%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Earth Lodge http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1494--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1494.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=CQhEGBM_" width="1000" height="580" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Drawings of Hidatsa Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cross-section (upper) and elevation (lower) drawings of an Hidatsa earth lodge, recorded by anthropologist Gilbert L. Wilson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1495--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1495.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=RAEcri-h" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Modern Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Replica Mandan earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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<time datetime="2016-06-23T16:33:19-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 16:33" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 16:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge" data-a2a-title="Earth Lodge"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fearth-lodge&amp;title=Earth%20Lodge"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>An earth lodge is a distinctive type of timber-frame house built from the early 1400s to the late 1800s by a dozen different Indigenous nations on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. These massive circular structures, often encompassing 1,500 square feet or more, featured four large support posts arranged around a central fireplace. The walls were formed by a ring of shorter posts and rafters were laid between the center posts and the wall posts. The resulting wooden shell or framework was then covered with successive layers of willow branches, a matting of prairie grass, and finally sod or earth. The entryway consisted of a projecting passage six to fifteen feet in length.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p> <p>The <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong></a> culture, which occupied northeast Colorado, western Nebraska, northern Kansas, and southeast Wyoming from 1100 to 1300 built early versions of these dwellings. However, the best-known earth lodges were built in the 1700s and 1800s by the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras, all of whom were <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>-hunting farmers living on the Missouri River. The first detailed description of an earth lodge was written in 1804 by Patrick Gass, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In the early 1830s, well-known artist Karl Bodmer made detailed drawings of Mandan earth lodges, including an interior scene that shows how it was used.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges such as those built by the Missouri River farmers have not been discovered in Colorado. However, cultural groups of the Central Plains Tradition, including the Upper Republican culture, built timber-frame houses that most archaeologists regard as precursors to historic-era earth lodges. While Central Plains lodges have not yet been documented in Colorado, Upper Republic groups regularly visited the state and may have lived in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> Valley for extended periods of time. The Buick Campsite, located near present-day Limon, features a temporary structure built by Upper Republican people. The Buick site, along with others such as the <a href="/article/donovan-archaeological-site"><strong>Donovan site</strong></a> located in northern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, demonstrate repeated seasonal Upper Republican use of Colorado’s High Plains landscape.</p> <p>Like classic Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara earth lodges, Central Plains Tradition culture lodges featured four central support posts around a central fire place as well as an extended entryway. The walls of Central Plains lodges were made from clay, known as daub, plastered over a framework of small branches covered with grass. The roofs were also made from branches, grass, and daub. However, in contrast to historic-era earth lodges, Central Plains lodges were square or rectangular in plan, and most were about half as large.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges and Central Plains Tradition culture lodges share a number of similarities with the pithouses built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who lived in southwest Colorado. Like the Plains houses, Puebloan pithouses of the Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III periods were earth- or daub-covered timber-frame buildings. However, Puebloan houses were built in pits that were two to three feet deep, while earth lodges were mostly built on the surface or in shallow pits no more than one foot deep. Many lodges of the Central Plains tradition were built on the surface, although some were built in pits up to four feet deep. Some Puebloan pithouses also incorporated vertical rock slab foundations, which were not used in the construction of Plains houses.</p> <p>The people who built the classic earth lodges, as well as earlier Central Plains tradition culture lodges, were farmers who also hunted bison and other animals. Because they grew corn (maize), beans, squash, <a href="/article/sunflowers"><strong>sunflowers</strong></a>, and other crops, their houses were built close to river and stream floodplains, where cultivation was easier and groundwater was more abundant than on the nearby upland prairies. Because they lived in one location for most of the year, their lodges contained numerous underground storage pits, where they kept surplus food, tools, and other items.</p> <p>The cosmological principles and cultural values embodied in earth lodge architecture remain important to native peoples today. Earth lodges continue to be built on the Fort Berthold Reservation (Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation) in western North Dakota. In addition, the National Park Service built a replica earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site near Stanton, North Dakota, and several replica lodges are located at Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park south of Mandan, North Dakota. The Dancing Leaf Earthlodge, a replica Central Plains tradition house, is located in Wellfleet, Nebraska, twenty miles south of North Platte.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mitchell-mark-d" hreflang="und">Mitchell, Mark D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/architecture" hreflang="en">architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/central-plains-tradition" hreflang="en">Central Plains tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-village-tradition" hreflang="en">Plains Village tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pawnee" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pawnee</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pawnee-nation" hreflang="en">Pawnee Nation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historical-archaeology" hreflang="en">historical archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/upper-republican-culture" hreflang="en">Upper Republican culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/itskari-culture" hreflang="en">Itskari culture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin P. Gilmore, “Late Prehistoric Stage (A.D. 150–1540),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Platt River Basin</em>, ed. Kevin P. Gilmore, Marcia Tate, Mark L. Chenault, Bonnie Clark, Terri McBride, and Margaret Wood (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resource Series No. 19 (Lakewood, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper, “100° W Longitude: Exploring Cultural Dynamics at the Western Edge of the Central Plains,” <em>Central Plains Archaeology</em> 11, no. 1 (2009).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper and Elizabeth P. Pauls, <em>Plains Earthlodges</em> (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005).</p> <p>Laura L. Scheiber, “Intersecting Landscapes in Northeastern Colorado,” in <em>Archaeological Landscapes on the High Plains</em>, ed. Laura L. Scheiber and Bonnie Clark (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, “Plains Village Tradition,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 13: <em>Plains</em>, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>Gilbert L. Wilson, <em>The Hidatsa Earthlodge</em>, ed. Bella Weitzner (New York: The American Museum of Natural History, 1934).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1997).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/knri/index.htm">Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, North Dakota</a>,” updated December 16, 2015.</p> <p>New World Encyclopedia, “<a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Earth_lodge">Earth Lodge</a>,” updated July 22, 2014.</p> <p>North Dakota State University, “<a href="http://onaslant.ndsu.edu/">On-A-Slant Virtual Village</a>.”</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 22:33:19 +0000 yongli 1493 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sopris Phase http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sopris-phase <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sopris Phase</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1852--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1852.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sopris-phase-map"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Sopris-Phase-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=xx_A35MR" width="1000" height="659" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sopris-phase-map" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sopris Phase Map</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map of southeastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico showing the distribution of Sopris phase sites.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1854--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1854.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sopris-phase-house"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Sopris-Phase-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=HlHtVG8b" width="1000" height="410" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sopris-phase-house" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sopris Phase House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Artist’s reconstruction of a multi-room, stone masonry Sopris phase house.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1855--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1855.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/puebloan-trade-vessel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Sopris-Phase-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=LkKQO08H" width="1000" height="1192" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/puebloan-trade-vessel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Puebloan Trade Vessel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Drawing of a Taos Incised-style vessel manufactured in the Rio Grande valley and imported to a Sopris phase site on the Purgatoire River in southeastern Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-03T10:35:28-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 3, 2015 - 10:35" class="datetime">Tue, 11/03/2015 - 10:35</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sopris-phase" data-a2a-title="Sopris Phase"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsopris-phase&amp;title=Sopris%20Phase"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Archaeologists use the term Sopris phase to refer to unique Native American sites found only on the <strong>Purgatoire River</strong> west of <strong>Trinidad, </strong>Colorado, and on the upper tributaries of the Canadian River west of Raton and Cimarron, New Mexico (Fig. 1). Sopris people were the only indigenous farmers who lived east of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> in Colorado. Sopris sites near Trinidad were first occupied about AD 950 or 1000 and were abandoned around 1200 or a little later. Sopris sites in New Mexico were abandoned fifty to 100 years after those in Colorado. Archaeologists do not know which Native American tribe or tribes represent the modern descendants of the people who lived in Sopris sites, although circumstantial evidence suggests that some Sopris households may have migrated to Taos Pueblo, located west of the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Mountains</strong> in northern New Mexico.</p> <p>Archaeologists first documented Sopris sites in the 1930s, but it was not until the US Army Corps of Engineers began construction on the <strong>Trinidad Lake</strong> Project in the late 1950s and 1960s that detailed studies took place. Sopris phase research has been carried out primarily by archaeologists affiliated with the Department of Anthropology at <strong>Trinidad State Junior College</strong>, including Haldon Chase, Herbert W. Dick, Galen R. Baker, and Steven K. Ireland. The terms Upper Purgatoire complex and Ponil phase have also been applied to Sopris sites, but Sopris phase has now replaced both terms.</p> <h2><strong>Domestic Architecture</strong></h2> <p>Sopris houses are remarkably varied in design and construction. Some were square or rectangular in plan and built from stone slabs set in abundant mortar. The walls were finished with a layer of plaster. Other masonry houses incorporated both straight and curving walls. Figure 2 is an artist’s reconstruction of one of the best-documented Sopris masonry houses. Still others were built not from stone masonry but from adobe, or from a combination of adobe and masonry. Sopris families also built both square and circular wood-frame houses plastered with clay, a type of construction known as jacal. A few households built shallow pithouses that were 35 to 100 cm (1 to 3 feet) deep and roofed with jacal or hides.</p> <p>Most Sopris houses had multiple interior rooms. Rooms often were added incrementally over time. Rooms for sleeping, cooking, and other daily activities were accessed by ground-level doorways. Many of the added rooms were small and may have been used for storage of food, tools, or craft items. These small rooms may have been entered through a hatch in the wall or through the roof.</p> <p>Sopris houses share a number of characteristics with houses built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> people in the <strong>Rio Grande</strong> Valley at approximately the same time. Many Puebloan houses consist of multiroom, above-ground masonry structures. Puebloan groups also stored food and other items in small rooms attached to larger rooms used for daily activities. Like many Puebloan houses in the Rio Grande Valley, Sopris houses commonly featured fireplaces surrounded by a raised clay ring or collar. However, Sopris houses are far more varied than Puebloan houses, and Sopris sites lack the specialized structures known as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> that are found in nearly all Puebloan sites.</p> <p>Sopris families lived on homesteads, consisting of a single house, and in small hamlets made up of two or more houses. Most, but not all, Sopris sites are located close to river floodplains, locations suitable for growing corn (maize) and other domesticated crops.</p> <h2>Lifeways</h2> <p>Like their <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Plains</strong></a> Village tradition contemporaries living in what is now Kansas and Oklahoma, the Sopris inhabitants of the Purgatoire River Valley were both farmers and hunter-gatherers. The remains of corn, including kernels that appear to have been dried for storage, are commonly found on Sopris sites. Grinding tools necessary for processing corn into meal also occur on most Sopris sites. In addition, archaeologists have recovered the remains of domesticated beans. However, the kinds of tools commonly used for intensive agriculture, such as bone hoes, have not been found on Sopris sites.</p> <p>In addition to gardening, Sopris phase households also gathered wild plants, especially plums and other fruits, pinon nuts, and the seeds of <a href="/article/sunflowers"><strong>sunflowers</strong></a>, goosefoot, and other annual plants. They also hunted small- and medium-sized animals, especially rabbit and deer. <a href="/article/bison"><strong>Bison</strong></a>, a primary food source for many Plains peoples, were not commonly taken by Sopris hunters.</p> <p>Archaeologists do not know the exact contributions that domesticated plants and wild plants and animals made to Sopris diets. Corn and other cultivated crops appear to have been more important to Sopris cuisine than they were to the cuisine of a contemporary group living in southeastern Colorado that archaeologists call the <a href="/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa phase</strong></a>. However, small- and medium-sized animals made up a greater share of Sopris diets than they did of Puebloan diets. Data on the health status of Sopris individuals indicate that they did not suffer from the ailments common to people who primarily eat starchy crops such as corn. Although corn and other domesticated plants were more than supplements to Sopris diets, they were not exclusive staples. By comparison, Apishapa households relied to a greater degree on hunting and gathering, while Puebloan households relied to a greater degree on farming.</p> <p>Trade was crucial to Sopris households. Their most important trading partners were Puebloan households and communities in the Rio Grande Valley. Pottery was the most conspicuous trade item. Figure 3 is a drawing of a Puebloan jar, executed in the Taos Incised style, which archaeologists recovered from a Sopris site. Pottery of this type has been found in virtually every Sopris house. Archaeologists do not know what items were offered in exchange, although circumstantial evidence suggests that they may have included durable goods such as animal pelts, feathers, or special minerals. Seeds for farming may also have been exchanged.</p> <p>Sopris households also traded with communities on the plains. Archaeologists have recovered pottery vessels and stone tools made in the Texas panhandle. Shells from the Gulf of Mexico have been found on some Sopris sites. These imported items may have been traded down the line from one group to another, or they may indicate that Sopris phase people periodically had contact with people from distant regions.</p> <p>Despite clear evidence for trade and interaction between Sopris and Puebloan households, as well as the similarities in the two groups’ residential architecture, archaeologists think that the ancestors of Sopris phase people had been living in eastern Colorado and New Mexico for several centuries prior to AD 950. However, the specific reasons why they left the area in the 1200s are not known. Social and economic changes that took place in the Rio Grande Valley at that time may have led to the collapse of the trade system on which Sopris households depended, and this may have encouraged some to move west across the mountains.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mitchell-mark-d" hreflang="und">Mitchell, Mark D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apishapa-phase" hreflang="en">Apishapa phase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sopris-phase" hreflang="en">Sopris phase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-village-tradition" hreflang="en">Plains Village tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-and-adobe-architecture" hreflang="en">stone and adobe architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-houses" hreflang="en">native houses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/taos-pueblo" hreflang="en">Taos Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-trade-networks" hreflang="en">indigenous trade networks</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Galen R. Baker, “The Archaeology of the Park Plateau in Southeastern Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 30 (June 1964).</p> <p>Timothy G. Baugh, “Holocene Adaptations in the Southern High Plains,” in <em>Plains Indians, A.D. 500–1500</em>, ed. Karl H. Schlesier (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resource Series No. 19 (Lakewood, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p> <p>Stephen M. Kalasz, Mark D. Mitchell, and Christian J. Zier, “Late Prehistoric Stage,” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em>, ed. Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Mark D. Mitchell, “Interregional Interaction, Social Identity, and Household Reproduction: New Views on Ancient Frontiers,” in <em>Boundaries and Territories</em>, ed. E. Villalpando, Anthropological Research Papers No. 54 (Tempe: Arizona State University, 2002).</p> <p>Caryl E. Wood and Gerald A. Bair, <em>Trinidad Lake Cultural Resource Study, Part II: The Prehistoric Occupation of the Upper Purgatoire River Valley, Southeastern Colorado</em> (Trinidad, CO: Laboratory of Contract Archeology, Trinidad State Junior College, 1980).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing Company, 1990).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em><a href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofhig00gunn">Archaeology of the High Plains</a> </em>(1987).</p> <p>David Grant Nobel, <em>Ancient Colorado: An Archaeological Perspective</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 2000).</p> <p>Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 03 Nov 2015 17:35:28 +0000 yongli 753 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Apishapa Phase http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/apishapa-phase <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Apishapa Phase</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-20T16:22:33-06:00" title="Thursday, August 20, 2015 - 16:22" class="datetime">Thu, 08/20/2015 - 16:22</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/apishapa-phase" data-a2a-title="Apishapa Phase"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fapishapa-phase&amp;title=Apishapa%20Phase"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Apishapa phase is the name given to distinctive archaeological sites found primarily in southeastern Colorado that Native Americans occupied between AD 1050 and 1450. The Apishapa phase is related to both contemporaneous and more recent archaeological sites located in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles. Archaeologists do not know which modern Native American tribes represent the descendants of the people who lived in Apishapa phase sites, although some scholars believe that they may be the Caddoan-speaking tribes of the Plains, including the <strong>Pawnee</strong>.</p> <p><strong>University of Denver</strong> archaeologist Arnold M. Withers coined the term Apishapa phase in 1954 after the <strong>Apishapa River</strong>, a major tributary of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> that flows from the <strong>Spanish Peaks</strong> northeast toward the town of <strong>Fowler</strong>, Colorado. The Apishapa River cuts a deep canyon into the open grassland of northern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas</strong></a> and southeastern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> Counties. It was along the rim of that canyon that the first professional investigations of Apishapa phase sites took place.</p> <p>Archaeologists now know that Apishapa phase sites occur throughout a broad arc extending from the town of Kenton, Oklahoma, nearly to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, Colorado (Fig. 1). Major concentrations of Apishapa phase sites occur along the Dry Cimarron River in northeastern New Mexico; in the maze of shallow canyons in western <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/baca-county"><strong>Baca County</strong></a>; along the <strong>Purgatoire</strong> and Apishapa Rivers and their tributaries in southern Las Animas County; and along Turkey Creek, a northern tributary of the Arkansas River in Pueblo County.</p> <h2>Apishapa Phase Architecture</h2> <p>Archaeologists were drawn to Apishapa sites because of their spectacular architecture. The first site intensively studied by archaeologists, known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snake-blakeslee-archaeological-site"><strong>Snake Blakeslee</strong></a> site, contains the remains of two multiroom stone structures, along with several one-room structures, all perched on the rim of the Apishapa Canyon. First visited in 1930 by University of Denver archaeologist Etienne B. Renaud and excavated in 1949 by Columbia University graduate student Haldon Chase, the buildings at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snake-blakeslee-archaeological-site"><strong>Snake Blakeslee</strong></a> were constructed from massive stone blocks. In some rooms, upright stone pillars or posts up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) high supported the roof (Fig. 2). The upper walls and roofs of Apishapa phase buildings likely were built from wooden poles covered with clay, a construction technique known as jacal. Animal hides, bundles of grass, or boughs may also have been used to cover the buildings’ wooden frameworks.</p> <p>The Cramer site, another Apishapa Canyon site investigated by Renaud and later by University of Nebraska State Archaeologist James H. Gunnerson, contained a massive structure made up of three rooms connected by curving walls that separated different work areas. The largest of the rooms at Cramer measures 7.5 meters (25 feet) across (Fig. 3). Gunnerson interpreted that large room as a ceremonial building. Other archaeologists have interpreted Apishapa phase sites as defensive in nature, due to their frequent occurrence on isolated mesas or on the rims of deep canyons.</p> <p>As research expanded in the 1980s and 1990s, especially on lands administered by the US Army at <strong>Fort Carson</strong> and the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site, archaeologists came to realize that the buildings at the Cramer and Snake Blakeslee sites are atypical examples of Apishapa phase architecture. Foundation slabs set vertically in the ground are a common feature of Apishapa structures and most are circular or oval, but their size, position on the landscape, and number of rooms vary widely. Archaeologists now interpret Apishapa phase buildings as family homes or, in the case of larger buildings, as communal work areas, rather than as ceremonial buildings or fortifications.</p> <p>Archaeologists have also discovered Apishapa sites without architecture, including locations in open plains settings and in deep alcoves in sandstone cliffs. Those alcoves, also known as rock shelters, mostly provided natural protection from the elements, but Apishapa phase households sometimes built walls or other structures inside them. Sites in the open plains were used primarily as buffalo hunting camps.</p> <h2>Apishapa Phase Lifeways</h2> <p>In the 1950s and 1960s, archaeologists thought that the Apishapa phase represented a local example of a widespread sociocultural pattern known as the Plains Village tradition. Plains Village tradition sites occur throughout the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, from the Missouri River in North Dakota to the Canadian River in Texas and Oklahoma. Plains Village tradition groups built substantial timber-frame houses close to river floodplains suitable for growing corn (maize) and other domesticated crops, stored surplus food and other items in underground storage pits, and manufactured distinctive stone and bone tools and pottery vessels. In addition to raising maize, they also hunted buffalo and other large mammals. Thus, archaeologists interpreted Apishapa phase sites as permanent villages where families lived for much of the year, farming during the summer and traveling periodically to the open plains to hunt.</p> <p>Detailed studies of artifacts and the remains of plants and animals now show Apishapa phase sites were not populous permanent villages, but were instead occupied repeatedly and for brief periods by small groups of people. Apishapa phase households did hunt buffalo, but they also hunted a wide variety of smaller animals. Corncobs and kernels occur on Apishapa phase sites, but the remains of wild plant foods are more abundant and farming tools are lacking, indicating that cultivated crops were a dietary supplement, rather than a staple. Archaeologists now view Apishapa phase people primarily as hunter-gatherers who moved seasonally between houses located in different ecological zones.</p> <p>Apishapa phase sites contain small numbers of imported artifacts. Pottery vessels made in the Southwest, as well as farther east in the Plains, occur on some sites. Stone tools manufactured in the Texas panhandle are found on others. Shells from the Gulf of Mexico have been found on a few sites. These imported items may have been traded from one group to another, or they may indicate that Apishapa phase people periodically had contact with people from distant regions.</p> <p>Petroglyphs, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> images pecked into boulders or cliff faces, frequently occur near Apishapa phase sites. Some of these images may be contemporaneous with the Apishapa phase, while some may be slightly older. Common motifs include <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, deer, and other animals, as well as human figures with knobby knees, outstretched arms, and oversized fingers. Meandering lines and other abstract elements co-occur with depictions of animals and people. Groups of petroglyphs depicting animals and humans may represent hunting scenes.</p> <p>Archaeologists have good evidence that the ancestors of the people who built Apishapa phase sites had been living in southeastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico for 1,000 years or longer. However, the reasons why they left the region in the early AD 1400s are not known. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>Climate change</strong></a>, especially widespread drought, as well as warfare may have been factors.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mitchell-mark-d" hreflang="und">Mitchell, Mark D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/caddoan" hreflang="en">Caddoan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/masonry-architecture" hreflang="en">masonry architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-village-tradition" hreflang="en">Plains Village tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hunter-gatherers" hreflang="en">hunter-gatherers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-hunters" hreflang="en">bison hunters</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Timothy G. Baugh, “Holocene Adaptations in the Southern High Plains,” in <em>Plains Indians, A.D. 500–1500</em>, ed. Karl H. Schlesier (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994).</p> <p>Roger Echo-Hawk, “Ancient History in the New World: Integrating Oral Traditions and the Archaeological Record in Deep Time,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 65, no. 2 (April 2000).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resource Series No. 19 (Lakewood, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Apishapa Canyon Archaeology: Excavations at the Cramer, Snake Blakeslee and Nearby Sites</em>, Reprints in Anthropology Vol. 41 (Lincoln, NE: J &amp; L Reprint Company, 1989).</p> <p>Stephen M. Kalasz, Mark D. Mitchell, and Christian J. Zier, “Late Prehistoric Stage,” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em>, ed. Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Etienne B. Renaud, <em>Indian Stone Enclosures of Colorado and New Mexico</em>,<em> </em>Archaeological Papers Series No. 2 (Denver: Department of Anthropology, University of Denver, 1942).</p> <p>Arnold M. Withers, “Reports of Archaeological Fieldwork in Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico, Arizona and Utah in 1952 and 1953,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 19, no. 4 (March 1954).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing Company, 1997).</p> <p><a href="https://coloradopreservation.org/projects/cultural-resource-surveys/ranching-survey/">Colorado Preservation, Inc., Purgatoire River Region Survey</a></p> <p><a href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofhig00gunn">James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains </em>(1987)</a></p> <p>David Grant Nobel, <em>Ancient Colorado: An Archaeological Perspective</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 2000).</p> <p><a href="http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/">Texas Beyond History: The Virtual Museum of Texas’ Cultural History</a></p> <p>Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 20 Aug 2015 22:22:33 +0000 yongli 574 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org