=Long%20House"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Long House is the second-largest <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwelling</strong></a> in <strong><a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park">Mesa Verde National Park</a></strong>. Built by <strong><a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region">Ancestral Puebloans</a></strong> in the 1200s, the 150-room dwelling was rediscovered by the Wetherill brothers and Charles Mason in early 1890. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, it was excavated and eventually opened to visitors as part of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Long House was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Long House is in a large south-facing alcove about 100 feet below the rim of the west side of Wetherill Mesa. It was built on top of an earlier Basketmaker III pithouse dating to 648 CE—the only Basketmaker III ruin at Wetherill Mesa that is not on top of the mesa. Like the other cliff dwellings in the area, Long House was built during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE) of the Ancestral Puebloan tradition, when Mesa Verde residents began to move from mesa tops to cliff alcoves, perhaps for greater protection. It probably housed about 150 people at any given time and functioned as an administrative center for various smaller cliff dwellings nearby.</p> <p>Long House was built in pieces between about 1200 and 1280, with each family constructing its own kiva and room suite, and grew to include 150 rooms and twenty-one <a href="/article/kivas">kivas</a>. Kivas—circular areas excavated into the ground—were the central residential structures at sites such as Long House. They could be used for residences and ritual gatherings and could be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Around each kiva were suites of small rooms that made up a courtyard complex shared by an extended family or clan.</p> <p>In addition to standard kivas and room suites, Long House also had a large rectangular plaza that probably served as a great kiva, with nearby rooms functioning as part of a ceremonial complex. Other rooms not associated with a kiva may have been used for storage. On its top level, Long House had a long enclosed space with peepholes, which may have served a defensive purpose.</p> <p>Like in the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Long House was evacuated in the final decades of the 1200s, when the Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the south and southwest. Although the exact reasons for the migration remain unknown, there is evidence that colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, made it harder for residents to rely on traditional strategies for survival.</p> <h2>Rediscovery</h2> <p>Credit for rediscovering the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings on December 18, 1888, is traditionally assigned to rancher <a href="/article/richard-wetherill">Richard Wetherill</a> and his brother-in-law, Charles Mason. The men were searching for cattle with their <a href="/search/google/ute">Ute</a> guide, Acowitz, when they first saw <a href="/article/cliff-palace">Cliff Palace</a>. They explored it and soon discovered other cliff dwellings and pueblos nearby. Sometime in the winter of 1889–90, Mason and the four Wetherill brothers (Richard, John, Al, and Clayton) found another cliff dwelling that rivaled the size of Cliff Palace a few miles and several canyons to the west. They named it Long House—a fitting name, since the dwelling stretches the full extent of the largest occupied cave in Mesa Verde.</p> <p>In 1891 the Wetherill brothers and Mason showed Mesa Verde to the visiting Swedish scholar <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region">Gustaf Nordenskiöld</a>, who spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings in the area, including Long House. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (1893) played a crucial role in stimulating interest in the area’s archaeology. The artifacts he removed during his excavations were long housed at the National Museum of Finland, but&nbsp;in 2019 the Finnish government agreed to return many of them—including some human remains and funerary objects—to native tribes in the region.</p> <p>The decay of the cliff dwellings accelerated rapidly after their rediscovery, as they started to receive increased visitation from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. In response, a movement developed in the 1890s and early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a national park and to pass the <a href="/article/antiquities-act">Antiquities Act</a> (1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Wetherill Mesa Project</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Long House, became a national park. During the park’s early decades, most preservation work and tourist activity was concentrated on Chapin Mesa, and the relatively inaccessible Wetherill Mesa sites&nbsp;remained largely undisturbed.</p> <p>After <strong>World War II</strong>, a surge in visitation to Mesa Verde led to overcrowding at popular cliff dwellings such as <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> and Cliff Palace. To open more of the park to the public while also gathering new information about the area’s history, the National Park Service and the National Geographic Society launched the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project in 1958. The largest and most significant archaeological undertaking at Mesa Verde in more than thirty years, the project recorded more than 800 sites and resulted in the excavation of six major cliff dwellings and mesa-top sites. The main attraction on Wetherill Mesa was Long House, which was excavated and stabilized beginning in October 1958 by George S. Cattanach Jr. and James “Al” Lancaster. Because little previous work had been done at Long House, they were able to recover thousands of stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts as well as perishable items such as sandals, yucca fibers, and arrow shafts. The excavation and stabilization were completed by the end of 1961.</p> <p>The park service’s initial goal was for Wetherill Mesa to be developed to the same extent as Chapin Mesa to help spread crowds throughout the park. Early plans called for an elevator to take visitors from the mesa rim down to the Long House alcove, but that idea was delayed and ultimately scrapped after a Pueblo III kiva was found at the proposed base of the elevator. The Park Service later contemplated building an electric trolley system to ferry visitors throughout the area. After a decade of debates about funding and access, Wetherill Mesa finally opened to the public in 1973, with the first public tours of Long House taking place that summer. Only 10 percent of visitors made the trip to Wetherill Mesa, however, so the project failed to relieve congestion at Chapin Mesa.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>In the late 1990s, Mesa Verde was one of the first recipients of funding from the Save America’s Treasures program launched by the White House Millennium Council and the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Part of the money went toward a comprehensive map of Cliff Palace. The map showed that Cliff Palace has only 150 rooms, making it and Long House comparable in size. The two large dwellings would have served as contemporary centers that were less than four miles apart.</p> <p>Today Long House can be toured from mid-May to late October each year. Despite its impressive size and beauty, Long House receives relatively few visitors because it requires a long drive and a two-mile ranger-guided hike. The lack of foot traffic may have saved it from the structural problems that in recent decades have plagued popular sites such as Cliff Palace and Spruce Tree House.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wetherill-mesa-project" hreflang="en">Wetherill Mesa Project</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-houses" hreflang="en">historic houses</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George S. Cattanach Jr. et al., <em>Long House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1980).</p> <p>William M. Ferguson, <em>The Anasazi of Mesa Verde and the Four Corners</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p> <p>Florence C. Lister, <em>Troweling through Time: The First Century of Mesa Verdean Archaeology</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/historyculture/cd_long_house_tour.htm">“Long House Tour,”</a> Mesa Verde National Park.</p> <p>Kevin Simpson, <a href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/10/10/mesa-verde-remains-nordenskiold/">"More Than a Century Ago, a European Visitor Took More Than 600 Native American Remains and Artifacts From Colorado's Mesa Verde,"</a>&nbsp;<em>Colorado Sun</em>, October 10, 2019.</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988).</p> <p>Barbara Wyatt, “Mesa Verde National Park Archeological District,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form (December 8, 1976).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>The Mesa Verde World: Explorations in Ancestral Pueblo Archaeology</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p> <p>Ricardo Torres-Reyes, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: An Administrative History, 1906–1970</em> (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1970).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 04 May 2017 20:42:35 +0000 yongli 2538 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Morefield Mound http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/morefield-mound <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Morefield Mound</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-03T13:18:06-07:00" title="Friday, February 3, 2017 - 13:18" class="datetime">Fri, 02/03/2017 - 13:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/morefield-mound" data-a2a-title="Morefield Mound"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmorefield-mound&amp;title=Morefield%20Mound"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Morefield Mound sits in the middle of the wide valley at the bottom of Morefield Canyon in <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. It served as a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> supply for ancient Native Americans a thousand years ago, making it one of the earliest known domestic water-supply works in the United States. The reservoir mound was one of four ancient water catchments at Mesa Verde National Park named collectively as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2004.</p> <p>The reservoir mound has a diameter of 220 feet at its base, with side slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) that rise up sixteen feet to the flat top of the mound, which is 130 feet in diameter, like a truncated cone. The mound is made up of layers of water-deposited sediment―sandy layers interspersed with dense clay-silt layers. The original pond that the Native Americans excavated into the natural soils—now silted in—is located beneath the mound. A canal leading to the mound extended upstream for a quarter mile.</p> <p>Morefield Reservoir began where the valley floor was 500 feet wide and the tributary drainage basin area was 4.1 square miles. Wright Paleohydrological Institute excavations showed that the pond was approximately four feet deep in about 750 CE, with a diameter of fifty feet. A seasonally high water table likely provided it with a variable water pool, even without any surface flow. However, because the pond was in the canyon bottom, all the runoff from a storm would flow into it along with any sediment; it would not have taken long for the pond to become silted. Cleaning out the pond with digging sticks and baskets was a labor intensive but necessary operation. Nevertheless, with each succeeding flood, the pond would again fill with fine sand, silt, and clay. Over the years, the pond rose in elevation due to accumulated sediment and, eventually, a canal became necessary to deliver water for storage.</p> <p>At first, the canal was short. As the reservoir silt accumulated and the water level rose, the canal was raised and extended upstream. The canal banks were lined with shaped stones to help guard against erosion. As with other Stone Age civilizations, hammerstones were utilized effectively for stone shaping.</p> <h2>Research at Morefield Mound</h2> <p>The Wright Paleohydrological Institute performed research at Morefield Mound from 1994 to 1998, including the excavation of a trench to reveal sediment layers. Team member Dr. Jack Smith had also excavated at the site twenty years earlier. Smith was the chief archaeologist of Mesa Verde National Park and had studied extensively the<a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"> <strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>people who lived there. Smith thought that the Morefield Mound was the remains of a reservoir, but he could not prove it. Other scientists speculated that the site may have been an ancient dance platform while some judged it to be a natural terrace deposit.</p> <p>The Wright team conducted excavations that were deeper than Smith’s excavations in the 1970s. Evidence found in the exposed sediment layers proved that the mound had once been a reservoir and the original, undisturbed soil under the mound allowed the team to define dredged sand deposits and embankments above it. Buried in the deposits was an ancient digging tool dated to AD 860 by the University of Colorado Physics Department.</p> <p>Study of the sediment layering and its characteristics provided evidence for environmental conditions, activities, and some of the problems faced by Ancestral Pueblo engineers during the building and operation of the Morefield Reservoir structures. Three continuous soil profiles were taken down the south trench wall. One complete profile was analyzed by the <strong>Natural Resources Conservation Service</strong> Field Office in <strong>Cortez</strong> for listing in its national database.</p> <p>The soil profile data provided solid evidence that the reservoir was watertight because of the dense clays deposited in the reservoir―the type of clay that modern engineers might use for solid waste site designs to preclude leachate movement. The data also showed that over the life of the reservoir, about fourteen forest <a href="/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>fires</strong></a> resulted in ash deposits, as evidenced by continuous thin layers of carbon about one-sixteenth of an inch thick. The sediments provided evidence of twenty-one periods of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a> in the canyon bottom, as indicated by thick, sandy sediment deposits, though many of the thickest deposits were, in turn, highly stratified, indicating successive independent inflows of high water. The shape of the layering told of reservoir cleaning operations, where the dredged sediment was cast to build berms—flat strips of land bordering a canal—or where it was wasted outside the berm. It was additionally noted that sometimes one part of the reservoir was used for storage while the other was not.</p> <p>Because the excavated trench depth was limited to sixteen feet, due to the consolidation of the soil, the team was able to excavate only to the bottom of the mound, not to the original pond bottom. Then, by using a hand auger in the trench bottom, the team logged sediment deposits to an additional depth of five feet until the auger encountered the original natural soil. By exposing the natural, undisturbed soil surface in the west and east ends of the trench and having the pond bottom defined, the team could sketch the likely original shape of the excavated pond that lay under the sixteen-foot-high mound, for a total reservoir height of twenty-one feet.</p> <h2>Interpretation of Evidence</h2> <p>By studying the Morefield Mound excavation, the Wright team learned more about the ancient people of Mesa Verde and what they were doing in Morefield Canyon. The sediment deposits could be read like an open book because the evidence had not been disturbed during modern times. Findings indicated, for instance:</p> <ol> <li>Morefield Reservoir began as a hand-dug pond in the canyon bottom to capture seasonal runoff. A later supply to the reservoir was surface water carried by a stone-lined canal. A sequence of canals was outlined in the sediment, one above the other.</li> <li>Sediment from the upstream drainage basin was carried to Morefield Reservoir, sometimes at a high rate. Total volume of sediment carried into the reservoir was about 430,000 cubic feet (0.0067 acre-feet per square mile per year). Abandonment of the reservoir likely occurred when dredging became too inefficient or when the Morefield people began thinking about moving away to <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>.</li> <li>The dredged sediment used for the Morefield dam embankments was a mixture of clay, silt, and fine sand, which created a nearly impervious berm area.</li> <li>Based on potsherd analyses, Morefield Reservoir was used for approximately 350 years, during the 750–1100 CE period of the <strong>Pueblo I</strong> and <strong>Pueblo II</strong> people.</li> <li>Prehistoric agricultural fields in the Morefield basin and occasional forest fires likely allowed enough runoff for Morefield Reservoir to store up to 120,000 gallons of water at one time.</li> </ol> <p>The team also deduced that the ancient people of Mesa Verde were organized, industrious, and good water managers. The monumental task of building and maintaining the Morefield Reservoir could not have happened without the people’s diligence and organization.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wright-kenneth-r" hreflang="und">Wright, Kenneth R.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morefield-mound" hreflang="en">morefield mound</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Frederick H. Chapin, <em>The Land of the Cliff-Dwellers</em> (Boston: W. B. Clark, 1892).</p> <p>Patricia L. Crown, “Water Storage in the Prehistoric Southwest,” <em>Kiva </em>52, no. 3 (1987).</p> <p>James A. Erdman, Charles L. Douglas, and John W. Marr, <em>Environment of Mesa Verde, Colorado</em>, Archeological Research Series No. 7-B (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1969).</p> <p>William M. Ferguson, <em>The Anasazi of Mesa Verde and the Four Corners</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, <em>A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People</em>, Smithsonian Report for 1916 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1917).</p> <p>Mary O Griffitts, <em>Guide to the Geology of Mesa Verde National Park </em>(Mesa Verde National Park, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1990).</p> <p>William R. Haase, “Domestic Water Conservation among the Northern San Juan Anasazi,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 50, no. 2 (1985).</p> <p>Alden C. Hayes, <em>The Archeological Survey of Wetherill Mesa, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado,</em> Archeological Research Series No. 7-A (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1964).</p> <p>Joyce Herold, <em>Prehistoric Settlement and Physical Environment in the Mesa Verde Area</em>, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 53 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1961).</p> <p>Charles B. Hunt, <em>Cenozoic Geology of the Colorado Plateau</em>, USGS Professional Paper 279 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1956).</p> <p>Steve Lekson et al., “Migrations in the Southwest: Pinnacle Ruin, Southwestern New Mexico,” <em>Kiva</em> 68, no. 2 (2002).</p> <p>William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and Richard H. Wilshusen, eds., <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>William A. Lucius and David Breternitz, “The Current Status of Red Wares in the Mesa Verde Region,” in <em>Collected Papers in Honor of Erik Kellerman Reed</em>, ed. A. H. Schroeder, Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico 6 (Albuquerque: Archaeological Society of New Mexico, 1981).</p> <p>Paul S. Martin and William Byers, “Pollen and Archaeology at Wetherill Mesa,” in <em>Contributions of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project</em>, ed. Douglas Osborne, Society for American Archeology Memoir 19 (Washington, DC: Society for American Archeology, 1965).</p> <p>Gustav Nordenskiöld,. <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado: Their Pottery and Implements</em>, trans. D. Lloyd Morgan (Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt and Soner, 1893).</p> <p>Douglas Osborne, “Solving the Riddles of Wetherill Mesa,” <em>National Geographic</em> 125, no. 2 (February 1964).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, <em>Cultural Change and Continuity on Chapin Mesa</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1977).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, “Prehistoric Soil and Water Conservation on Chapin Mesa, Southwestern Colorado,” <em>American Antiquity </em>28, no. 4 (1963).</p> <p>Arthur H. Rohn, “Social Implications of Pueblo Water Management in the Northern San Juan,” <em>Zietschrift für Ethnologie </em>97, no. 2 (1972).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, <em>Mesas, Cliffs, and Canyons: The University of Colorado Survey of Mesa Verde National Park</em>, Mesa Verde Research Series, Paper No. 3 (Mesa Verde, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1987).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, <em>The 1972 and 1974 Excavations of a Potential Prehistoric Reservoir (Site 5MV1936)</em> <em>Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Wright Paleohydrological Institute, 1999).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith, “A Re-evaluation of Prehistoric Water Control at Mesa Verde” (paper presented at the Second Conference of Science in the National Park Service, San Francisco, CA, 1979).</p> <p>Jack E. Smith and Ezra Zubrow, <em>1967 Excavations at Site 5MV1931, Morefield Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Denver: Wright Paleohydrological Institute, 1999).</p> <p>Guy R. Stewart, “Conservation in Pueblo Agricultural: I. Primitive Practices; II. Present-day Flood Water Irrigation,” <em>Scientific Monthly </em>51, nos. 3–4 (1940).</p> <p>Guy R. Stewart and Maurice Donnelly, “Soil and Water Economy in the Pueblo Southwest,” <em>Scientific Monthly</em> 56 (January–February 1943).</p> <p>Alexander A. Wanek, <em>Geology and Fuel Resources of the Mesa Verde Area, Montezuma and La Plata Counties, Colorado</em>, Geological Survey Bulletin 1072-M (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1959).</p> <p>Gilbert R. Wenger, <em>The Story of Mesa Verde National Park</em> (Mesa Verde, CO: Mesa Verde Museum Association, 1991).</p> <p>Richard M. Wilshusen, Melissa J. Churchill, and James M. Potter, “Prehistoric Reservoirs and Water Basins in the Mesa Verde Region: Intensification of Water Collection Strategies during the Great Pueblo Period,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 62, no. 4 (1997).</p> <p>Kenneth R. Wright, “Water for the Anasazi: How the Ancients of Mesa Verde Engineered Public Works,” <em>Essays in Public Works History </em>No. 22 (2003).</p> <p>Kenneth R. Wright, Ernest L. Pemberton, and Jack E. Smith, “Mesa Verde Prehistoric Reservoir Sedimentation” (paper presented at the Seventh Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference, Reno, NV, March 25–29, 2001).</p> <p>Wright Water Engineers, Inc. <em>Final Report, Morefield Canyon Reservoir Paleohydrology, Mesa Verde National Park; Site 6MV1931 </em>(Denver: Wright Water Engineers, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 03 Feb 2017 20:18:06 +0000 yongli 2320 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Pueblo of Santa Ana–Tamaya http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana-tamaya <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo of Santa Ana–Tamaya</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-27T15:56:20-06:00" title="Monday, June 27, 2016 - 15:56" class="datetime">Mon, 06/27/2016 - 15:56</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana-tamaya" data-a2a-title="Pueblo of Santa Ana–Tamaya"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpueblo-santa-ana-tamaya&amp;title=Pueblo%20of%20Santa%20Ana%E2%80%93Tamaya"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Pueblo of Santa Ana is one of the seven Keres-speaking Pueblos that currently inhabit the state of New Mexico. The homes of the current inhabitants’ ancestors can be found in what is now <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in southwestern Colorado. Archaeological data and pueblo oral history suggest that the ancestors of the <em>Tamayame</em> (the name for the people of Santa Ana in Keres) migrated out of the Mesa Verde region in the 1200s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tamayame oral history says their ancestors came into this world from an underworld place known as <em>Shipapa</em> and traveled extensively, always moving south. They journeyed far and wide, pausing only long enough to regain their strength until they reached <em>Kashe Katrukya</em> (Mesa Verde). After many years of traveling, they stopped there to settle for the first time. At Mesa Verde, the Tamayame built the foundations of their way of life in the upper world.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mesa Verde Pueblos</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Tamayame migration narrative corresponds well with the archaeological reconstruction of the peopling of the New World and <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> prehistory. Archaeologists believe that the earliest immigrants of North America were migratory hunters and gatherers who moved south from the present-day Bering Strait. Once they entered the American Southwest, they continued to follow a hunting-and-gathering lifestyle until they began to farm sometime around 200 BC.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The earliest ancestral communities were composed of a few clustered “pithouses.” These homes were constructed by first excavating a moderately deep pit, then adding upper walls and roofs of logs and covering them with brush and dirt. Through time these villages grew, and people began constructing aboveground, multistory, multiroom complexes in the open or within sheltered canyon walls. We know these complexes as pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to Tamayame oral history, after living for several generations in the Mesa Verde region, the people left the area, moving south and east. Archaeologists suggest that this depopulation was in response to a variety of factors, including a severe regional drought and a possible fuel shortage. This suggestion is based on a study of ancient <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree rings</strong></a> recovered from the area’s pueblos and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After leaving the Mesa Verde region, the Tamayame migrated into <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>, the area that formed the core of their society between the late twelfth century AD and the early fourteenth. Here they constructed several large, interconnected communities with pueblos made of shaped sandstone building stones and large subterranean religious structures known as <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>. These communities flourished for several centuries until shifts in regional precipitation and other factors once again resulted in migration towards the Rio Grande area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Paak’u Village</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After traveling for some time, the Tamayame reached the eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains, northeast of present-day Albuquerque. Here the people settled in what is currently known as <em>Paak’u</em>. This location, surrounded by mountain peaks, was where the Tamayame built their village of buildings arranged around a central plaza.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The hunters, farmers, craftsmen, and potters of Paak’u were not isolated. To the east were the villages of the Galisteo basin. The settlements of the Rio Grande were also not far away. The people of Paak’u met these and more distant neighbors, with whom they established extensive trade networks. Although Paak’u was far from any ocean, the residents made beads and ornaments from the seashells that came from the West Coast of Mexico, and their trade networks extended onto the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The settlement at Paak’u prospered for more than a century. By the 1300s Paak’u featured storerooms, workrooms, and special rooms set aside for ceremonial use. Some leaders instructed residents to seek new fields and farmlands, as the region had a short growing season and undependable rainfall. These Tamayame explorers traveled from Paak’u first to the north, then west, and finally to the south and east. By the time they returned to Paak’u, the community had outgrown the area and the Tamayame decided to relocate to the rich lands along the Rio Grande, where some of the Tamayame had begun to build small farming villages. Paak’u was completely depopulated by the late 1300s or early 1400s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the Tamayame, the journey still had not come to an end. The people settled for a time in the farming villages along the Rio Grande but then, according to oral history, a group of Tamayame traveled west to the south bank of the Rio Jemez, where they founded a village known as <em>Kwiiste Haa Tamaya</em>. From this village, the people eventually crossed the Rio Jemez and traveled north to the place where, after centuries of traveling, the journey ended. There, beside the river and beneath a broad mesa, the Tamayame found their new homeland, the place they call Tamaya and where they continued to farm, hunt, and gather; make pottery; raise families; and follow their traditional ways. With the coming of the Spanish in the 1500s and the introduction of Catholicism, the pueblo acquired the name <em>Santa Ana </em>in accord with the patron saint assigned to the community by the Catholic clergy and the Spanish colonial government. The people constructed an adobe Catholic Church at Tamaya in the late 1500s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Communities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today the people of Santa Ana occupy three modern communities along the Rio Grande: Ranchitos, Rebahene, and Chicale; however, almost all families still maintain another residence within the ancestral village of Tamaya. This village is listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. Tamaya is composed of interconnected adobe residences, a historic adobe church (Santa Ana de Tamaya), corrals, a plaza, and several ceremonial structures; the community is not electrified. Many tribal members are bilingual and proudly speak the Keres language.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite maintaining many traditional aspects and core values of their culture, the people of Santa Ana are economically progressive. The pueblo grows blue corn and operates a blue cornmeal processing facility, a casino, an economic development corporation, a vineyard, a native nursery, the Tamaya Hyatt Resort and Spa, two golf courses, a regional soccer complex, and several restaurants and gas stations. These endeavors have allowed the pueblo to meet the educational, health-care, and other infrastructure needs of their communities. The community of Tamaya is generally closed to outsiders; however, the church is open to the public on Christmas, Easter, Saint John’s Day (June 24), Saint James’s Day (July 25), Saint Peter’s Day (June 29), and Saint Ann’s Day celebration (July 26).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Santa Ana Pueblo follow a traditional form of government. Major decisions are made collectively by the tribal council, which is composed of the male heads of all households. Council is chaired by the governor and lieutenant governor, who are appointed for a one-year term. Other secular leaders include <em>fiscales</em> (church administrators) and the <em>mayordomo</em> (irrigation manager). Traditional religion remains strong in the pueblo and is led by a cacique who in conjunction with the war chief, assistant war chief, and society leaders maintains order and oversees the ceremonial activities of the community. Despite centuries of oppression, the Tamayame remain a proud and vibrant people who value their traditions, honor their past, embrace the present, and plan for the future.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/shelley-phillip" hreflang="und">Shelley, Phillip</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/garcia-julian" hreflang="und">Garcia, Julian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/menchego-timothy" hreflang="und">Menchego, Timothy</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/keres" hreflang="en">Keres</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tamaya" hreflang="en">Tamaya</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-indians" hreflang="en">Pueblo Indians</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Laura Bayer with Floyd Montoya and the Pueblo of Santa Ana<em>, Santa Ana: The People, the Pueblo, and the History of Tamaya</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Linda S. Cordell and Maxine E. McBrinn, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em>, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, “<a href="https://lcontent.crowcanyon.org/EducationProducts/pueblo_history_kids/timeline.php">Timeline</a>,” updated 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, “<a href="http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/">The Science of Tree Rings</a>,” updated November 13, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, “<a href="https://indianpueblo.org/pueblos-pigments-and-prominence-the-murals-of-ipcc/">Santa Ana Pueblo</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen Plog, <em>Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest</em>, 2nd ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo of Santa Ana, “<a href="http://www.santaana.org/">The Pueblo of Santa Ana</a>,” 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo of Santa Ana, “<a href="https://santaana-nsn.gov/">Tamaya Pueblo</a>,” 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo of Santa Ana Tribal Historic Preservation Office, “<a href="https://santaana-nsn.gov/thpo/gallery.htm">Images of Tamaya Cultural Items</a>,” updated 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 27 Jun 2016 21:56:20 +0000 yongli 1524 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Montezuma County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1519--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1519.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/MontezumaCounty_0.jpg?itok=3rYlvBkh" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Montezuma County, home of Mesa Verde National Park, was established in 1889.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-27T15:03:09-06:00" title="Monday, June 27, 2016 - 15:03" class="datetime">Mon, 06/27/2016 - 15:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county" data-a2a-title="Montezuma County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmontezuma-county&amp;title=Montezuma%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Montezuma County, famous for the ancient Native American ruins at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>, is the  southwesternmost county in Colorado. The county covers 2,040 square miles of the <strong>Colorado Plateau</strong>, and has the distinction of bordering Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is known as the <strong>Four Corners </strong>region, where the boundaries of four states intersect. Montezuma County is surrounded by three different San Juan Counties: <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>, Colorado to the northeast; San Juan County, New Mexico to the south; and San Juan County, Utah to the west. <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores County</strong></a>, Colorado, lies along its northern border and <a href="/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a> along its eastern. The county’s southwest corner touches Apache County, Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the county was established in 1889, the ruins within its borders were thought to be of Aztec origin. Thus, Montezuma County is named after the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II, and its county seat, <strong>Cortez</strong>, is named after the Spanish conquistador who vanquished him. Most of the county’s ancient Native American ruins are located in Mesa Verde National Park in the southeast and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument </strong>in the west. In addition, <a href="/article/hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a> lies just over the county’s western border in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> and its capital, <strong>Towaoc</strong>, are located in southern Montezuma County. Towaoc—a word that means “just fine”—has a population of 1,087; Native Americans make up 11 percent of the county’s 25,772 residents. Cortez has a population of 8,482 and sits in central Montezuma County at the juncture of US Routes 491 and 160 and State Highway 145. Other notable towns include <strong>Mancos</strong> (pop. 1,336), along US 160 northeast of Mesa Verde, and <strong>Dolores</strong> (pop. 936), along Colorado 145 at the southern end of McPhee Reservoir. State Highway 184 connects Mancos and Dolores and meets US 491 just south of the unincorporated area of Lewis. The <strong>Dolores River</strong> flows into the county from the northeast, alongside Colorado 145 and through the San Juan National Forest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 2,200 years ago, the Mesa Verde region was inhabited by the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> ancestors of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who would leave their edificial legacy on the cliff sides. By the end of the sixth century AD the descendants of those Paleo-Indians, known to archaeologists as Basketmakers on account of their proficiency at that craft, began to settle on top of the mesa. Already part-time farmers, they found fertile soils on the southern flanks of the flattop where they could grow maize and other crops. They also began exploring the mesa’s many deep canyons, and found suitable shelter in stone pockets created by the freezing and thawing of the rocks and by water percolating through the mesa’s sandstone cap.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although life on top of a 7,000-foot mesa without steel tools and other later technology must have been difficult, it was probably easier than anywhere else these Basketmakers had lived since they stayed. They built primitive dwellings called pithouses, and by the ninth century these had evolved into flat-roofed, multiple-room structures built on top of the mesa, their walls anchored by stone slabs and held together by a thick mud mortar.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the tenth century these Ancestral Puebloans had converted the earlier pithouse design into their famous sandstone <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>—the large, one-room ceremonial structures typical of many Puebloan archaeological sites throughout Colorado and the Southwest. Ancestral Puebloans did not transfer these structural designs to the famous cliff sides until about the mid-thirteenth century, when some event—climatic, cultural, or likely both—prompted the hasty construction of houses and kivas in the canyon alcoves.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde’s most famous and most photographed structure, the <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, was finished sometime between 1260 and 1280, before a twenty-five-year drought decimated the food supply and possibly prompted the mass exodus from the mesa. By 1300 the Ancestral Puebloans had disappeared from the region. Although the drought certainly played a large role in the abandonment, it is still not entirely clear what combination of events in the late thirteenth century forced the Ancestral Puebloans to leave Mesa Verde.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Nuche</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Nuche, or Ute people, were present in the Four Corners region by 1300, and by 1500 southwest Colorado was occupied by a band of Utes called the Weenuche: the “long time ago people.” Although the Weenuche came to be the most dominant group, other groups of Utes—such as the Muache and Capote—as well as Navajo and Southern Paiute people also frequented the Four Corners area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes lived off the natural resources of Colorado’s mountains and river valleys, hunting <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a>, jackrabbit, and other game. They also gathered a wide assortment of wild berries and roots, including the versatile yucca root. In the summer they followed game high into the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>, and in the winter they followed the animals back to the shelter of the lower river valleys, such as the Dolores.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early seventeenth century, the northern frontier of New Spain pressed up against the lands of the Weenuche and other Utes in southwestern Colorado. The Nuche relationship with the Spaniards was one of alternate raiding and trading. As early as 1640 they had acquired horses from their European neighbors to the south. Horses allowed the Utes, who were already accustomed to ranging across vast territories, to cover even more ground in search of trade or larger populations of game such as buffalo. The horse also increased the value of river valleys, as Ute ponies could find ample forage there in winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Official <strong>Spanish exploration</strong> of the Montezuma County area began with the expedition of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in 1765. Rivera’s mission was to have the Utes guide him to the Colorado River—then known as the Río del Tizón—and investigate rumors of silver deposits in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1765 Rivera’s expedition reached the Dolores River near present-day Dolores, but Nuche there warned him not to proceed any farther until the fall, when cooler weather prevailed. Rivera’s group headed back to New Mexico. In the fall Rivera again crossed the Montezuma County area on his way to the Dolores River.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rivera’s expedition carved out a route for future traders and explorers. In July 1776, the Spanish friars Silvestre Escalante and Francisco Domínguez were dispatched to find an overland passage from Santa Fé to Monterey, California. After following Rivera’s old route through present-day <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta</strong></a>, La Plata, Montezuma, <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel</strong></a> Counties, Dominguez and Escalante pushed northeast into the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Valley and then northwest into Utah. In October a punishing blizzard forced them back to Santa Fé.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They had not found passage to Monterey, but Domínguez and Escalante had pushed farther into western Colorado than any other Spanish explorer. They were also the first Europeans to document the Mesa Verde region in 1776.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explorers, Farmers, and Ranchers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Montezuma County area belonged to Mexico after it won independence from Spain in 1821, but was ceded to the United States after the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1859 an American expedition led by Captain <strong>John Macomb</strong> left Santa Fé and crossed the northern part of present-day Montezuma County. Macomb sought to map a railroad or wagon route through southwest Colorado, but found the terrain too difficult for practical construction of either. His expedition was the last official US military exploration of southwest Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The years after 1876 saw increased migration of Hispano ranchers and farmers from New Mexico into present-day Montezuma County. Most of these migrants opposed the opening of Ute lands to Americans, as they feared it would increase Anglo dominance of the area. Colorado historian William Wyckoff notes that “many Ute babies had Hispano baptismal godparents, and relations between the two groups were cordial.” The continued presence of Anglo-American, Hispano, and Native Americans led to the development of a rich cultural mosaic that persists to the present.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government brokered a <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty with Utes</strong></a> in 1868 that left the Native Americans a huge reservation encompassing nearly the entire western third of Colorado. But against the wishes of both the government and the Utes, prospectors soon filtered into the San Juans northeast of present-day Montezuma County. A few successful strikes in the mountains in the early 1870s led to the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the Ute leader <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> agreed to cede the San Juan Mountains, including the eastern part of present-day Montezuma County, to the United States. The agreement also established the <strong>Southern Ute Indian Reservation</strong> south of the ceded territory for the Weenuche, Capote, and Muache Utes. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act </strong></a>of 1887 directed that reservation land be allotted to individual tribal members, but many Weenuches rejected the idea of allotment and preferred one large reservation. To that end, in 1895 the government established the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> out of the western edge of the Southern Ute Reservation. Weenuche Utes began settling the reservation in 1897, and they gained federal recognition as the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tension between whites and Utes in Montezuma County persisted despite the reservations. One common source of conflict was the tendency of white ranchers’ herds to stray onto the reservation. In addition, the federal government proved unreliable in furnishing supplies promised to the Utes in earlier treaties, so some Utes left the reservation to hunt. White ranchers often accused Utes of killing their cattle and committing other crimes. These tensions sometimes resulted in violence, such as when Utes killed at least a dozen ranchers in the spring of 1881, or when whites murdered a group of Utes at a campsite along <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek</strong></a> in 1885. That same year Weenuches burned the Genthner home on Totten Lake, near Cortez, and killed the family patriarch, though his wife and six children survived. Sporadic violence continued until the last major conflict in 1915, which left several Utes and members of a joint Anglo-American-Mexican posse dead.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these conflicts, Utes and non-native residents managed to coexist peacefully in Montezuma County after the turn of the century. In the first third of the twentieth century, many Utes found employment as cowboys or farmers. Today, the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe hosts guided tours of their homeland for visitors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Establishment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first permanent white residents in Montezuma County were miners who explored the Mancos Valley on the heels of the Brunot Agreement. In 1873 a small and bankrupt <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> party consisting of Almarion Root, Alex K. Fleming, Robert Jones, and Henry Lightner found a deposit that would become the site of the Comstock Mine in the La Plata Mountains. The party was fortunate to run into Captain John Moss, who was scouting Colorado mining ventures for wealthy San Francisco bankers. Moss took some samples from the Root party’s find, which impressed his California sponsor.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Moss returned from San Francisco with his own party in July, finding and naming the Montezuma Valley. By July 1874, Moss had found an agreeable settlement site on the fertile lands of the Mancos Valley, and he decided to set up a town that could support mining operations in the mountains. The town of Mancos was incorporated in 1894. More white settlers arrived in the Mancos community over the next few years, and in 1877 the first settlers arrived in the Dolores River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County was carved from the western portion of La Plata County in 1889. A little more than a year later, the Rio Grande &amp; Southern Railroad connected Mancos and Dolores, providing an important boost to the county economy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1886 the town of Cortez was laid out by M. J. Mack, an engineer for the Montezuma Valley Water Supply Company. Construction on the town’s main <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditch, which took water from the Dolores River, continued into 1887; in the meantime, the town’s first residents had to haul in their own barrels of water on wagons. On July 4, 1890, the first flowing water supplied the town’s few residences via a forty-foot flume.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late nineteenth century, ranching was the dominant economic activity in Montezuma County; nearly every homesteader had a cattle herd, and there were thousands of cattle ranging across the river valleys. Ranchers had also driven Native Americans off of grassy flattops such as Mesa Verde; in 1888 rancher <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> discovered the Cliff Palace while chasing some of his herd.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County’s ranching economy faded in the early twentieth century, however, as the amount of irrigated farmland increased and the creation of national parks and forest reserves reduced the amount of available grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of mining activities began in the mountains east of Mancos in the late nineteenth century and continued into the twentieth. The Sundown Mine, the area’s first high-paying mine, was established in 1894; in 1898 Montezuma County mines produced an estimated $15,000 worth of gold.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it never stopped, mining tapered off at the beginning of the twentieth century, only to experience a revival in the 1930s. In 1933 Charles Starr and his sons, Raymond and Howard, found a rich gold deposit east of Mancos. They opened the Red Arrow Mine, and its first shipment produced about $6,000 worth of gold. The mine was closed during World War II but was reopened after the war and remains in production today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In mid-February 1936, an <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> wiped out a mining camp east of Mancos belonging to the Hesperus Mining Company, killing six and destroying company property worth $75,000. The event remains the deadliest avalanche in county history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the turn of the century, the county’s economy began a transition from ranching to farming. The amount of irrigated land increased from 2,122 acres in 1889 to 27,176 acres in 1909, while the number of farms grew from 261 in 1900 to 1,004 in 1910. Apple and peach orchards sprang up to the north and west of Cortez, in Lebanon and McElmo Canyon. McElmo Canyon peaches even took home awards at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cortez continued to grow in the early twentieth century. In 1908 the Clifton Hotel burned down, and owner Johnny Brown and his wife rebuilt it as the Brown Palace Hotel, which still operates today. By 1910 the town had 565 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Construction of the county’s first major road, a highway that ran from Durango to Mancos, began in 1913 and was complete by 1919. By the 1920s Montezuma County had a population of about 7,000 and boasted more than 40,000 acres of irrigated land. Its agricultural bounty included alfalfa, corn, wheat, pears, cherries, apples, peaches, sheep, and cattle for beef and dairy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To prevent the exploitation of timber and grass reserves, President Theodore Roosevelt created the San Juan Forest Reserve—along with many other reserves in Colorado—in 1905. The government also created Mesa Verde National Park in 1906, Hovenweep National Monument in 1919, and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument"><strong> Yucca House National Monument</strong></a> in 1923, bringing more of the county’s land under federal management. Mesa Verde National Park was expanded in 1911 via a land exchange with the Weenuche so it would include more of the famous cliff dwellings. County farmers largely supported the creation of new federal lands because it preserved their water supply; ranchers, however, viciously opposed these developments because they curtailed the amount of grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the rest of the country, Montezuma County suffered during the <strong>Great Depression</strong> (1929–39), as production of nearly every agricultural commodity dropped sharply. After <strong>World War II</strong>, the county’s farms rebounded, and the economy added the new pillars of tourism and energy extraction. Spurred on by the uptick in automobile ownership, the number of visitors to Mesa Verde National Park more than tripled between 1941 and 1953. Major oil strikes west of Pleasant View in 1948 and in nearby Aneth, Utah, in 1956 turned Cortez into a prominent supply center for the oil industry. <a href="/article/uranium-mining"><strong>Uranium</strong></a> prospecting also funneled money into Cortez during the 1950s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The local oil and uranium industries spurred significant development in Cortez. The city got a new hospital in 1948. Main Street was paved in 1951, followed by several other streets in 1953–54. Two new elementary schools were added in 1950 and 1955. The first commercial planes arrived in the 1950s, and the first broadcast from the new local radio station, KVFC, hit the airwaves in 1955. With the energy industries fueling development, Cortez’s population grew from 2,680 in 1950 to 6,764 1960, an increase of more than 150 percent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The energy boom of the 1950s went bust in the 1960s, and Montezuma County became even more dependent on tourism. In 1992, the state designated Montezuma County as one of its Enterprise Zones—economically underdeveloped areas where businesses can receive tax breaks just for setting up shop. This allowed Montezuma County businesses to claim more than $7 million in tax credits and create 1,677 jobs between 1992 and 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, the federal <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> began building McPhee Reservoir on the Dolores River. When the project was completed in 1995, it irrigated an additional 35,000 acres, 7,500 of which lay on the Ute Mountain reservation. The reservoir also provides Towaoc, Cortez, and Dolores with a long-term water supply.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The federal government established Canyons of the Ancients National Monument in western Montezuma County in 2000, which brought the amount of land under federal management to about one-third of the county’s total. Tourism remains the main driver of the county economy, although the market value of its agricultural products has increased in recent years.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county-history" hreflang="en">montezuma county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mancos" hreflang="en">mancos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cortez" hreflang="en">cortez</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwelling" hreflang="en">cliff dwelling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiva" hreflang="en">kiva</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/four-corners" hreflang="en">four corners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plateau" hreflang="en">colorado plateau</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Phil Carson, <em>Across the Northern Frontier: Spanish Explorations in Colorado </em>(Boulder, CO: Johnson Printing, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/Montezuma_County_Performance_Report_2013.pdf">2013 Development Report: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/2011_CEDS_montezuma.pdf">Montezuma County Economic Development Strategy Update 2011</a>,” 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ira S. Freeman, <em>A History of Montezuma County</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathon C. Horn, “<a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/co/nm/canm/CANM_Documents.Par.87163.File.dat/Ancients%20Report.pdf">Landscape-Level History of the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Montezuma and Dolores Counties, Colorado</a>” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rose Houk and Faith Marcovecchio, eds., <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years</em>, Mesa Verde Museum Association (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Montezuma County, Colorado” (Grand Junction, CO: Winfield’s Press, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul M. O’Rourke, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co4.Par.36501.File.dat/orourke.pdf"><em>Frontier in Transition: A History of Southwestern Colorado</em></a> (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jill Seyfarth,  “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/CLG_Survey_Cortez2012.pdf">Historic Buildings Survey: Montezuma Avenue, Cortez, Colorado 2012</a>,” (Durango, CO: Cultural Resource Planning, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.cortezco.gov/">City of Cortez</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/discover-four-corners-region-things-do">Discover the Four Corners Region: Things to Do</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://scan.org/">Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://montezumacounty.org/web/">Montezuma County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.mancoscolorado.com/">Town of Mancos</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.utemountaintribalpark.info/">Ute Mountain Tribal Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 27 Jun 2016 21:03:09 +0000 yongli 1518 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cliff Palace http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-palace <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1598--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1598.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Cliff_Palace_1_0.jpg?itok=uaEJ0Ki3" width="1090" height="392" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Constructed by Ancestral Puebloans in the 1200s, the 150-room Cliff Palace is now part of Mesa Verde National Park and is one of the most photographed places on Earth.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1601--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1601.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-1891"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mesa_Verde_-_Cliff_Palace_in_1891_0.jpg?itok=dk32cD5u" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-1891" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace, 1891</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1891 the Swedish scholar Gustaf Nordenskiöld conducted the first significant excavations at Cliff Palace. His work stimulated wider interest in the Mesa Verde area.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-25T14:48:51-06:00" title="Wednesday, May 25, 2016 - 14:48" class="datetime">Wed, 05/25/2016 - 14:48</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-palace" data-a2a-title="Cliff Palace"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcliff-palace&amp;title=Cliff%20Palace"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located in an alcove on the east wall of Cliff Canyon in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, Cliff Palace is a 150-room <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwelling</strong></a> built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a>&nbsp;people in the 1200s. Diné (<strong>Navajo</strong>), Nuche&nbsp;(<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>), <strong>Apache</strong>, and Pueblo people knew of the structures well before&nbsp;rancher <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Charles Mason encountered them&nbsp;in 1888. The largest and best-known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace is also one of the most photographed structures on earth. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Cliff Palace and the other cliff dwellings were constructed during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE) of the Ancestral Pueblo&nbsp;tradition, when Mesa Verde residents began to move from mesa tops to cliff alcoves, perhaps for greater protection. The site probably had a population of 150 or more and served as an administrative center for the sixty smaller cliff dwellings nearby, which could have housed an estimated 625 people.</p> <p>Cliff Palace was built in pieces between about 1200 and 1275, with each family constructing its own kiva and room suite, and grew to include 150 rooms and twenty-three <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>. Kivas, circular areas excavated into the ground, were the central residential structures at sites such as Cliff Palace. Kivas could be used for residences and ritual gatherings; they could also be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Around each kiva were suites of small rooms that made up a courtyard complex shared by an extended family or clan. These residential courtyard complexes made up more than 75 percent of Cliff Palace. The rest of the site consisted of isolated kivas, rooms without nearby kivas, circular towers, great kivas, and other special-use spaces.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Cliff Palace was evacuated in the final decades of the 1200s when the Ancestral Pueblo&nbsp;migrated to the south and southwest. Although the exact reasons for the migration remain unknown, there is evidence that colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, made it harder for residents to rely on traditional strategies for survival.</p> <h2>"Rediscovery" in 1888</h2> <p>Local Indigenous groups were well aware of the Cliff Palace before&nbsp;local rancher Al Wetherill and several others claimed to have seen it&nbsp;in the 1880s.&nbsp;On December 18, 1888, Al’s brother Richard and their brother-in-law, Charles Mason, found the site. The men were searching for cattle with their Ute guide, Acowitz, when they first saw the structure. They explored it and soon discovered other cliff dwellings and pueblos nearby. Richard Wetherill returned to the area throughout the winter to explore and dig for artifacts, which he later sold to the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>).</p> <p>In 1891 the Wetherill brothers and Mason showed Mesa Verde to the visiting Swedish scholar <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, who spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings in the area, including Cliff Palace. His book <em>The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde</em> (1893) played a crucial role in stimulating interest in the area’s archaeology. The&nbsp;artifacts he plundered during his excavations were long housed at the National Museum of Finland, but in 2019 the Finnish government agreed to return many of them—including some human remains and funerary objects—to native tribes in the region.</p> <p>Cliff Palace had deteriorated somewhat in the six centuries since its occupation, but the process of decay accelerated rapidly after its rediscovery, as it saw increased visitation from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. In response, a movement developed in the 1890s and early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a national park and to pass the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a>&nbsp;(1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Archaeological Work and Preservation Efforts</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Cliff Palace, became a national park. Most of the structures in the park were still filled with debris and in danger of collapsing, so the Department of the Interior asked <strong>Jesse Walter Fewkes</strong> of the Bureau of American Ethnology to come to the park and perform excavation, preservation, and repair work. From 1908 to 1922 Fewkes excavated and stabilized cliff dwellings at the park, including Cliff Palace, where he worked in 1909–10. His team recovered artifacts; cleared rooms, courts, and terraces of debris; strengthened walls; and built a new trail to make the site more accessible to visitors. Fewkes counted 217 rooms and twenty-three kivas at Cliff Palace, making it what was then believed to be the largest cliff dwelling in the United States.</p> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the park has focused on preservation. By the early 1930s, Cliff Palace was settling on its unstable foundations and in desperate need of repair. The Public Works Administration helped fund a program of surveying, mapping, and stabilization. <strong>Earl Morris</strong> of the Carnegie Institution led the 1934 project at Cliff Palace, which added concrete retaining walls and repaired a four-story square tower. The project marked a turning point in preservation efforts at Mesa Verde because Morris implemented a new policy of documenting all repairs so that it would be possible in the future to tell the difference between the parts of the site that were original and those that had been restored. The 1934 project was also significant for marking the start of <strong>James “Al” Lancaster</strong>’s long career at Mesa Verde, where he led the park’s stabilization crew for several decades.</p> <h2>Mapping Cliff Palace</h2> <p>In the late 1990s Mesa Verde was one of the first recipients of funding from the Save America’s Treasures program launched by the White House Millennium Council and the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The park’s chief archaeologist, Larry Nordby, used part of the money to make the first comprehensive map of Cliff Palace. Nordby’s map showed that Cliff Palace actually had 150 rooms, not the 217 Fewkes had counted, making it the same size as <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/long-house">Long Hous</a></strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/long-house"><strong>e</strong></a> on nearby Wetherill Mesa.</p> <p>Nordby’s map and analysis also revealed other new details about life at Cliff Palace. Many of the rooms at the site appear to have been used primarily for storage, indicating that Cliff Palace may have served as a central warehouse and distribution center for other dwellings in the area, with perhaps as few as 125 residents of its own. In addition, Nordby discovered a wall running through the center of the site that divided it into two parts, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups.</p> <h2>2015 Conservation and Stabilization Project</h2> <p>The 800-year-old Cliff Palace has a variety of structural problems that are exacerbated by frequent visitation and have required regular stabilization since the middle of the twentieth century. Especially since World War II, when visitation to Mesa Verde National Park increased dramatically, vibrations from foot traffic have caused loose material at the site to settle. To limit the damage, park officials have kept the public away from certain parts of the site and have limited the size of tour groups. They have also performed regular maintenance to repair cracks, stabilize walls, and improve drainage for water seeping through the alcove roof.</p> <p>Most recently, in 2011 a wall collapse in Kiva F led to a comprehensive investigation of structural conditions at Cliff Palace. Archaeologists found that although the northern half of the site was built on firm bedrock, the southern half sat on loose soil and debris that had fallen from the alcove ceiling. With no real foundation, the southern half of the site was slowly sliding downhill, causing cracks, falling walls, and other problems. Park staff developed a plan for a $450,000 preservation effort and performed extensive repairs before Memorial Day and after Labor Day in 2015. The conservation project closed Cliff Palace to the public in spring and fall 2015, but daily tours were conducted as usual during the summer.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-palace" hreflang="en">Cliff Palace</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwelling" hreflang="en">cliff dwelling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jesse-walter-fewkes" hreflang="en">Jesse Walter Fewkes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/earl-morris" hreflang="en">Earl Morris</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>William M. Ferguson, <em>The Anasazi of Mesa Verde and the Four Corners</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p> <p>Florence C. Lister, <em>Troweling Through Time: The First Century of Mesa Verdean Archaeology</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).</p> <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>The Mesa Verde World: Explorations in Ancestral Pueblo Archaeology</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/historyculture/cliff_palace_preservation.htm">Preserving Cliff Palace</a>,” Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service.</p> <p><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Kevin Simpson,&nbsp;</span><a class="ext" href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/10/10/mesa-verde-remains-nordenskiold/" style="color: rgb(0, 144, 235); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;" title=" (external link)">"More Than a Century Ago, a European Visitor Took More Than 600 Native American Remains and Artifacts From Colorado's Mesa Verde,"</a><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">&nbsp;</span><em style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Colorado Sun</em><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">, October 10, 2019.</span></p> <p>Ricardo Torres-Reyes, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: An Administrative History, 1906–1970</em> (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1970).</p> <p>Barbara Wyatt, “Mesa Verde National Park Archeological District,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form (December 8, 1976).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/historyculture/cd_cliff_palace.htm">“Cliff Palace,”</a> Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service.</p> <p>Jesse Walter Fewkes, <em>Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 51 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1911).</p> <p>Gustav Nordenskiöld, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</em> (Glorieta, NM: Rio Grande Press, 1979).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Cliff_Palace.docx">Cliff Palace Teacher Resource Set - Word</a></p> <p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Cliff_Palace.pdf">Cliff Palace Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Cliff Palace is a group of 150 rooms carved into the cliffs of Mesa Verde. It was built 800 years ago by Ancestral Puebloans. Ranchers rediscovered Cliff Palace in 1888. Mesa Verde became one of the first National Parks. Cliff Palace is the largest and best-known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde. It is one of the most photographed places in the world.</p> <p>Mesa Verde got a special honor in 1978. It was named a United Nations (UNESCO) World Heritage Site.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Cliff dwellings were built by the Ancestral Puebloans, who were ancestors of the Pueblo Native American tribe. The cliff dwellings were built from 1200–75. The people had lived on flat ground around Mesa Verde. To keep their community safe, they started to build homes in the cliffs. Cliff Palace was home to 125-150 people. There were sixty smaller cliff dwellings nearby. About 625 people lived in the Mesa Verde area.</p> <p>Each family built its own kiva and rooms. Soon there were 150 rooms and twenty-three kivas. Kivas are round rooms dug into the ground. Kivas were used for religious and social gatherings. They could be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Around each kiva were small rooms. These made up a courtyard that was shared by a family or clan. Courtyards made up most of Cliff Palace. There were also kivas without courtyards and rooms without kivas. The Ancestral Puebloans also built circular towers, great kivas, and other spaces.</p> <p>The Ancestral Puebloans left the Mesa Verde area at the end of the 1200s. They moved to land in the south. No one knows why they left Mesa Verde. Experts think that the weather became colder and dryer. There might have been conflicts with other groups in the area. These things made it hard to live at Mesa Verde.</p> <h2>Rediscovery in 1888</h2> <p>The Wetherills were ranchers near Mesa Verde. On December 18, 1888, Richard Wetherill, Charles Mason, and their Ute guide Acowitz were searching for cattle. They saw Cliff Palace for the first time. They explored it, and then they discovered other cliff dwellings. Richard Wetherill returned to the area all winter. He explored more and dug for artifacts.</p> <p>In 1891 the Wetherills showed Mesa Verde to a Swedish scholar, Gustaf Nordenskiöld. Nordenskiöld spent the summer studying the cliff dwellings, including Cliff Palace. He took many things he discovered in Mesa Verde to Finland. Some of Mesa Verde’s treasures are in the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>Gustaf Nordenskiöld published a book called <em>The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde</em> in 1893.</p> <p>People who read the book became interested in Mesa Verde and the Ancestral Puebloans.</p> <p>Many people visited Mesa Verde. They included pothunters, archaeologists, and tourists. Cliff Palace was being destroyed by so many visitors. They took items from the site and damaged the area.</p> <h2>Archaeological Work and Preservation Efforts</h2> <p>People who cared about Mesa Verde wanted to make it a National Park to protect it. They helped to pass a law that people could not take items from the site.</p> <p>In 1906 Mesa Verde became a National Park. Many of the structures were in danger. They were falling and filled with rubble. Jesse Walter Fewkes, who worked for the US Government, came to Mesa Verde. His team did excavation, preservation, and repair work. From 1908 to 1922, they worked on cliff dwellings in the park. His team found artifacts, cleared rooms and kivas, and strengthened walls. They built a trail for visitors.</p> <p>In the 1930s, Cliff Palace was in desperate need of more repairs. The US government and private institutions funded programs to help fix it up. Earl Morris of the Carnegie Institution led a project at Cliff Palace in 1934. His team added concrete walls and repaired a four-story square tower. They made sure that any repairs they made were known. They wanted to be able to tell the difference between parts of the site that were original and those that had been restored.</p> <h2>Mapping Cliff Palace</h2> <p>In 1990 Mesa Verde was part of the “Save America’s Treasures” program. Larry Nordby, the site archeologist, made a new map of Cliff Palace. He discovered some interesting things. His map showed that Cliff Palace had only 150 rooms. An older map showed it had 217 rooms. He found that many of the rooms at Cliff Palace were used for storage. This showed that Cliff Palace might have been a warehouse. Nordby discovered a wall running through the center of Cliff Palace. It divided it into two parts. He believed that two different groups of people once lived there.</p> <h2>2015 Conservation and Stabilization Project</h2> <p>The 800-year-old Cliff Palace is unstable. It needs help to stay standing. Park officials keep people away from parts of Cliff Palace. They have limited the size of tour groups. They perform regular work to repair cracks and stabilize walls.</p> <p>In 2011 a wall collapsed in a kiva at Cliff Palace. Archaeologists found that the north half of Cliff Palace was built on firm rock. But, the south half sat on loose soil. The south half was slowly sliding downhill. This was causing cracks, falling walls, and other problems. Park staff performed repairs in 2015.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Cliff Palace is located on the east wall of Cliff Canyon in Mesa Verde National Park. It is a 150-room cliff dwelling built by Ancestral Puebloans in the 1200s. Rediscovered by ranchers in 1888, it is the largest and best-known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde. It is also one of the most photographed structures on earth. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1978.</p> <h2><strong>Construction and Use</strong></h2> <p>Cliff Palace and the other cliff dwellings were built by the Ancestral Puebloans, ancestors of today’s Pueblo people. They were built during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE), when Mesa Verde residents began to move from mesa tops to cliff alcoves. It is believed they moved for greater protection. Cliff Palace had a population of around 150. It served as a center for the sixty smaller cliff dwellings nearby. The Mesa Verde site housed an estimated total of 625 people.</p> <p>Cliff Palace was built between about 1200 and 1275. Each family constructed its own kiva and room suite. The site grew to include 150 rooms and twenty-three kivas, which are circular pits dug into the ground. Kivas were used for social and spiritual gatherings, and might also be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Around each kiva were suites of small rooms. These made up a courtyard shared by an extended family or clan. Courtyards made up more than 75 percent of Cliff Palace. The rest of the site consisted of isolated kivas, rooms without nearby kivas, circular towers, great kivas, and other special-use spaces.</p> <p>The Ancestral Puebloans abandoned the Mesa Verde area at the end of the 1200s. They migrated to the south and southwest. The exact reasons for the migration remain unknown. Experts believe that the weather became colder and drier, and there may have been increased conflicts with other groups in the region. These problems made it hard for residents to survive.</p> <h2>Rediscovery in 1888</h2> <p>The Wetherill family were ranchers in the Mesa Verde area. On December 18, 1888, Richard Wetherill, Charles Mason and their Ute guide Acowitz were searching for cattle. They saw Cliff Palace for the first time. They explored it and discovered other cliff dwellings nearby. Richard Wetherill returned to the area during the winter to explore and dig for artifacts. He later sold the artifacts to the Colorado Historical Society.</p> <p>In 1891 the Wetherill brothers and Mason showed Mesa Verde to a Swedish scholar, Gustaf Nordenskiöld. Nordenskiöld spent the summer excavating cliff dwellings in the area, including Cliff Palace. The many artifacts he removed during his excavations are now housed at the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>Gustaf Nordenskiöld published a book, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde</em>, in 1893. The book interested others in the area’s archaeology. The site saw increased visits from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists. With so much activity at the site, walls began to crack, buildings began to crumble, and artifacts were broken or stolen.</p> <p>In response, a movement developed in the early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a National Park. The government also passed the Antiquities Act (1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Archaeological Work and Preservation Efforts</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Cliff Palace, became a National Park. Most of the structures in the park were filled with debris. The site was in danger of collapsing. The National Park Service hired Jesse Walter Fewkes of the Bureau of American Ethnology to perform excavation, preservation, and repair work.</p> <p>From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes excavated and stabilized cliff dwellings at the park, including Cliff Palace. His team recovered artifacts, cleared rooms, courts, and terraces of debris, and strengthened walls. They built a new trail to make the site more accessible to visitors. Fewkes counted 217 rooms and twenty-three kivas at Cliff Palace. He believed it was the largest cliff dwelling in the United States.</p> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the park has focused on preservation. By the early 1930s, Cliff Palace was settling on its unstable foundations. It was in desperate need of repair. The Public Works Administration helped fund a program of surveying, mapping, and stabilization.</p> <p>Earl Morris of the Carnegie Institution led a 1934 project at Cliff Palace. The team added concrete retaining walls and repaired a four-story square tower. Morris started a new policy of documenting all repairs. This made it possible to tell the difference between parts that were original and parts that had been restored.</p> <h2>Mapping Cliff Palace</h2> <p>In the late 1990s, Mesa Verde received funding from the Save America’s Treasures program. The park’s chief archaeologist, Larry Nordby, made the first comprehensive map of Cliff Palace. Nordby’s map showed that Cliff Palace actually had 150 rooms, not the 217 Fewkes had counted. This made it the same size as Long House on nearby Wetherill Mesa.</p> <p>Nordby’s map and analysis showed other new details about life at Cliff Palace. Many of the rooms at the site were used primarily for storage. This indicated that Cliff Palace might have served as a central warehouse for other dwellings in the area. In addition, Nordby discovered a wall running through the center of the site. The wall divided Cliff Palace into two parts, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups.</p> <h2>2015 Conservation and Stabilization Project</h2> <p>The 800-year-old Cliff Palace has a variety of structural problems. Cliff House needs regular stabilization. Since the 1950s, visits to Mesa Verde National Park increased dramatically. Vibrations from foot traffic have caused the site to settle. To limit the damage, park officials have closed parts of the site and limited the size of tour groups. Park service staff performs regular maintenance to repair cracks and stabilize walls. Drainage for water seeping through the alcove roof has been improved.</p> <p>In 2011 a wall collapsed in one of the kivas (Kiva F). This led to an investigation of structural conditions at Cliff Palace. Archaeologists found that the north half of the site was built on firm bedrock. However, the south half sat on loose soil and debris that had fallen from the cliff wall. With no real foundation, the southern half of the site was slowly sliding downhill. This was causing cracks, falling walls, and other problems. Park staff developed a plan for a $450,000 preservation effort.&nbsp; Extensive repairs were performed in 2015. The conservation project closed Cliff Palace to the public in spring and fall 2015. It remained opened for tour groups that summer.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Cliff Palace is located on the east wall of Cliff Canyon in Mesa Verde National Park. It is a 150-room cliff dwelling built by Ancestral Puebloans in the 1200s. It was rediscovered by ranchers in 1888. Cliff Palace is the largest and best-known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde, as well as one of the most photographed structures on earth. Along with the rest of Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1978.</p> <h2>Construction and Use</h2> <p>Cliff Palace and the other cliff dwellings were built during the Pueblo III period (1150–1300 CE) of the Ancestral Puebloan tradition. Mesa Verde residents began to move from mesa tops to cliff alcoves, perhaps for greater protection. The site probably had a population of 150 or more. It served as an administrative center for the sixty smaller cliff dwellings nearby. The Mesa Verde site housed an estimated 625 people.</p> <p>Cliff Palace was built between about 1200 and 1275. Each family built its own kiva and room suite. The site grew to include 150 rooms and twenty-three kivas. Kivas are circular areas excavated into the ground. They were the central residential structures at Cliff Palace, and were used for residences and ritual gatherings. They could also be covered with a flat roof to make a small plaza. Around each kiva were suites of small rooms that made up a courtyard complex shared by an extended family or clan. These courtyard complexes made up more than 75 percent of Cliff Palace. The rest of the site consisted of isolated kivas, rooms without nearby kivas, circular towers, great kivas, and other special-use spaces.</p> <p>Like the rest of the Mesa Verde region, Cliff Palace was abandoned in the final decades of the 1200s. The Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the south and southwest. The exact reasons for the migration remain unknown. There is evidence that colder and drier weather, combined with increased conflict in the region, made it harder for residents to rely on traditional strategies for survival.</p> <h2>Rediscovery in 1888</h2> <p>Local rancher Al Wetherill and several others claimed to have seen Cliff Palace early in the 1880s. But credit for discovering it on December 18, 1888, is assigned to Al’s brother Richard and their brother-in-law, Charles Mason. The men were searching for cattle with their Ute guide Acowitz when they saw the structure. They explored it and also discovered other cliff dwellings nearby. Richard Wetherill returned to the area throughout the winter to explore and dig for artifacts. He later sold the artifacts to the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado).</p> <p>In 1891 the Wetherill brothers and Mason showed Mesa Verde to the visiting Swedish scholar Gustaf Nordenskiöld. He spent the summer excavating nearly two dozen cliff dwellings in the area, including Cliff Palace. The many artifacts he removed during his excavations are now housed at the National Museum of Finland.</p> <p>Gustaf Nordenskiöld published a book, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde</em>, in 1893. The book &nbsp;played a crucial role in stimulating interest in the area’s archaeology. Cliff Palace had already deteriorated in the six centuries since it had been abandoned. But the process of decay accelerated rapidly after its rediscovery. The site saw increased visitation from pothunters, amateur archaeologists, and tourists.</p> <p>In response, a movement developed in early 1900s to make Mesa Verde a National Park. The government also passed the Antiquities Act (1906) to prevent looting and vandalism at prehistoric sites on public land.</p> <h2>Archaeological Work and Preservation Efforts</h2> <p>In 1906 the Mesa Verde area, including Cliff Palace, became a National Park. Most of the structures in the park were still filled with debris and in danger of collapsing. The US Department of the Interior asked Jesse Walter Fewkes of the Bureau of American Ethnology to come to the park and perform excavation, preservation, and repair work.</p> <p>From 1908 to 1922, Fewkes excavated and stabilized cliff dwellings at the park, including Cliff Palace. His team recovered artifacts, cleared rooms, courts, and terraces of debris, strengthened walls, and built a new trail to make the site more accessible to visitors. Fewkes counted 217 rooms and twenty-three kivas at Cliff Palace, making it what was then believed to be the largest cliff dwelling in the United States.</p> <p>Since Fewkes’s time, most work at the park has focused on preservation. By the early 1930s, Cliff Palace was settling on its unstable foundations and in desperate need of repair. The Public Works Administration helped fund a program of surveying, mapping, and stabilization. Earl Morris of the Carnegie Institution led the 1934 project at Cliff Palace. The team added concrete retaining walls and repaired a four-story square tower. Morris implemented a new policy of documenting all repairs.&nbsp; This made it possible to tell the difference between the parts of the site that were original and those that had been restored. The 1934 project was also significant for marking the start of James “Al” Lancaster’s long career at Mesa Verde. He led the park’s stabilization crew for several decades.</p> <h2>Mapping Cliff Palace</h2> <p>In the late 1990s, Mesa Verde was one of the first recipients of funding from the Save America’s Treasures program. This program was launched by the White House Millennium Council and the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The park’s chief archaeologist, Larry Nordby, used part of the money to make the first comprehensive map of Cliff Palace. Nordby’s map showed that Cliff Palace actually had 150 rooms, not the 217 Fewkes had counted. This made it the same size as Long House on nearby Wetherill Mesa.</p> <p>Nordby’s map and analysis also revealed other new details about life at Cliff Palace. Many of the rooms at the site appear to have been used primarily for storage. This indicated that Cliff Palace might have served as a central warehouse and distribution center for other dwellings in the area. In addition, Nordby discovered a wall running through the center of the site. The wall divided Cliff Palace into two parts, suggesting a social organization based on two distinct groups.</p> <h2>2015 Conservation and Stabilization Project</h2> <p>The 800-year-old Cliff Palace has a variety of structural problems. These are exacerbated by frequent visitation and have required regular stabilization since the middle of the twentieth century. Since the 1950s, visitation to Mesa Verde National Park increased dramatically. Vibrations from foot traffic have caused loose material at the site to settle. To limit the damage, park officials have kept the public away from certain parts of the site and have limited the size of tour groups. They have also performed regular maintenance to repair cracks, stabilize walls, and improve drainage for water seeping through the alcove roof.</p> <p>Most recently, in 2011 a wall collapse in Kiva F led to a comprehensive investigation of structural conditions at Cliff Palace. Archaeologists found that the northern half of the site was built on firm bedrock, but the southern half sat on loose soil and debris that had fallen from the alcove ceiling. With no real foundation, the southern half of the site was slowly sliding downhill. This was causing cracks, falling walls, and other problems. Park staff developed a plan for a $450,000 preservation effort and performed extensive repairs before Memorial Day and after Labor Day in 2015. The conservation project closed Cliff Palace to the public in spring and fall 2015, but daily tours were conducted as usual during the summer.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 25 May 2016 20:48:51 +0000 yongli 1434 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Tree-Ring Dating http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tree-ring-dating-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tree-Ring Dating</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1639--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1639.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/principle-crossdating"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Tree-Ring_Dating_0_0.jpg?itok=UTsJCUWm" width="399" height="284" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/principle-crossdating" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Principle of Crossdating</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Crossdating, the basic principle of tree-ring dating, illustrated. The landscape across the American Southwest has living trees, dead but exposed snags and remnant trees, and archaeological wood preserved in existing structures and cliff dwellings.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-02-25T13:19:27-07:00" title="Thursday, February 25, 2016 - 13:19" class="datetime">Thu, 02/25/2016 - 13:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tree-ring-dating-0" data-a2a-title="Tree-Ring Dating"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftree-ring-dating-0&amp;title=Tree-Ring%20Dating"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Tree-ring dating is formally known as “dendrochronology” (literally, the study of tree time). It is the science of assigning calendar-year dates to the growth rings of trees, and Colorado figures prominently in its development and application in archaeology and other disciplines.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Uses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Tree-ring dating provides scientists with three types of information: temporal, environmental, and behavioral. The temporal aspect of tree-ring dating has the longest history and is the most commonly known—tree rings can be used to date archaeological sites, such as the <strong><a href="/article/cliff-dwelling">Cliff Dwellings</a></strong> found at <strong><a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history">Mesa Verde National Park</a></strong> (MVNP) or historic cabins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The environmental aspect of tree-ring dating today has the most worldwide application, as tree rings can be used to construct records of ancient temperature, precipitation, and forest fire frequency. They can also be used to build databases of stream flow, drought severity, insect infestation, and other environmental variables that trees record while they grow. The behavioral aspect of tree-ring dating, meanwhile, allows archaeologists to understand ancient wood-use practices, trade, and other activities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Methods</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Tree-ring dating may only be performed on tree species that produce one growth ring per year, and do so in response to annual variations in precipitation (and in some cases temperature). Everything else being equal, in a wet year trees will produce a larger growth ring. In a dry year, trees will produce a narrow growth ring. In particularly dry years, trees may fail to produce a growth ring at all. As a result, tree-ring dating requires use of a procedure called cross-dating.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cross-dating is accomplished by documenting, analyzing, and matching repeated patterns of wide and narrow rings in tree-ring cores collected first from the same tree, then from trees in the same stand, and then from sites in the same region, all of which are responding to variations in the same climatic variable (e.g. precipitation). Then, by working backward from the current year, the dendrochronologist is able to determine the exact year in which each growth ring was formed, thus producing a master tree-ring chronology. Ring patterns from newly collected specimens, such as those from archaeological sites, are then compared to the master chronology in order to provide a tree-ring date for that specimen.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Three aspects of cross-dating warrant emphasis. First, tree-ring dating is about matching patterns, not counting rings. Second, sample sizes must be large in order to understand tree-growth variability in a given region. Third, one begins by studying living trees in a given area, cross-dating their ring series internally and working back in time to successively older specimens that are usually found as dead snags on the landscape or as construction beams in ancient dwellings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In theory, tree-ring dating is a relatively straightforward process; in practice it can be astonishingly difficult. It requires rigorous sample collection and preparation, methodical attention to detail, and deep knowledge of tree-growth characteristics and wood attributes across vast regions.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Andrew Ellicott Douglass, an astronomer at the University of Arizona in Tucson, is considered the father of tree-ring dating. He introduced the American public to the technique in a December 1929 article in <em>National Geographic</em> entitled “Talkative Tree-Rings and the Tales They Tell.” In that article, Douglass published construction dates for six cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde National Park (MVNP) in southwestern Colorado, including Balcony House, Cliff Palace, Oak Tree House, Spring House, Spruce Tree House, and Square Tower House. Although the exact dates Douglass published have long since been refined, his general dating has not changed: the vast majority of cliff dwellings were built and occupied in the mid-1200s. These dates came as a shock to many archaeologists who, on the basis of little more than educated guesswork, thought that the cliff dwellings were much older.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1930s archaeologist Earl Morris of the Carnegie Institution supplied Douglass with numerous wood specimens from Johnson Canyon, Colorado, south of MVNP, in an effort to extend his ability to date sites back to about 2,000 years ago. Also in the 1930s, Zeke Flora, an amateur archaeologist based in Durango, sent wood and charcoal specimens to Douglass. Subsequent examination of the Flora collection in the 1960s led to the discovery of the oldest tree-ring dated archaeological wood specimen in North America. From the <strong><a href="/article/falls-creek-rock-shelters-archaeological-site">Falls Creek rock shelters</a> </strong>outside <strong>Durango</strong>, it dates to 272 BC.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A major expansion of visitor facilities at MVNP in the 1950s and 1960s led to huge improvements in archaeological tree-ring dating, particularly in the dating of charcoal samples from pithouse sites on top of Wetherill Mesa, in addition to dating cliff dwellings in the canyons between the mesas.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As we now know, the arid <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> of southwestern Colorado makes it one of the best regions in the world for dating archaeological sites by tree-ring analysis. A recently completed database for the Four Corners region contains nearly 14,000 tree-ring dates from hundreds of archaeological sites; there are now over 4,300 tree-ring dates known from more than 140 archaeological sites in MVNP alone. The earliest date is AD 255 from a pithouse at the Soda Canyon Campground Site; the latest date is AD 1281 from a loose log found in a ceremonial room at Spring House. These large datasets allow archaeologists to understand the occupation and abandonment of southwestern Colorado with unprecedented precision.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In another major contribution to science, Douglass used tree rings to infer that a “Great Drought” had occurred across the American Southwest from AD 1276 until 1299. The Great Drought was at least partially responsible for the migration of people away from southwestern Colorado in the late thirteenth century; archaeologists are still examining the social, political, religious, and environmental implications of this important event in pre-Columbian history.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/nash-stephen-e" hreflang="und">Nash, Stephen E. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tree-ring-dating" hreflang="en">tree-ring dating</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwelling" hreflang="en">cliff dwelling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/crossdating" hreflang="en">crossdating</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/andrew-douglass" hreflang="en">Andrew Douglass</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Jeffrey S. Dean, “Behavioral Sources of Error in Archaeological Tree-Ring Dating: Navajo and Pueblo Wood Use,” in <em>Tree-Rings, Environment, and Humanity: Proceedings of the International Conference, Tucson</em>, ed. Jeffrey S. Dean et al. (Tucson, AZ: Radiocarbon, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey S. Dean, “Dendrochronology and the Study of Human Behavior,” in <em>Tree-Rings, Environment, and Humanity: Proceedings of the International Conference, Tucson</em>, ed. Jeffrey S. Dean et al. (Tucson, AZ: Radiocarbon, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Andrew E. Douglass, “The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree-Rings,” <em>National Geographic</em> 56 (December 1929).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harold C. Fritts, <em>Tree-Rings and Climate</em> (New York: Academic Press, 1976).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harold C. Fritts and Thomas W. Swetnam, “Dendroecology: A Tool for Evaluating Variations in Past and Present Forest Environments,” <em>Advances in Ecological Research</em> 19 (1989).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lorna Gail LaDage, <em>Zeke Flora: Legacy in Rings</em> (Goodman Point, CO: Mountains and Mesas Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen E. Nash, <em>Time, Trees, and Prehistory: Archaeological Tree-Ring Dating and the Development of North American Archaeology 1914–1950</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen E. Nash and Christina T. Rogers, “An Embarrassment of Riches: Tree-Ring Dating, the History of Archaeology, and the Interpretation of Pre-Columbian History at Mesa Verde National Park,” in <em>Archaeology in the Great Basin and Southwest: Papers in Honor of Don D. Fowler</em>, eds. Nancy Parezo and Joel Janetski (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ronald H. Towner, “Archaeological Dendrochronology in the Southwestern United States,” <em>Evolutionary Anthropology</em> 11 (2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ronald H. Towner and Michael R. Clary, “Historical Dendroarchaeology in Central Colorado: Lessons from the Keystone Area,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 67, no. 3 (Fall 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Michael G. L. Baillie, <em>A Slice Through Time: Dendrochronology and Precision Dating</em> (London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd., 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://ltrr.arizona.edu/">Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen E. Nash, “Archaeological Tree-Ring Dating at the Millennium,” <em>Journal of Archaeological Research</em> 10 (2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Henri D. Grissino Mayer, “<a href="http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/">The Science of Tree-Rings</a>,” University of Tennessee, last updated February 8, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Speer, <em>Fundamentals of Tree-Ring Research</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 25 Feb 2016 20:19:27 +0000 yongli 1134 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Rock Art of Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rock Art of Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1839--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1839.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/archaic-8000-1000-bc-and-late-archaic-1000-bc-ad-200"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=vGftP2nP" width="1000" height="628" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/archaic-8000-1000-bc-and-late-archaic-1000-bc-ad-200" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Archaic (8000–1000 BC) and Late Archaic (1000 B.C to A.D. 200)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Examples of Archaic era depictions of animals (“zoomorphs”) and humans (“anthropomorphs”). Drawings by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1840--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1840.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/formative-era-game-drives-and-driving-gestures-200-bc-ad-1300"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=nwLkwydA" width="1000" height="1012" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/formative-era-game-drives-and-driving-gestures-200-bc-ad-1300" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Formative Era Game Drives and Driving Gestures, 200 B.C.–A.D. 1300</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>During the Formative Era there is a transition of body shapes for game animals characterized by the short legged, round bodied quadrupeds with smaller horns or antlers. Bows and arrows are depicted, and game drives are shown with animated stick figures using the “driving” gesture. Drawings are from western Colorado (A, by Carol Patterson) and southeastern Colorado (B, by Linda Olson).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1842--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1842.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/formative-era-anthropomorphs"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=TIvL0DPR" width="1000" height="997" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/formative-era-anthropomorphs" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Formative Era Anthropomorphs</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Formative Era, AD 500 to 1000 (Fremont and Ancestral Pueblo) and AD 1000 to 1300 (Numic Expansion). Drawings and photographs by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1843--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1843.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/protohistorichistoric-era-ad-1300-1700-and-ad-1700-1900"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=WYYhQBEo" width="1000" height="974" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/protohistorichistoric-era-ad-1300-1700-and-ad-1700-1900" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Protohistoric/Historic Era (AD 1300 to 1700 and AD 1700 to 1900)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Ute historic rock art typically has the horse, buffalo and bear paws. Large pedestrian shield figures may identify Paiute who didn’t ride horses. Plains tribes typically have the horned headdress, horses, and V-necked bodies. In the Southwest, the Utes painted domestic scenes of tribal life. Drawings and photographs by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1844--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1844.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-rock-art-maps"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-5_0.jpg?itok=8e6_I8MM" width="1000" height="415" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-rock-art-maps" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Rock Art Maps</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Ute petroglyph at Shavano Valley is overlaid on a topographic map of the Uncompahgre Plateau. The second panel shows a rock art map from the Smith Fork of the Gunnison overlaid on a topographic map of the Gunnison Gorge and oriented to the south, with a correspondence to the Ute trail location and its alignment with the Gunnison Gorge. Drawings by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1845--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1845.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/conceptual-realism"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=vPJBOa4P" width="1000" height="417" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/conceptual-realism" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conceptual Realism</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Conceptual realism is used to emphasize the important parts of an animal for spiritual or ritual purposes. Examples here are of the bear with flexed paws from the Formative through the Historic Era. Drawings by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1846--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1846.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/evolution-horse-and-cultural-preferences"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-7_0.jpg?itok=Ms6lLvq0" width="1000" height="398" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/evolution-horse-and-cultural-preferences" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Evolution of the Horse and Cultural Preferences</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Over time from Protohistoric to Historic, the early depictions of the horse by the Utes show exaggerations of the neck and legs using conceptual realism. Drawings by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1847--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1847.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mythograms"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rock-Art-Media-8_0.jpg?itok=UYrJBfnF" width="1000" height="593" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mythograms" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mythograms</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Mythograms for the Ute include the bear paw, the bear and tree, ‘Cosmic Tree’, and creator Sinavi (creator wolf). For the Navajo, there are paintings of the Mountain Way Ceremony and the Yei God, Ghaan’ask’idii. Drawings and photographs by Carol Patterson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-10-29T14:34:37-06:00" title="Thursday, October 29, 2015 - 14:34" class="datetime">Thu, 10/29/2015 - 14:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado" data-a2a-title="Rock Art of Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Frock-art-colorado&amp;title=Rock%20Art%20of%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Colorado is home to a rich variety of prehistoric and historic art carved on cliff sides and boulders. Most rock art is found in river basins. The mountain areas that cut a wide vertical swath through the state are relatively devoid of rock art. There are the two types of rock art: pecked art, which is called petroglyphs, and paintings, which are called pictographs. Native Americans frequently refer to the figures as “Indian writings” and were able to read and write them on rocks for thousands of years. After European settlement, tribal relocations, and generations of boarding schools, most of the tribal knowledge of what the rock art means has been lost.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado has a substantial amount of rock art categorized within four general time periods: the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/The%20Archaic%20Period%20in%20Colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>, Protohistoric, and Historic. Each time period has several styles that can be identified, differing by region. Rock art from the Archaic period is rare and often so faded that it is barely visible. The Formative era produced many distinct styles that are specific to certain regions of the state. The Protohistoric and Historic eras have styles and cultural affiliations with Native American cultures. In the western half of the state, the Numic tribes (<strong>Shoshone</strong>, <strong>Ute</strong>, and <strong>Paiute</strong>) dominated the region from the late 1500s to 1880s. On the eastern plains the rock art has cultural affiliations with the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, and <strong>Comanche</strong>, who moved across the northern, eastern, and southern plains of Colorado from the 1700s through the 1860s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Methodology and Interpretation: How old is it and what does it mean?</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Rock art is difficult to date and place within established archaeological chronologies. Age estimations are based on style, weathering effects to the rock surface, and direct dating if possible with relative dates from soils and archaeological material associated with the panels. A chronology of styles is based upon a large database of sites throughout the state. At the time of contact with Europeans, early explorers—and, later, anthropologists—collected ethnographic information from Native Americans; anthropologists use this information to interpret historic petroglyphs through a method called ethnographic analogy. Interpretations of rock art based on archaeology and ethnography include depictions of game drives, battle scenes, geographic maps, and tribal ceremonies. Native American consultants have suggested that some rock art images may represent spiritual entities, rain or cloud deities, spirits of the deceased, or symbols of mythic characters and religious themes from their cultures.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Archaic period (3000 BC–AD 400)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Archaic era, animals are often depicted with long tapering legs and a large body, and with great branching horns. They are often found in context with anthropomorphs that are thin and tall and have long arms. Atlatls are portrayed during this era. Animals have cloven feet and sometimes show the dewclaws in profile (as if flattened out on either side of the foot). During this era, animals are portrayed as larger than humans, which may be a reflection of the Archaic worldview, in which game animals were the central focus.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Formative Period</strong> (200 BC–AD 1300)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Formative era there is a transition to body shapes for game animals characterized by the short-legged, round-bodied quadrupeds with smaller horns or antlers. During this period the animals also become smaller and the humans more animated. Atlatls wane as bows and arrows take center stage. Game drives are shown with animated stick figures making the “driving” gesture while other figures are aiming arrows with bows at the advancing animals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>rock art found in the southwestern portion of the state is typified by Pueblo hairstyles and sometimes square body styles. In contrast, in the northwestern portion of the state, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong>-</a>style figures have V-shaped or trapezoidal bodies and occasionally horns or elaborate headdresses.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Protohistoric period (AD 1300–1700)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Protohistoric period, it is possible to determine Numic (Ute and Paiute) from Ancestral Pueblo by their body style and cultural symbol affiliations. For the Numic, game animals, trail maps, bear paws, and tree images are consistent with this style. During the later Protohistoric era, body shapes become abbreviated into stick figures with bows. The Ancestral Puebloans emigrated from Colorado by around AD 1300 and are not present in the Protohistoric and Historic eras. Through the next four centuries, the Numic people spread out across Colorado, with the Ute inhabiting the high country and inner mountains and the Paiute remaining in the canyons and desert areas of southern Colorado and eastern Utah. Shoshones inhabited the northwestern areas of Colorado but remained mostly in Wyoming. The Comanche split off from this Shoshonean linguistic group around the 1700s and moved out onto the northern plains of Colorado. Algonquians (Cheyenne and Arapaho) moved westward into the Colorado plains, pushing the Comanche south across the eastern plains along with the Kiowa and Apache.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Historic Era (AD 1700–1900)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the introduction of the horse, many native peoples adapted to an equestrian lifestyle. Along with horses came mobility, wealth, trading capacities, and power. Horses are a constant in the eastern Plains Indian rock art, as well as <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipis</strong></a>, <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunts, and tribal battles, while in the west the Ute historic rock art features cowboy hats, fringed leggings, top hats, and peace medallions that were popular around the time of Lincoln’s presidency and the beginning of the reservation period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Numic traditions witnessed the spread of Shoshonean people throughout the Colorado Plateau. The distinction between Utes and Paiutes can be traced to the ability to support a horse culture. Large pedestrian shields could not be accommodated on horseback. It is suggested that pedestrian figures holding large shields may have been Paiutes and that mounted figures with small shields were Utes. The Utes dominated the Uncompahgre Plateau but intrusions by Paiutes from the San Juan Basin were common.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Maps</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Numic tradition is characteristic of a hunter-gatherer lifestyle that relies heavily on knowledge of game trails, hunting strategies, procurement of wild foods, and knowing the location of good water sources. Many petroglyph panels are found to depict maps of the trails that navigate the local and difficult terrains. They may describe game drive strategies as well as locations of springs and water sources and other resources. Examples of petroglyph maps can be found at the<a href="/article/shavano-valley-rock-art-site"><strong> Shavano Valley Petroglyph site</strong></a> and at <strong>Map Rock</strong> in the Smith Fork of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes are oriented to the south, in contrast with Europeans, who orient their maps to the north. To the Utes, the south is where the sun comes from and sunrise direction from east to west (clockwise) is the preferred direction of travel. Figure 5 is a direct overlay showing how closely the petroglyph map fits over the physical land features to the south of the panel location.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Conceptual Realism</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Other panels show the stylistic form of bear paws and bears with square heads, short ears, and a curved back. The paws are flexed so that all the toes are shown. This technique is referred to as “conceptual realism.” It is used to emphasize the important parts of an animal for spiritual or ritual purposes; it shows what one understands rather than what one sees.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The horse was often exaggerated with a long neck and very short legs. The horse is drawn the way the author understands the animal. The long neck and foreshortened legs illustrate the way it feels to be riding a horse and looking down at its long neck in front and foreshortened legs below.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Mythograms</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado was home to a variety of linguistic groups that migrated through the area. Each of these groups had their own creation story and pantheon of religious deities. Some of these stories and entities were recorded by ethnographers in the late 1800s. Scholars call these systems “mythograms,” and they are used as diagnostic cultural markers in rock art.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mythograms of the Navajo Yei gods are found in west-central Colorado. One is found at the north end of Shavano Valley in <a href="/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a> and is painted in dark charcoal, white, and blue, colors representing the female <em>Yei</em> of the Mountain Way Ceremony. Another is the Navajo god <em>Ghaan’ask’idii</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Summary</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado has a rich prehistoric art history representing the migrations and settlement patterns of people from Archaic hunter-gatherers to Formative-era hunter-gatherers with some agricultural influences, and finally the Protohistoric cultures that occupied the area at the time of European contact. The pictorial record shows a gradual shift from displays of large animals at river convergences and hunting vantage points to smaller animals and larger humans concurrent with a transition from atlatls to bows and arrows. Lifestyles shifted with the introduction of the horse, and the resulting mobility brought prosperity resulting in depictions of buffalo hunts, rabbit drives, and fierce battle scenes. Cognitive changes were represented in religious iconography, such as <em>Sinavi</em> the Ute creator depicted as a man with big hands and feet or a canine (wolf or dog), bear paws signaling the Bear Dance ceremonies for healing, and the cosmic tree of life, or shaman’s tree. On the plains, the buffalo dominated the iconography with hunts and depictions of conflicts. The Native American heritage of picture writing, or “Indian writings,” can be found in the canyons and cliff sites throughout the state of Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/patterson-carol" hreflang="und">Patterson, Carol</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaco-canyon" hreflang="en">chaco canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-palace" hreflang="en">Cliff Palace</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stephen G. Baker, "Historic Ute Culture Change in West-Central Colorado," in <em>Archaeology of the Eastern Ute: A Symposium</em>, ed. Paul R. Nickens, Occasional Papers No. 1 (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen G. Baker, "Historic Ute Archaeology: Interpreting the Last Hour Wickiup," <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 69 (Winter 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William G. Buckles, "The Uncompahgre Complex: Historic Ute Archaeology and Prehistoric Archaeology on the Uncompahgre Plateau in West Central Colorado" (PhD diss., University of Colorado [Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1971]).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone</em>, 1st ed. (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carl E. Conner and Richard Ott, "Petroglyphs and Pictographs of the BLM Grand Junction District: Volumes I and II," unpublished manuscript (Grand Junction, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1978).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ron Kessler, <em>San Luis Valley Rock Art</em> (Monte Vista, CO: Adobe Village Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James D. Keyser and Michael A. Klassen, <em>Plains Indian Rock Art</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lawrence Loendorf, <em>Thunder and Herds: Rock Art of the High Plains</em> (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bill McGlone, Ted Barker, and Phil Leonard, <em>Petroglyphs of Southeast Colorado and the Oklahoma Panhandle</em> (Kamas, UT: Mithras, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, "Cross Mountain Petroglyph Site 5MF.2691 Re-Evaluation," unpublished manuscript (Craig, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, "Dine' Ceremonial Paintings in Western Colorado, Navajo Cultural Association," in <em>Papers Presented at the Twenty-fourth Annual Symposium of the Utah Rock Art Research Association</em>, ed. Carol B. Patterson, Utah Rock Art XXIV (Salt Lake City: Utah Rock Art Research Association, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, "Shavano Valley Petroglyph Signage and Interpretive Project, unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Montrose Youth and Community Foundation, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, "Squint Moore and Rock Art," <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 73 (Summer 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson and Clifford Duncan, "Deer Creek, Dominguez Canyon Rock Art Documentation and Interpretive Signage for the River Heritage Project," unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, Clifford Duncan, and Alan Watchman, "Leonard Basin / Palmer Gulch Rock Art Documentation (Archaeological Assessment), Project 2006-AS-005, unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson and Alan Watchman, "Gunnison Gorge Rock Art Documentation, 5DT.813 Re-evaluation," unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson and Greg Williams, "Escalante Bridge Rock Art Site 5DT4, Petroglyph and Pictograph Documentation," unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Reed and Michael D. Metcalf, <em>Colorado Prehistory:</em> <em>A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan D. Reed and Rachel Smith Gebauer, "A Research Design and Context for Prehistoric Cultural Resources in the Uncompahgre Plateau Archaeological Project's Study Area, Western Colorado," unpublished manuscript (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Anne M. Smith, <em>Ethnography of the Northern Utes</em>, Papers in Anthropology 17 (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico, 1974).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carol Patterson, “<a href="https://www.dixierockart.webs.com/Technical-Presentations/Ute-Rock-Art-of-the-Uncompahgre-Plateau.pdf">Ute Rock Art of the Uncompahgre Plateau</a>,” 2010.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 29 Oct 2015 20:34:37 +0000 yongli 734 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Richard Wetherill http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/richard-wetherill <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Richard Wetherill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--552--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--552.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/richard-wetherill"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Richard-Wetherill_0.jpg?itok=Hb375v4B" width="500" height="774" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/richard-wetherill" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Richard Wetherill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Portrait of Richard Wetherill (1858-1910), the nineteenth-century rancher who stumbled across the ruins of Mesa Verde.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-10-22T10:53:58-06:00" title="Thursday, October 22, 2015 - 10:53" class="datetime">Thu, 10/22/2015 - 10:53</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/richard-wetherill" data-a2a-title="Richard Wetherill"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Frichard-wetherill&amp;title=Richard%20Wetherill"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Richard Wetherill (1858–1910) was a nineteenth-century rancher and explorer who lived in southwest Colorado. Although&nbsp;he&nbsp;is often credited with&nbsp;"discovering" some&nbsp;of the most&nbsp;significant <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> archaeological&nbsp;sites&nbsp;in&nbsp;the Four Corners area, the sites had already been known to various Indigenous people, including Ute, Apache, Navajo, and Pueblo, long before Wetherill arrived. Wetherill's&nbsp;findings got the&nbsp;attention of the&nbsp;white public and led to many expeditions that resulted in collections at both Colorado museums and prestigious East Coast institutions.</p><p>The earliest written reports of ancient structures&nbsp;in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> region date to the late 1700s, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>William H. Jackson</strong></a> produced exquisite photographs of cliff dwellings in the late 1800s. However, it was not until 1888, when Wetherill and Charlie Mason encountered&nbsp;<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a> and exhibited artifacts from there and surrounding sites <a href="https://1depositcasinouk.com/">1 deposit casino uk.com</a> , that the white public became interested in Colorado’s ancient past. That winter,&nbsp;Wetherill and Mason were chasing stray cattle in Cliff Canyon when Wetherill looked up and saw the site across the canyon. He knew what he was looking at because it had been described to him by Acowitz, a Ute friend. Wetherill and Mason investigated that day and collected a small number of items that they could carry easily. Thus began Wetherill’s career as an explorer of&nbsp;Ancestral Pueblo sites.</p><p>Richard was one of six children born to Benjamin and Marion Wetherill, a Quaker family who in 1880 settled in Mancos Canyon to become cattle ranchers. The Wetherills were known as supporters of Native Americans at a time when such sentiments were not popular. Richard was fluent in Navajo and Ute. He and his brothers, assisted occasionally by others, are credited with recording more than 180 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwelling</strong></a> archaeological sites in the area. <strong>History Colorado</strong>, then known as the Colorado Historical Society, purchased the first and fourth Mesa Verde collection made by Richard and others in 1888–89 and 1893, respectively.</p><p>At the time of his rise to prominence, Wetherill’s formal training in the field of archaeology was in its infancy. Yet he produced remarkable notes, maps, and artifact catalogs. This is partly due to a season spent with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, a Swedish scientist, excavating sites&nbsp;in the summer of 1891. Nordenskiöld instructed Wetherill in scientific methods, including how to count the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>rings on trees</strong></a> to determine their age. Wetherill pursued archaeological exploration more deeply than his brothers and expanded his work to the Grand Gulch region of Utah, where he is credited with coining the term “Basketmaker” and recognizing that these people lived before the Ancestral Puebloans at Cliff Palace. He is also credited with being one of, if not the first, to recognize the importance of stratigraphy, or the study of rock layers. He also explored Keet Seel, a major cliff dwelling site in Arizona.</p><p>Wetherill led many expeditions by the Hyde brothers, whose collections were sent to the American Museum of Natural History, and George Pepper, who worked for Harvard. Wetherill went on to explore <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> and finally moved there at the age of forty. While at Chaco, he explored, raised sheep, and started a<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong> trading post</strong></a> business. He unsuccessfully applied for permission to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a> there. Wetherill seemed to have run into conflict with professional archaeologists and was even accused of unethical business practices and mistreatment of Navajos. He gave up archaeology in 1906, focusing on his ranching and trading posts.</p><p>Richard was nearly broke when he was murdered at Chaco Canyon in 1910. While conflicting details surround his death, it appears he was killed as retaliation for one of his ranch workers beating a Navajo man whom the worker had accused of theft. Wetherill is buried at Chaco Canyon.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/goff-sheila" hreflang="und">Goff, Sheila</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaco-canyon" hreflang="en">chaco canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-palace" hreflang="en">Cliff Palace</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Frank McNitt, <em>Richard Wetherill, Anasazi: Pioneer Explorer of Southwestern Ruins</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966).</p><p>Robert Sanchez, “Ghosts on the Mesa,” <em>5280</em> 19, no. 9 (March 2012).</p><p>Richard Wilshusen and Sheila Goff, “Living West—and North: The Legacy of Early Archaeological Collections at History Colorado,” <em>Colorado Heritage</em> (November–December 2013).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Fred M. Blackburn and Ray A. Williamson, <em>Cowboys and Cave Dwellers: Basketmaker Archaeology in Utah's Grand Gulch</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1997).</p><p>Willa Cather, <em>The Professor's House</em> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925).</p><p>Kathryn Gabriel, ed., <em>Marietta Wetherill: Reflections on the Life with the Navajos in Chaco Canyon</em>. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1992).</p><p>David Harrell, "We Contacted Smithsonian: The Wetherills at Mesa Verde," <em>New Mexico Historical Review </em>62, no. 3 (July 1987).</p><p>Carolyn Miles Osborne, <em>The Wetherill Collections and Perishable Items from Mesa Verde</em> (Los Alamitos, CA: Self-published, 2004).</p><p><a href="https://wetherillfamily.com/index.htm">Wetherill Family Website</a></p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Richard Wetherill (1858–1910) was a nineteenth-century rancher and explorer. He lived in southwest Colorado. He "discovered" significant archaeological sites in the Four Corners area. The sites were known to Indigenous people long before Wetherill arrived. However, Wetherill's findings got the attention of the white public. Items from his expeditions ended up in collections in Colorado museums and East Coast institutions.</p><p>The earliest written reports of ancient structures in the Mesa Verde region date to the late 1700s. William H. Jackson produced photographs of cliff dwellings in the late 1800s. In 1888, Wetherill and Charlie Mason found Cliff Palace. That winter, the men were chasing stray cattle in Cliff Canyon. Wetherill looked up and saw the site across the canyon. It had been described to him by Acowitz, a Ute friend. The men explored and collected small items. This began Wetherill's career.</p><p>Richard was one of six children. He came from a Quaker family. In1880, his family settled in Mancos Canyon. They became cattle ranchers. The Wetherills were supporters of Native Americans. At the time, such feelings were not popular. Richard was fluent in Navajo and Ute. He and his brothers recorded more than 180 cliff dwelling sites.</p><p>Wetherill had little formal training when he rose to fame. Yet he produced remarkable notes and maps. This is due to a season spent with Gustaf Nordenskiöld in the summer of 1891. Nordenskiöld was a Swedish scientist. He instructed Wetherill in scientific methods. This included how to count the rings on trees to determine their age.</p><p>Wetherill pursued exploration more than his brothers. He expanded his work to the Grand Gulch region of Utah. He coined the term “Basketmaker.” Wetherill is credited with being one of the first to recognize the importance of stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers.</p><p>Wetherill led many expeditions by the Hyde brothers. Their collections were sent to the American Museum of Natural History. He went on to explore Chaco Canyon and moved there at the age of forty. There, Wetherill explored, raised sheep, and started a trading post business. He applied to homestead there but was denied. Wetherill came into conflict with professional archaeologists. They accused him of unethical business practices. Wetherill gave up exploring in 1906 to focus on his ranching and trading posts.</p><p>Richard was nearly broke when he was murdered at Chaco Canyon in 1910. Conflicting details surround his death. It appears he was killed after one of his ranch workers beat a Navajo man. The ranch worker had accused the Navajo man of stealing. Wetherill is buried at Chaco Canyon.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Richard Wetherill (1858–1910) was a nineteenth-century rancher and explorer. He lived in southwest Colorado. He is credited with "discovering" significant archaeological sites in the Four Corners area. The sites were known to Indigenous people long before Wetherill arrived. However, Wetherill's findings got the attention of the white public. Items from his expeditions ended up in collections in Colorado museums and East Coast institutions.</p><p>The earliest written reports of ancient structures in the Mesa Verde region date to the late 1700s. William H. Jackson produced photographs of cliff dwellings in the late 1800s. In 1888, Wetherill and Charlie Mason found Cliff Palace. That winter, Wetherill and Mason were chasing stray cattle in Cliff Canyon. Wetherill looked up and saw the site across the canyon. It had been described to him by Acowitz, a Ute friend. Wetherill and Mason explored and collected small items. This began Wetherill’s career exploring Ancestral Pueblo sites.</p><p>Richard was one of six children born to Benjamin and Marion Wetherill. He came from a Quaker family. In1880, they settled in Mancos Canyon to become cattle ranchers. The Wetherills were supporters of Native Americans. At the time, such feelings were not popular. Richard was fluent in Navajo and Ute. He and his brothers recorded more than 180 cliff dwelling sites.</p><p>Wetherill had little formal training in archaeology when he rose to fame. Yet he produced remarkable notes, maps, and artifact catalogs. This is partly due to a season spent with Gustaf Nordenskiöld in the summer of 1891. Nordenskiöld was a Swedish scientist. He instructed Wetherill in scientific methods. This included how to count the rings on trees to determine their age. Wetherill pursued archaeological exploration more than his brothers. He expanded his work to the Grand Gulch region of Utah. He is credited with coining the term “Basketmaker.” Wetherill recognized that these people lived before the Ancestral Puebloans at Cliff Palace. He is also credited with being one of the first to recognize the importance of stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers.</p><p>Wetherill led many expeditions by the Hyde brothers. Their collections were sent to the American Museum of Natural History. Wetherill went on to explore Chaco Canyon. He moved there at the age of forty. There, Wetherill explored, raised sheep, and started a trading post business. He applied to homestead there but was denied. Wetherill came into conflict with professional archaeologists. He was accused of unethical business practices and mistreating Navajos. He gave up archaeology in 1906 to focus on his ranching and trading posts.</p><p>Richard was nearly broke when he was murdered at Chaco Canyon in 1910. Conflicting details surround his death. It appears he was killed in retaliation after one of his ranch workers beat a Navajo man. The ranch worker had accused the Navajo man of stealing. Wetherill is buried at Chaco Canyon.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Richard Wetherill (1858–1910) was a nineteenth-century rancher and explorer. He lived in southwest Colorado. He is often credited with "discovering" some of the most significant Ancestral Pueblo archaeological sites in the Four Corners area. However, the sites had been known to Indigenous people long before Wetherill arrived. Wetherill's findings got the attention of the white public. They led to expeditions that resulted in collections in Colorado museums and prestigious East Coast institutions.</p><p>The earliest written reports of ancient structures in the Mesa Verde region date to the late 1700s. William H. Jackson produced exquisite photographs of cliff dwellings in the late 1800s. However, it was not until 1888, when Wetherill and Charlie Mason encountered Cliff Palace and exhibited artifacts from there and surrounding sites, that the white public became interested in Colorado’s ancient past. That winter, Wetherill and Mason were chasing stray cattle in Cliff Canyon. Wetherill looked up and saw the site across the canyon. He knew what he was looking at because it had been described to him by Acowitz, a Ute friend. Wetherill and Mason investigated. They collected small items that they could carry easily. Thus began Wetherill’s career as an explorer of Ancestral Pueblo sites.</p><p>Richard was one of six children born to Benjamin and Marion Wetherill. He came from a Quaker family who in 1880 settled in Mancos Canyon to become cattle ranchers. The Wetherills were known as supporters of Native Americans. At the time, such sentiments were not popular. Richard was fluent in Navajo and Ute. He and his brothers are credited with recording more than 180 cliff dwelling archaeological sites in the area. History Colorado, then known as the Colorado Historical Society, purchased the first and fourth Mesa Verde collection made by Richard and others in 1888–89 and 1893.</p><p>Wetherill had little formal training in archaeology when he rose to prominence. Yet he produced remarkable notes, maps, and artifact catalogs. This is partly due to a season spent with Gustaf Nordenskiöld, a Swedish scientist, excavating sites in the summer of 1891. Nordenskiöld instructed Wetherill in scientific methods. This included how to count the rings on trees to determine their age. Wetherill pursued archaeological exploration more deeply than his brothers. He expanded his work to the Grand Gulch region of Utah. He is credited with coining the term “Basketmaker.” Wetherill recognized that these people lived before the Ancestral Puebloans at Cliff Palace. Wetherill is also credited with being one of, if not the first, to recognize the importance of stratigraphy, or the study of rock layers. He also explored Keet Seel, a major cliff dwelling site in Arizona.</p><p>Wetherill led many expeditions by the Hyde brothers. Their collections were sent to the American Museum of Natural History, and George Pepper, who worked for Harvard. Wetherill went on to explore Chaco Canyon. He moved there at the age of forty. While at Chaco, he explored, raised sheep, and started a trading post business. He unsuccessfully applied for permission to homestead there. Wetherill seemed to have run into conflict with professional archaeologists and was even accused of unethical business practices and mistreatment of Navajos. He gave up archaeology in 1906 to focus on his ranching and trading posts.</p><p>Richard was nearly broke when he was murdered at Chaco Canyon in 1910. Conflicting details surround his death. It appears he was killed as retaliation for one of his ranch workers beating a Navajo man whom the worker had accused of theft. Wetherill is buried at Chaco Canyon.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 22 Oct 2015 16:53:58 +0000 yongli 691 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org