%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Middle Park Indian Agency http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Middle Park Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-06T12:09:32-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 6, 2017 - 12:09" class="datetime">Wed, 12/06/2017 - 12:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0" data-a2a-title="Middle Park Indian Agency"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmiddle-park-indian-agency-0&amp;title=Middle%20Park%20Indian%20Agency"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Middle Park Agency was established in 1862 for the <strong>Grand River, </strong><a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Uinta</strong></a>,<strong> and Yampa Utes</strong>. One of many federal <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a> established in Colorado during the 1860s, the Middle Park Agency mostly operated from <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. After the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868">Treaty of 1868</a> established a reservation for the Utes west of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, the agency was moved to a location on the White River in 1869 and became known as the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Background</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Prior to the establishment of the agency, beginning sometime in early 1861, Special Indian agent Henry M. Vaile was assigned to the Utes in northern Colorado and to the <strong>Arapaho</strong>. He established a headquarters at <strong>Breckenridge</strong>, but most of his time seems to have been spent in Denver. Knowledge about the Utes under his jurisdiction was extremely limited, so he was attached to the survey party of the <strong>Central Overland California and <a href="/article/pikes-peak">Pikes Peak</a> Express Company</strong> that worked to find a wagon route from Denver to Salt Lake City in 1861. The route passed over <strong>Berthoud Pass</strong>, through <strong>Hot Sulphur Springs</strong>, over <strong>Gore Pass</strong>, and down the <strong>White River</strong> into Utah. Vaile made little contact with Utes during this journey but conferred with authorities in Salt Lake City prior to his return to Denver. An unratified agreement was made with the Utes to allow the wagon road to be built through <strong>Middle Park</strong>. He hired <strong>Uriah M. Curtis</strong> as his interpreter in late 1861 and planned to spend the winter at Breckenridge, where he expected the Utes to arrive.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Attempts to Establish an Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>But Vaile was soon removed from his post—perhaps because of Confederate sympathies—and Simeon Whiteley was appointed as the first agent of what was then called the Middle Park Agency on December 23, 1862. Whiteley was appointed because of his political support of Abraham Lincoln and his association with Secretary of War Simon Cameron. Whiteley was a newspaperman from Racine, Wisconsin, and he purchased the Denver newspaper <em>Commonwealth. </em>No actual agency facilities existed within the jurisdiction of the Middle Park Agency, and Whiteley only ventured into Ute territory during the summer months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the summer of 1863, Whiteley rather unsuccessfully attempted to make contact with the Grand River and Uintah bands in <strong>North Park</strong>, Middle Park, Hot Sulphur Springs, and along the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Grand (Colorado) River</strong></a> to have them attend treaty negotiations at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0"><strong>Conejos Indian Agency</strong></a> later that year. He rehired Curtis as his interpreter and sent him farther west to the Green River in Utah and as far as the Spanish Fork Agency in the Wasatch Valley on the same mission. The 1863 treaty negotiations were poorly attended, and the resulting agreement was not ratified. This was largely because the Utes were not fully represented and those present were unwilling to settle on a small reservation in the San Juan River valley of New Mexico. Whiteley attempted to establish an agency compound along the Colorado River at Hot Sulphur Springs in Middle Park in the summer of 1863. However, the need for military protection and the agency’s remote location caused him to withdraw with no improvements made.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes replaced Whiteley as agent on May 11, 1865. Oakes had arrived in Colorado in late 1858 and brought the first sawmill to the state. He was chosen because of his firsthand knowledge of the Utes. The agency was headquartered in Denver, but Oakes distributed <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuity goods</strong></a>—items promised to Native Americans in treaties—in <strong>Empire</strong> in 1865. He had hopes of establishing an agency away from Denver once the wagon road between Denver and Salt Lake City was completed, which was expected to be in 1866. The Utes were not happy about the road, which passed through Middle Park, but were assured that no settlement would be allowed along its route. Despite the road being built, the agency headquarters remained in Denver. Treaty negotiations took place with the Grand River and Yampa Utes in Middle Park. Congress did not ratify the treaty, but the Utes still expected that whites would not settle on their land.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Dissolution</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1868 Oakes helped negotiate the <strong>Treaty of 1868</strong>, which set the eastern boundary of the Ute Reservation west of Middle Park, at 107 degrees latitude and stipulated that two agencies would be constructed on the reservation. Oakes was sent out to find a suitable location for an agency for the Uintah, Grand River, and Yampa Utes who were formerly attached to the Middle Park Agency. In early September 1869, he and the Utes agreed that the new agency would be situated on the White River in northwest Colorado. He began laying out the agency buildings and brought supplies south from the railroad at Rawlins, Wyoming. This was his last formal duty as agent for the Utes attached to the Middle Park Agency. A military officer replaced him. The Middle Park Agency ended with the establishment of the White River Agency.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/henry-vaile" hreflang="en">Henry Vaile</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/simeon-whiteley" hreflang="en">Simeon Whiteley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uriah-curtis" hreflang="en">Uriah Curtis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/daniel-oakes" hreflang="en">Daniel Oakes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/breckenridge" hreflang="en">Breckenridge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hot-sulphur-springs" hreflang="en">Hot Sulphur Springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/middle-park" hreflang="en">Middle Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-river-utes" hreflang="en">Grand River Utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uintah-utes" hreflang="en">Uintah Utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/yampa-utes" hreflang="en">Yampa Utes</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>John Evans, Governor of Colorado and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 14, 1863,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1863</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Evans, Governor of Colorado and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, “Letter to D. N. Cooley, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 7, 1865,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1865</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Gilpin, Governor of Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 19, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1861</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1861).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes, Indian Agent, Middle Park Agency, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to D. N. Cooley, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 2, 1865,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1865</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes, Indian Agent, Middle Park Agency, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to Alexander Cummings, Governor and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, Colorado Territory, February 12, 1866,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1866</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1866).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes, Indian Agent, Middle Park Agency, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to E. M. McCook, Governor and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, Colorado Territory, July 1, 1869,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1869</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes, Indian Agent, Middle Park Agency, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to E. M. McCook, Governor and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, Colorado Territory, September 15, 1869,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Made to the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1869</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>H. M. Vaile, Special Agent, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Report of H. M. Vaile, on His Expedition from Denver, Colorado, to Great Salt Lake City, and Back, Under Instructions from Wm. Gilpin, Governor, and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Dated July 5, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Middle_Park_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Middle Park Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” FamilySearch.org, updated February 3, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 06 Dec 2017 19:09:32 +0000 yongli 2814 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Denver Special Indian Agency http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-special-indian-agency <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Denver Special Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-06T11:05:50-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 6, 2017 - 11:05" class="datetime">Wed, 12/06/2017 - 11:05</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-special-indian-agency" data-a2a-title="Denver Special Indian Agency"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdenver-special-indian-agency&amp;title=Denver%20Special%20Indian%20Agency"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Denver Special Agency was established to provide goods and services to the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indians</strong></a> visiting the plains of Colorado between 1871 and 1875. The agency served Utes who were accustomed to collecting supplies from Denver’s <a href="/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0"><strong>Middle Park Agency</strong></a> during the 1860s but had been reassigned to a different agency in 1868. The Denver Special Agency was an unusual accommodation of Native American habits by the US government, one that not only benefited the Utes but also Denver merchants and settlers on the Colorado <a href="/article/colorado%e2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Background</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Prior to 1868, the Utes attached to the Middle Park Agency were not subject to any treaty and became accustomed to obtaining supplies from the Middle Park Agency in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. A treaty was negotiated with the Utes in 1868 that established a reservation for them on the west side of Colorado’s Rocky Mountains. In 1869, after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> had been negotiated, Indian agent Daniel C. Oakes continued to issue supplies to Utes who came to Denver. As a result of the Treaty of 1868, <strong>North Park</strong> and <strong>Middle Park</strong> were not within the reservation. Not understanding this, some of the Utes threatened—but were not openly hostile toward—miners there, hoping they would leave. The Utes continued to use these areas for hunting in the summer months. Large numbers of Utes, sometimes referring to themselves as the Nevava Utes—descendants of Nevava, the leader of the Grand River, Yampa, and <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Uintah Utes</strong></a> who died in 1868—made it a practice to venture onto the plains for an annual late summer buffalo hunt and to fight the <strong>Lakota</strong>,<strong> Comanche</strong>, and <strong>Arapaho</strong>. They often stopped in Denver to obtain supplies and then spent the winter nearby. Other bands of Utes attached to the <a href="/article/los-pinos-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Agency</strong></a> also stopped in Denver on their way to and from the plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Need for a Denver Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In Denver the Utes sold their buffalo hides and deer skins at the best prices and bought a wide variety of goods from merchants. Relations between the Utes and whites were quite good, with merchants benefiting from trade with the Utes and settlers on the plains benefiting from the Utes chasing off hostile Plains Indians. Unfortunately, the Utes were also sometimes the victims of unscrupulous whites who harassed and robbed them, sold them liquor, or attempted to cheat them in transactions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To deal with the large number of Utes off the reservation, the <strong>Board of Indian Commissioners</strong> appointed Robert Campbell and <strong>Felix R. Brunot</strong> to a committee to meet with Colorado governor <strong>Edward M. McCook</strong> in 1870. They concluded that the best solution was to establish a special agency in Denver rather than create a conflict by forcing the Utes onto the reservation. These off-reservation Utes received their <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuity goods</strong></a>—items promised to them by treaty in return for their land—at the Denver Agency. McCook’s brother-in-law, <strong>James B. Thompson</strong>, began serving the Utes in Denver in 1869, when he arrived in Colorado as McCook’s private secretary. On January 17, 1871, Thompson was officially appointed the special agent for the Denver Agency; he also took over the administration of Indian affairs in Colorado from the governor.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Decline and Reestablishment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Depletion of <strong>buffalo</strong> on the plains and growing tension between the Utes and citizens of Denver resulted in the Ute leader <strong>Piah</strong> finally agreeing in 1874 to move onto the reservation, where his people would be served by the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a>. With this, the need for the Denver Agency was considerably lessened, and it was decommissioned in November 1874. Closing the agency did not prevent Utes from spending the winter in the Denver area. They still came to Denver expecting provisions, and local residents still benefited from the Ute keeping the Lakota at bay, so the agency was reestablished and operational through 1875.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/james-b-thompson" hreflang="en">James B. Thompson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/daniel-c-oakes" hreflang="en">Daniel C. Oakes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/special-agency" hreflang="en">Special Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/piah" hreflang="en">Piah</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Felix R. Brunot, Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, and Robert Campbell, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, “Letter to J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC, October 29, 1870,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1870</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Columbus Delano, Secretary of the Interior, “Letter to E. S. Parker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, January 7, 1871,” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 201).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>G. F. Jocknick, Washington, DC, “Letter to H. R. Clum, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, September 30, 1871,” in <em>Report of the Secretary of the Interior; Being Part of the Message and Documents Communicated to the Two Houses of Congress at the Beginning of the Second Session of the Forty-Second Congress: Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1871</em> (Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, 1871).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Edward M. McCook, Governor and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to E. S. Parker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, September 1, 1869,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1869</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Oakes, Indian Agent, Middle Park Agency, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to E. M. McCook, Governor and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, Colorado Territory, July 1, 1869,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1869</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James B. Thompson, Special Indian Agent, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to H. R. Clum, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, October 1, 1871,” in <em>Report of the Secretary of the Interior; Being Part of the Message and Documents Communicated to the Two Houses of Congress at the Beginning of the Second Session of the Forty-Second Congress: Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1871</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James B. Thompson, Special Indian Agent, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, September 1, 1873,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1873</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James B. Thompson, Special Indian Agent, Denver, Colorado Territory, “Letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, September 1, 1874,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1874</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Indians_of_Colorado">Agencies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>,” FamilySearch.org, last modified April 13, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 06 Dec 2017 18:05:50 +0000 yongli 2813 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Conejos Indian Agency http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conejos Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-05T16:41:57-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 5, 2017 - 16:41" class="datetime">Tue, 12/05/2017 - 16:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0" data-a2a-title="Conejos Indian Agency"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconejos-indian-agency-0&amp;title=Conejos%20Indian%20Agency"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p align="left">The Conejos <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agency</strong></a> was established in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> for the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> Indians in 1860. It was an important place where <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuity goods</strong></a> were distributed to the Utes and treaty negotiations took place. After the <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> established a reservation for the Utes west of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, a new agency was established in 1869 on the reservation and the Conejos Agency was abandoned.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">An Agency in the Valley</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The <strong>Tabeguache</strong> and <strong>Muache Utes</strong> were attached to the Taos Agency in northern New Mexico under the jurisdiction of <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> by 1856. Despite being administered by the Taos Agency, the Tabeguache Utes resided in a large area in what would become western and south-central Colorado, including the Uncompahgre and San Luis Valleys. The Muache band roamed farther south and was more closely attached to the Taos Agency. Annuity goods—annual payments made to Native Americans as stipulated by treaties—for the Tabeguache and Muache Utes were distributed at Conejos in the San Luis Valley beginning in 1858. For convenience, the goods were stored and distributed at <a href="/article/lafayette-head"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a>’s ranch at Conejos in 1859. In order to more effectively administer the Tabeguache Utes, the Conejos Agency was established in 1860 at Head’s ranch, and Head was appointed Indian agent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">With the establishment of <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861, the Conejos Agency came under the jurisdiction of Territorial Governor <a href="/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a>, who served as the superintendent of Indian Affairs. Head was confirmed as the Indian agent at Conejos because he was a Republican and a friend of the administration. The Muache Utes were encouraged to move northward from New Mexico into the San Luis Valley, where the agency could better serve them. But during treaty negotiations at the Conejos Agency in 1863, US representatives attempted to extinguish all title held by the Utes in Colorado and move them to a reservation on the San Juan River in northwestern New Mexico. These conflicting intentions—the United States was simultaneously arguing for the Utes to both leave and stay in Colorado—were fueled by a mix of counteracting forces in the nation’s capital. Delegations from Colorado and New Mexico wanted the Utes out of their states and Washington politicians in general had a poor understanding of the two territories and knew almost nothing about Ute culture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">In the 1863 agreement, the Tabeguache Utes agreed to cede the San Luis Valley and a large portion of the Colorado mountains, giving the United States control over nearly all of the existing mines on those lands. Congress substantially altered the treaty, then failed to ratify it or put it into effect. This fostered animosity and distrust of the US government among the Utes, who thought that the government failed to honor their agreement. As the San Luis Valley began filling with Hispano settlers, conflicts with the Ute increased, so the annuity distributions for the Tabeguache and Muache bands were moved to the <a href="/article/colorado-salt-works"><strong>Salt Works</strong></a> in the southern portion of <strong>South Park</strong>. Relations continued to deteriorate between the Ute and settlers, and movement of the agency was seen as a priority by 1868.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">After 1868</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The Treaty of 1868 was negotiated at the Conejos Agency. It established an eastern boundary of the Ute Reservation at 107 degrees latitude, west of the Continental Divide, and stipulated that two agencies would be constructed, subsequently known as the <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Agency</strong></a> in the southern part of the reservation and the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> in the northern part. Lafayette Head’s commission as Indian agent expired in 1867, but he continued to serve at the agency and facilitated the treaty negotiations. As it was too late in the year to move the agency in 1868, the task of finding a new location for the Conejos Agency fell to Lt. Calvin T. Speer under the direction of Governor <strong>Edward M. McCook</strong> in 1869.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The agency was temporarily moved to <a href="/article/saguache-0"><strong>Saguache</strong></a> in July 1869 and put under the direction of William S. Godfrey, Head’s former clerk. Intending to establish the new agency in the Uncompahgre Valley, the Ute refused to go much farther west of <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, so a suitable location was found along Los Piños Creek just west of the pass, and the agency was renamed the Los Piños Agency. Both the Muache and <strong>Capote Utes</strong> resided in New Mexico; the latter, served by an agency at Abiquiú, New Mexico, refused to be parties to the 1868 treaty and did not desire to move onto the reservation. They remained in New Mexico and were not afforded additional benefits beyond subsistence.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lafayette-head" hreflang="en">Lafayette Head</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos" hreflang="en">Conejos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache-ute" hreflang="en">Tabeguache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-1863" hreflang="en">Treaty of 1863</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-1868" hreflang="en">Treaty of 1868</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p align="left">J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to C. E. Mix, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, September 27, 1858,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1858</em> (Washington, DC: William A. Harris, 1858).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to A. B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 17, 1859,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1859 </em>(Washington, DC: George W. Bowman, 1860).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to A. B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 24, 1860,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1860</em> (Washington, DC: George W. Bowman, 1860).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">John Evans, Governor of Colorado and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 14, 1863,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1863</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">John Evans, Governor of Colorado and Ex-Officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Denver, “Letter to D. N. Cooley, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 7, 1865,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1865</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">William Gilpin, Governor of Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 19, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1861</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1861).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">A. C. Hunt, Governor of Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to N. G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, August 1, 1868,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1868</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1868).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">A. C. Hunt, Governor of Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to E. S. Parker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, June 8, 1869,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1869</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Edward M. McCook, Governor of Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to General E. S. Parker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, August 25, 1869” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 200).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">John G. Nicolay, Special Agent and Secretary of the Commission for Negotiating a Treaty with Indians in Colorado Territory, Washington DC, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, November 10, 1863,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1863</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">M. Steck, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico Territory, “Letter to Wm. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 19, 1863,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1863</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p align="left">“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Conejos_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Conejos Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” FamilySearch.org, last modified March 19, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 05 Dec 2017 23:41:57 +0000 yongli 2812 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ute Indian Museum http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-indian-museum <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Indian Museum</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2810--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2810.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-museum-dedication"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Ute-Indian-Museum-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=t1xuEc2S" width="1000" height="593" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-museum-dedication" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Museum Dedication</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The first version of the Ute Indian Museum opened to the public in 1956. History Colorado photo.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2811--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2811.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chief-ouray-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Ute-Indian-Museum-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=_p2Mt0y9" width="1000" height="971" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chief-ouray-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chief Ouray Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Several Ute tribal members pose at the monument honoring Chief Ouray. The obelisk was erected in 1926, on the grounds just north of the Museum. History Colorado photo.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-05T16:26:14-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 5, 2017 - 16:26" class="datetime">Tue, 12/05/2017 - 16:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-indian-museum" data-a2a-title="Ute Indian Museum"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fute-indian-museum&amp;title=Ute%20Indian%20Museum"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute people</strong></a>, or as they call themselves, <em>Nuche</em> (The People), are Colorado’s longest continuous residents. Their rich cultural heritage and history is on display at the Ute Indian Museum. Nestled in the heart of traditional Uncompahgre Ute territory in <strong>Montrose</strong>, the Ute Indian Museum is <strong>History Colorado</strong>’s only facility in western Colorado. It is also a State Historic Monument and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Ute Indian Museum occupies a little less than nine acres, where the Ute <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Chief Ouray</strong></a> and his wife, <a href="/article/chipeta"><strong>Chipeta</strong></a>, lived.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Long before white immigrants arrived, Colorado’s mountains and canyon lands belonged to the Utes. The Ute Nation was transformed when the horse became an integral part of its culture in the seventeenth century. Today there are three Ute tribes: the <strong>Southern Utes </strong>and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Utes</strong></a> in southern Colorado and the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservatio"><strong>Ute Indian Tribe</strong></a> of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ute culture is resourceful and creative, using local plants and animals in sustainable and respectful ways. For hundreds of years Utes thrived in Colorado, living in mountains during the summer and moving to river valleys in the winter. This changed when they encountered a European migration that overtook and displaced them.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1849, a year after Mexico’s defeat in the Mexican-American War, the first official <strong>treaty </strong>between the Utes and the United States was negotiated at Abiquiú, New Mexico. The Calhoun Treaty, as it was known, resulted in the establishment of an <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agency</strong></a> at Taos, New Mexico. In the decades that followed, a series of treaties and agreements restricted the Utes to increasingly smaller tracts of land until the current reservations were established in the late nineteenth century. The reduction of Ute territory led to multiple violent incidents, such as the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879 and the <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek Massacre</strong></a> of 1885.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Museum</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The landscape around the Ute Indian Museum has been heavily modified from its original native state. This process began in 1875, when the federal government gave Ouray and Chipeta about 500 acres as a farm and ranch. After Chipeta’s death in 1924, the transformation of a small portion of their farm into the museum grounds began with the construction of Chipeta’s crypt. Then, in 1926 the obelisk commemorating Chief Ouray was erected, and the gravesite of Chief John McCook (Chipeta’s brother) followed in 1937.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The museum opened in 1956 and expanded in the early 1960s to include additional exhibit space and a terrace. Below the road to the museum, the <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Dominguez-Escalante Expedition</strong></a> monument was built as part of the bicentennial celebration in 1976. To the north of this monument, the native gardens and walkway were built in 1988–90. The walkway extends northeast on an elevated boardwalk through wetlands to the southwest bank of the <strong>Uncompahgre River</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A newly expanded museum was built in 2017. With the collaboration of the three Ute tribes, traditional stories and oral histories are now tightly woven into the permanent exhibit space. Throughout the exhibits, visitors journey to iconic places across Colorado to learn the story of Ute life, history, and culture. Told in the voices of tribal members, the exhibits include contemporary views of Ute life, including cultural survival, political self-determination, economic opportunity, and the celebration of the <strong>Bear Dance</strong>. There are approximately 200 artifacts on exhibit, including a headdress from <a href="/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Buckskin Charley</strong></a> (Sapiah), a velvet dress belonging to Chipeta, a robe that belonged to <strong>Ignacio</strong>, and one of Ouray’s shirts. The museum also includes a changing gallery, a gift shop, a patio with stunning views, shady picnic areas, and <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipis</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/brafford-cj" hreflang="und">Brafford, C.J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/museums-colorado" hreflang="en">museums in Colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montrose" hreflang="en">Montrose</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-colorado" hreflang="en">History Colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-historical-society" hreflang="en">Colorado Historical Society</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-utes" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">northern ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chipeta" hreflang="en">Chipeta</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “An Inventory and Test Excavation at the Ute Indian Museum, Montrose County, Colorado,” unpublished technical report (Denver: Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, History Colorado, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Janice Colorow, ed., <em>Ute Mountain Ute Government</em> (Towaoc, CO: Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Facilities Services Division, “Ute Indian Museum, Facility and Program Plan, FY-08-09,” unpublished manuscript (Denver: Office of Facilities Management, History Colorado, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>LeRoy R. Hafen, “Historical Summary of the Ute Indians and the San Juan Mining Region,” <em>Ute Indians</em>, Vol. 2: <em>American Indian Ethnohistory: California and Great Basin-Plateau Indians</em>, comp. and ed. David Agee Horr (New York: Garland, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ernie Rose, <em>Utahs of the Rocky Mountains, 1833–1935</em> (Montrose, CO: Montrose Daily Press, 1968).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.visitmontrose.com/171/museums/">Montrose Museums</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/story/community-museums/2016/02/24/ute-indian-museum">Ute Indian Museum</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 05 Dec 2017 23:26:14 +0000 yongli 2808 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Annuities http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Annuities</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2505--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2505.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/butchering-cattle-los-pinos-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian_Annuities_Media1_0.jpg?itok=lCOUxvFw" width="1000" height="644" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/butchering-cattle-los-pinos-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Butchering Cattle at the Los Pinos Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute people butcher&nbsp;cattle at the Los Pinos Agency between 1869 and 1874. After the US government forced them onto various reservations in Colorado, the Utes and other Indigenous nations sometimes&nbsp;received annual shipments of cash and supplies, generally referred to as "annuities," at government-operated Indian Agencies.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-04-27T16:36:23-06:00" title="Thursday, April 27, 2017 - 16:36" class="datetime">Thu, 04/27/2017 - 16:36</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities" data-a2a-title="Indian Annuities"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-annuities&amp;title=Indian%20Annuities"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Annuities were a fixed sum of money or goods that the US government paid to Indigenous people on a regular basis for the sale of their lands. <a href="/article/indian-treaties-colorado"><strong>Treaties</strong></a> with Indigenous nations typically specified payments in dollar amounts over a period of years in return for land cessions. The payments were sometimes made in cash but often were used to purchase goods and supplies for the benefit of Indigenous people. Annuities brought an abundance of manufactured goods into the hands of Indigenous people, resulting in tremendous cultural changes in terms of dress, diet, decorative and artistic pursuits, and technology. Annuities also resulted in the increased dependence upon the government for survival.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The concept of annuity goods grew out of the British practice of giving presents to Indigenous groups to ensure their allegiance during the colonial period. After the occupation of their lands, many Indigenous people became dependent upon manufactured goods for their survival, and the government used goods as a political tool. When the US government began to negotiate treaties with Indigenous nations, it initially made annual cash payments for land. But cash was not inherently useful for many Indigenous nations and often ended up in the hands of unscrupulous traders. Consequently, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) began administering the procurement and distribution of goods purchased with the money designated by the treaties. These tasks soon became the primary undertaking of the BIA, with substantial contracting and accounting implications and opportunities for corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Annuities were typically distributed at <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, government outposts operated by federally appointed agents who acted as direct liaisons to Native Americans<strong>. </strong>To keep the distributions peaceful and to assist in the dispensing of goods, the agent was often assisted by the military. Before 1847, cash or goods were presented to Indigenous leaders, who then distributed them to their followers. This means of distribution was unsatisfactory because the leaders and their friends benefited the most, and not all members of a tribe were included or treated fairly. After 1847, annuities were distributed to heads of families or other entitled individuals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Annuities began to be distributed to the <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/utes"><strong>Ute</strong></a> nations as a condition of the treaties they signed. The Cheyenne and Arapaho received annuity goods under the terms of the 1851 <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> and the subsequent <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> in 1861. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of 1849</strong></a> with the Utes was simply to establish peaceful relations and did not involve land cessions. It specified possible distribution of “donations, presents, and implements” but not in set amounts on a regular basis. Treaty provisions for payment of annuity goods were included in ratified and unratified treaties with the Utes as early as 1855. Beginning in the early 1870s, agents recognized that some Utes attended more than one distribution of annuity goods at different agencies, so annuity distributions were set for the same date at all agencies.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Types of Annuities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the nineteenth century, Native Americans looked forward to, and in many cases depended on, annuity goods. Because of the remoteness of the Ute agencies and poor government planning and execution, sometimes annuity goods did not arrive in time for them to be distributed, or they did not arrive at all. When goods were late or absent, the Utes suffered over the winter months for lack of adequate shelter, clothing, blankets, and food. Because annuities were a stipulation of their treaties, late, absent, or poor-quality goods caused considerable distrust of the US government.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hundreds of blankets were issued to the Utes each year; bed ticking or sheeting was occasionally issued. Hundreds of yards of blue, scarlet, and calico cloth, and sometimes flannel, were included each year. Manufactured clothing included shirts—often of hickory or red or gray flannel cloth—coats, pants, hats, and, occasionally, vests, and shoes. Thousands of yards of canvas were issued annually, and were mostly used for <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipi</strong></a> covers. Needles, awls, and thread were routinely issued in large quantities for manufacturing clothing and sewing tipi covers, leatherwork, and decorative beading. Shears (scissors) were issued periodically.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thousands of beads were virtually the only adornment items issued. Other personal items included coarse and fine combs and small zinc-shell mirrors. Hundreds of pounds of tobacco and hundreds of pipes and pipe stems were also issued annually. Axes of various types were the tool most in demand and issued in the greatest quantity, though files were also frequently included. Cooking items included hundreds of tablespoons, butcher and other knives, cooking kettles, and tin cups; frying pans were issued less often.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Food was often distributed throughout the year but frequently bought with annuity money. This was most commonly beef—often distributed as live animals—as well as bacon, flour, baking powder, potatoes, beans, peas, coffee, salt, and sugar. Because Indigenous people mostly provisioned themselves by hunting and fishing, rifles, percussion caps, gunpowder, lead, bullet molds, cartridges, and fishing hooks and line were regularly issued. Dependence upon firearms is demonstrated by the wide variety of gun parts that were ordered, including trigger springs, levers, and guards, as well as mainsprings, locks, tubes, screws, ramrods, and sights. Sometimes these items were specified for Colt, Winchester, Remington, and Leman rifles and pistols. These repair parts were likely not issued to the Indians but kept on hand at the agencies to make repairs as needed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Also purchased from the annuity funds were goods to equip the agencies and their employees. This included a large amount of hardware, such as bolts, washers, nuts, screws, nails, tacks, rivets, wire, horse and mule shoes, and iron and steel for blacksmithing. Tools for blacksmiths, carpenters, farmers, and other employees were also frequently ordered, including blacksmith’s bellows, curry combs, horse brushes, sheep shears, scythes, shovels, hoes, mattocks, squares, glass cutters, glazier points, trowels, saw sets, augers, whips, harnesses, harness punches, needles, and awls.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sometimes small quantities of other food or items were mixed with the annuity good orders, including matches, knife and fork sets, butter, crackers, chocolate, tea, oatmeal, pepper, and graham flour.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Distribution</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Agents seem to have had some input into the quantity and types of annuity goods that were acquired—particularly beginning in the mid-1870s—but sometimes items purchased for Indigenous nations were inappropriate or of poor quality. In 1867, for instance, 10,000 pounds of rice was sent to Utes. Because the Utes did not know what rice was or how to prepare it, the governor asked to be able to sell it so that he could buy twice the quantity of wheat. In 1875 agent Edward H. Danforth at the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> reported that the black iron and galvanized iron pails sent the previous year were of poor quality, and he requested tinned iron pails instead. He complained that some of the Utes did not like the coats and pants sent to the White River Agency in 1877, so they traded them to nearby white settlers. The problem with the pants may have been that they did not fit well, as he requested that suspenders be sent the next year. He also noted that the Indians did not like the sheet-iron kettles that were sent and considered them “worthless.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Army hats, baking powder, butcher knives, and tinned iron kettles sent to the <a href="/article/los-piños-indian-agency"><strong>Los Pinos Agency</strong></a> in 1875 were reported to be of poor quality by Agent Henry F. Bond. He further noted that the Utes preferred drab-colored felt hats and did not want the largest sizes of kettles. Most important was that good-quality baking powder should be sent. <a href="/article/ouray-0"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> and <strong>Sapinero</strong> complained that the quantity of annuity goods sent to the Los Pinos Agency in 1877 was less than what was promised and that the clothing was not suited to the climate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For all parties involved, annuity goods were a source of difficulty. For the government, acquisition, shipping, and accounting for goods were major tasks that were not always handled well. For Indian agents, distribution of annuity goods was also a major task, and when goods failed to arrive at the promised time or at all, they had to face disgruntled Indigenous people and defend the government in its failure.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agents were also subject to accusations of misappropriating annuity goods for personal gain and were sometimes dismissed as a result; they also faced dismissal for failing to be fiscally competent with their accounts. For Indigenous nations, the arrival of sufficient and high-quality annuity goods was a matter of survival. Insufficient or poor-quality goods made their lives more arduous, and failure of goods to arrive could result in illness, death, or difficulty surviving the winter.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-tribes" hreflang="en">Indian tribes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joseph B. Abbott, Indian agent, Los Pinos Indian Agency, “Letter to E. A. Hayt, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 25, 1878” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 208).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to Edward M. McCook, Governor of Colorado Territory, April 1, 1871” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 201).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Pinos Agency, “Requisition for Annuity Goods, Los Pinos Agency, February 1, 1874” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 204).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Henry F. Bond, Indian agent, Los Pinos Agency, “List of Supplies and Annuity Goods on Hand, Los Pinos Agency, June 30, 1875” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Henry F. Bond, Indian agent, Los Pinos Agency, “Letter to J. Q. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, February 25, 1876” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alexander Cummings, governor of Colorado, “Letter to H. G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, April 12, 1867” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 199).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Edward H. Danforth, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, July 7, 1874” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 204).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Edward H. Danforth, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 22, 1875” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 205).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Edward H. Danforth, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to J. Q. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 27, 1876” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. H. Danforth, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to E. A. Hayt, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, January 17, 1878” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 208).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. H. Danforth, Indian agent, White River Agency, “Letter to E. A. Hayt, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 11, 1878” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 208).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler, “Treaty with the Utah, 1849,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler, “Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler, “Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, 1865,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, “Treaty with the Capote Band of Utahs, in New Mexico, August 8, 1855,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 5 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, “Treaty with the Mohuache Band of Utahs, in New Mexico, September 11, 1855,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 5 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Francis Paul Prucha, <em>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</em>, abridged ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. D. Wheeler, Indian agent, Los Pinos Agency, “List of Goods Received by W. D. Wheeler from Jensen, Bliss &amp; Co., Denver, October 23, 1876” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.immediateannuities.com/annuitymuseum/annuitiesforamericanindians/">Annuities for American Indians</a>,” Annuity Museum</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 27 Apr 2017 22:36:23 +0000 yongli 2504 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fort Uncompahgre http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-uncompahgre <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Uncompahgre</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T16:13:03-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 16:13" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 16:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-uncompahgre" data-a2a-title="Fort Uncompahgre"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffort-uncompahgre&amp;title=Fort%20Uncompahgre"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Fort Uncompahgre was constructed in 1828 by <strong>Antoine Robidoux</strong>, a trader based out of Mexican Santa Fé. The <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> was situated about two miles down from the confluence of the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> and <strong>Uncompahgre</strong> Rivers near the present-day community of <strong>Delta</strong> in western Colorado. The precise location of the fort has been lost due to the shifting bed of the Gunnison River, but Robidoux chose the area because it afforded abundant timber for construction and firewood as well as pasture for pack animals. It was also a favored gathering spot of the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute Indians</strong></a> and a natural ford nearby offered an easy river crossing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes apparently encouraged the presence of a trader in their territory so they could obtain firearms. Although Spanish law and, later, Mexican law prohibited the sale or trade of firearms to Indians, such activities might be conducted at a remote, rugged location without much fear of official sanction.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robidoux established several trails for supplying Fort Uncompahgre. The first of these, known as the Mountain Branch of the <strong>Old Spanish Trail</strong>, led north out of Santa Fé, up into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, northwest across <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, then down into the Gunnison valley to the fort. This was a challenging route, but if not snowbound, it was much shorter than following the main branch of the Old Spanish Trail. The second trail, known as Robidoux’s Cutoff, was used for goods imported from St. Louis. The cutoff left the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> near <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, proceeded westward to the vicinity of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, then around the south end of the <strong>Wet Mountains</strong> and over Mosca Pass into the San Luis Valley. Here it joined with the Mountain Branch. The cutoff was advantageous because it was far shorter than freighting the goods north from Santa Fé and avoided Mexican customs, where taxes reached as high as 30 percent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Little is known about the construction or layout of Fort Uncompahgre except that it was on the south bank of the Gunnison River. Few travelers passed through the fort because of its remote location. There are no known contemporary descriptions of the fort, but it probably resembled Fort Uintah, another fort Robidoux built in present-day eastern Utah. Fort Uncompahgre probably consisted of a few crude log buildings surrounded by a fence of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> pickets. This type of construction would have been acceptable to the Utes, who were sensitive about permanent structures built on their lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Accounts indicate that the fort had between fifteen and eighteen male employees. These men would have been responsible for trading, limited trapping, preparing hides and skins, and bundling fur packs. Additionally, the cottonwood pickets and log structures would have needed continual maintenance and replacement as the soft cottonwood rotted. Transportation to the area was difficult and expensive, and anything that could be made or grown locally would reduce costs significantly. Employees probably raised a garden, which may have included corn, wheat, beans, lentils, potatoes, melons, and squash. Sheep or goats were probably also kept at the fort.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robidoux’s employees were all Mexicans, probably from the Santa Fé area. Employees typically worked under a one-year contract and would be paid in trade goods received at the end of their service. At the time, Nuevo México (as the northern colonies of Old Mexico were known) had a surplus of labor and wage rates were approximately $5 per month for skilled craftsmen, while unskilled labor was worth no more than $2 per month.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The primary structure on the post would have been the trade room, where <strong>trappers</strong> and Indians would have brought their skins and furs to be graded and weighed. They could then choose from a selection of trade goods displayed in another area of the trade room. The living quarters of the <strong>trader</strong> or his principal would have adjoined the trade room. Other structures on the post probably included a storage building for the furs, a kitchen/living quarters for the post cook, and a blacksmith/carpenter’s shop.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In September 1831, authorities in Santa Fé granted Robidoux a license for a second trading post near the confluence of the Whiterock and Uintah rivers. This post, known as Fort Uintah, served both Anglo and Mexican trappers as well as Ute and sometimes Shoshoni Indians. Rufus Sage, in <em>Rocky Mountain Life</em>, described this fort from his visit in the early 1840s as follows: “Robideau’s Fort is situated on the right bank of the Uintah . . . The trade of this post is conducted principally with the trapping parties frequenting the Big Bear, Green, Grand, and the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a> Rivers, with their numerous tributaries, in search of fur-bearing game. A small business is also carried on with the Snake and Utah Indians, living in the neighborhood of this establishment. The common articles of dealing are horses, with <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a>, otter, deer, sheep, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> skins, in barter for ammunition, fire-arms, knives, tobacco, beads, awls, &amp;c.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1837, the Hudson’s Bay Company was becoming competitive in the area, and to hold them back, Robidoux built a third post—Fort Robidoux—near the confluence of the Green and White rivers in present-day Utah. Fort Robidoux was probably just a temporary post, and in 1838, when the Hudson’s Bay Company withdrew from the Uintah Basin, it was abandoned.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Toward the end of the 1830s, the price of beaver pelts declined precipitously. To make up for lost revenues, Fort Uncompahgre increased its trade in California horses and Indian slaves. Although Spanish and, later, Mexican authorities prohibited the taking of new slaves, the prohibition was not enforced. Powerful tribes would capture women and children of their weaker neighbors and sell them in the northern colonies (New Mexico), where demand was high for laborers and wives. In the 1830s, boys between the ages of eight and twelve years were valued at $50 to $100 in trade goods, and girls were worth approximately twice as much.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1841, other developments were changing the economics of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. The Oregon Trail had opened up, taking a steady stream of emigrants across the plains to Oregon and California. In addition to emigrants, the trail became a major route for hauling freight that supplied posts such as Fort Hall and Fort Bridger. The resulting lower freight costs, combined with industrial expansion in the East, meant the prices for trade goods were much lower than what Robidoux could offer with his Santa Fé–based operations. The Indians concluded that the Santa Fé and Taos traders, including Robidoux, had cheated them for years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During summer 1843, hostilities broke out between Utes and Mexicans in the Santa Fé area. Warfare spread up the San Luis Valley and into the Gunnison Basin, engulfing Fort Uncompahgre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it was known as a fort, Robidoux’s structure was designed more as a holding area for livestock and to secure trade goods and furs; it was never intended as a defensive structure during war. With one exception, all of the Mexicans were slaughtered and their women taken prisoner. Only a single Mexican trapper, Calario Cortez, escaped the carnage. He arrived in Taos fourteen days later, hungry and exhausted.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes also captured an American visiting the fort. He was later released with a message for Robidoux telling him that the furs, hides, and buildings were intact, and that the Utes’ quarrel was with the Mexicans, not the Americans or the French. The Utes’ motivation for leaving the fort unscathed is uncertain. Did they expect that Robidoux would return to the fort as if nothing had happened, or were they trying to lure him back so he too could be killed? It is also not known why the Utes did not attack Fort Uintah, which was also staffed by Mexicans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fort Uncompahgre was left vacant for about two years before local Utes destroyed it. Robidoux never returned to the Uintah Basin to trap or trade for furs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1990 Fort Uncompahgre was reconstructed upriver from its presumed original location, on land owned by the city of Delta. There has been renewed interest in the fort in recent years, and in 2015 the reconstructed fort was reopened to the public.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from the Old Spanish Trail Association, “<a href="https://ostcolorado.org/fort-uncompahgre/">Fort Uncompahgre</a>,” n.d.</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/miller-chris" hreflang="und">Miller, Chris</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nineteenth-century-fur-trade" hreflang="en">nineteenth century fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antoine-robidoux" hreflang="en">antoine robidoux</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-uintah" hreflang="en">Fort Uintah</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/19th-century-trading-posts" hreflang="en">19th century trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts-colorado" hreflang="en">trading posts colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gunnison-river" hreflang="en">gunnison river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/old-spanish-national-historic-trail" hreflang="en">old spanish national historic trail</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/delta-colorado" hreflang="en">delta colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ken Reyher, <em>Antoine Robidoux and Fort Uncompahgre: The Story of a Western Fur Trader</em> (Ouray, CO: Western Reflections, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rufus B. Sage, <em>Rocky Mountain Life, or, Startling Scenes and Perilous Adventures in the Far West during an Expedition of Three Years</em> (1859; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>C. Gregory Crampton and Steven K. Madsen, <em>In Search of the Spanish Trail: Santa Fe to Los Angeles, 1829–1848</em> (Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joseph J. Hill, “Antoine Robidoux, Kingpin in the Colorado River Fur Trade, 1824–1844,”<em> Colorado Magazine</em> 7 (July 1930).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” Southern Ute Indian Tribe, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://interpcolorado.org/">Interpretive Association of Western Colorado</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ron Kessler, <em>Old Spanish Trail North Branch and Its Travelers: Stories of the Exploration of the American Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: Sunstone, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas M. Knudson, <em>Characters of the Old Spanish Trail</em> (South Fork, CO: Sylvan Trail Books, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Greg Mac Gregor and Siegfried Halus, <em>In Search of Dominguez &amp; Escalante: Photographing the 1776 Spanish Expedition through the Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeremy Miller, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/44.5/following-the-old-spanish-trail-across-the-southwest">Following the Old Spanish Trail across the Southwest</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, April 6, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.mman.us/fortuncompahgre.htm">Mountain Men and Life in the Rocky Mountain West—Fort Uncompahgre</a>,” Malachite’s Big Hole, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://oldspanishtrail.org/">Old Spanish Trail Association</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas D. Scott, “Robidoux’s Fort on the Uncompahgre and the Matlock Homestead: The Case of the Missing Resources,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 48 (December 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elizabeth von Till Warren, “<a href="https://ostcolorado.org/history/">The Old Spanish Trail</a>,” Old Spanish Trail Association, 2004.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 22:13:03 +0000 yongli 1692 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Brunot Agreement http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Brunot Agreement</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1409--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1409.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ouray-and-subchiefs-1873"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Brunot-Agreement_0.jpg?itok=a5rOSC3Z" width="1000" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ouray-and-subchiefs-1873" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ouray and subchiefs, 1873</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute Indians and agents in Washington, DC after conclusion of the 1873 Brunot Agreement. Front row, left to right: Guero, Chipeta, Ouray, and Piah; second row: Uriah M. Curtis, James B. Thompson, Charles Adams, and Otto Mears; back row: Washington, Susan (Ouray’s sister), Johnson, Jack, and John.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1410--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1410.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10025071_0.jpg?itok=r97qtfJy" width="1000" height="571" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Camp at Los Pinos</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute camp at <a href="/article/los-pinos-indian-agency"><strong>Los Pinos Agency</strong></a>, 1874.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-18T14:41:15-06:00" title="Wednesday, May 18, 2016 - 14:41" class="datetime">Wed, 05/18/2016 - 14:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement" data-a2a-title="Brunot Agreement"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbrunot-agreement&amp;title=Brunot%20Agreement"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Brunot Agreement between the Nuche<strong>&nbsp;</strong>(<strong><a href="/search/google/ute">Ute</a></strong>)&nbsp;and the US government in 1873 led to the development of mining in&nbsp;the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> by taking&nbsp;3.7 million acres (about 5,780 square miles) from the Ute Reservation in western Colorado. As white encroachment continued over the next decade, tensions escalated and the Utes were eventually force-marched to&nbsp;Utah in 1881.</p> <p>Unlike previous agreements between the US government and Native Americans, the Brunot Agreement was not a <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaty</strong></a>; treaties were considered to be agreements between sovereign nations, and the US government no longer recognized Indigenous&nbsp;sovereignty <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>after 1871</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>Miners first made their way into the San Juan Mountains in 1860–61, but it was not until 1869 that valuable minerals were discovered and not until 1871–72 that mine development took place. The <strong><a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868">Treaty of 1868</a> </strong>put the San Juan Mountains within a Ute reservation that encompassed almost the entire western third of Colorado. Although off limits to non-Indians, prospectors and miners entered the region. The growing mining activity drew the attention of the Utes, who were unhappy about the incursions but not openly hostile.</p> <h2>First Negotiations</h2> <p>Realizing the importance of the minerals, the federal government began negotiating with the Utes in 1872 to have the San Juan Mountains ceded from the reservation. The first attempt at an agreement was a dismal failure. In 1872 John D. Lang of Maine,<strong> <a href="/article/colorado-territory">Colorado territorial</a></strong> governor <a href="/article/edward-m-mccook"><strong>Edward M. McCook</strong></a>, and John McDonald of Missouri were appointed commissioners to carry out the negotiations, which began at the <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Indian Agency</strong></a> on August 26, 1872. Although not an official member of the commission, <strong>Felix R. Brunot</strong>, Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, was present. Nearly all of the Ute bands, as well as the Jicarilla Apache, were represented by headmen, and the government recognized Chief <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, a Tabeguache Ute, as the overall Ute leader. The meeting also included numerous government officials and almost all the <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agents</strong></a> of the respective bands. Suspicious of government and territorial officials, the Utes flatly refused to sell any of their reservation, wanting only that the government live up to its obligations of the Treaty of 1868 by removing trespassers.</p> <h2>Second Negotiations</h2> <p>Despite the Utes’ distrust of Brunot during negotiations, he had private conversations with Ouray in which he discovered that Ouray’s only son had been taken captive by the Lakota and traded to the<strong> Arapaho</strong>. Using this information, Brunot succeeded in finding a young man he thought was Ouray’s son, whom he promised to return to Ouray. In return, Ouray reassured Brunot that the Utes would agree to cede the mining lands in the San Juan Mountains.</p> <p>Charles A. Adams, the agent at Los Piños, and <strong>Jerome B. Chaffee</strong>, delegate to Congress from Colorado, worked to have Brunot appointed to a new commission to negotiate the land cession. Brunot and Nathan Bishop of the Board of Indian Commissioners were appointed on June 2, 1873. On June 25, before the negotiations, Ouray and Adams went to Cheyenne to finalize arrangements with Brunot. Brunot planned to bring Ouray’s son with him to the negotiations.</p> <p>Brunot was delayed by waiting for Ouray’s son to arrive. Bishop was also unable to join him, so Brunot, secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners Thomas K. Cree, and Spanish interpreter James Phillips finally arrived at the Los Piños Agency on September 5, 1873. Ouray acted as the Ute interpreter for each of the Ute bands, all of which were represented by headmen except the White River Utes, whose leaders had left because of the delay. Representatives of the Jicarilla Apache were also present. Upon his arrival, Brunot learned that the Indians were unhappy about the delay and that Ouray was disappointed to have not been reunited with his son.</p> <p>Before negotiations began, several days were spent deflecting questions from Shavano of the Tabeguache about the eastern and southern reservation boundaries, the desire of the Muache and Capote bands to remain in New Mexico, and a request for Brunot’s intervention on behalf of the Jicarilla Apache in New Mexico. In these matters, Brunot was far from forthcoming and rather deceitful, brushing issues aside in order to get to the real point of the negotiations: the land cession. Brunot spent considerable time ingratiating himself with the Utes, attempting to convince them that he was trustworthy. Although Ouray noted that “they [miners and other Utes] say the man who comes to make the treaty will go off to the States, and it will all be as they [the government] want it,” he indicated that Brunot had convinced him of his trustworthiness.</p> <h2>Finalizing the Agreement</h2> <p>Brunot quickly discovered that the Utes were willing to sell only the existing mines, so long as no houses or permanent settlements were established and only a single road provided access. To the Utes’ surprise, Brunot declined to negotiate on those terms, knowing that trespasses were certain. A keen negotiator, Brunot asked the Utes what the boundary line should be around land that they would cede. He convinced the Utes it would be better to sell their land rather than lose it by force with no compensation. He proposed that an agency be established in the southern portion of the reservation for the Muache and Capote, that the Utes could continue to go onto the plains to hunt bison, and that the land west of the ceded portion remain in Ute hands to connect the southern and northern parts of the reservation.</p> <p>After Ouray consulted with the Ute bands, Brunot offered $25,000 per year forever in exchange for the mountains. Ouray pointed out that the abundant game in the mountains was important, so Brunot agreed that the Utes could continue to hunt on the land that they sold. Brunot then added a $1,000 yearly salary for Ouray. On September 13, 1873, all of the principal men of the Utes signed the agreement, providing that representatives of the different bands visit the land being sold to make certain that it contained only mining land and no farmland. In accordance with the agreement, Cree, Adams, and Dolan accompanied several Utes on a weeklong inspection journey, which confirmed that little or no agricultural land was included in the cession. As a result, the remaining Utes at the agency signed the agreement, and a copy was sent to the White River, <a href="/article/denver-special-indian-agency"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, Cimarron, and Tierra Amarilla agencies to be signed by other Utes. Ouray and a delegation of Utes carried the agreement to Washington in October 1873, and Congress approved it on April 24, 1874.</p> <p>The ceded land boundary began on the eastern boundary of the Ute Reservation fifteen miles north of the southern boundary of Colorado, then ran west parallel with the southern boundary to a point twenty miles east of the western boundary of Colorado. The boundary then ran north parallel to the western boundary for ten miles to the 38th parallel, east to the eastern boundary of the reservation, and then south along the boundary to the first point. Uncompahgre Park, valley land on the <strong>Uncompahgre River</strong> just north of the current town of <a href="/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, was to be excluded from the ceded land. The Weenuche, Capote, and Muache Utes retained the southern part of the reservation for their own use, and an agency was to be established for them when the president deemed it expedient.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>With completion of the agreement, the San Juan Mountains saw a mining rush that resulted in many towns being established in 1874 and 1875, including <a href="/article/silverton"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>. When the boundaries of the ceded lands were surveyed, the surveyor failed to exclude Uncompahgre Park, and it was quickly settled, much to the dissatisfaction of the Utes. Seeing the abundant farm and grazing land that surrounded the ceded territory, the Colorado citizenry became even more covetous of the Utes’ land, making it only a matter of time before most of the Utes were forced from their Colorado homeland.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-1868" hreflang="en">Treaty of 1868</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/meeker-massacre" hreflang="en">meeker massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote-ute" hreflang="en">Capote Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache-ute" hreflang="en">Muache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weeminuche-ute" hreflang="en">Weeminuche Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache-ute" hreflang="en">Tabeguache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uncompahgre-ute" hreflang="en">Uncompahgre Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/los-pinos-agency" hreflang="en">Los Pinos Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edward-m-mccook" hreflang="en">Edward M. McCook</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to S. H. Elbert, Governor of Colorado, Denver, Colorado, April 28, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to Jerome B. Chaffee, Denver, Colorado, April 29, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, May 7, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 24, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to H. R. Clum, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, August 16, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles Adams, Indian agent, Los Piños Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 21, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Henry F. Bond, Indian agent, Los Piños Indian Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, August 3, 1874” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Henry F. Bond, Indian agent, Los Piños Indian Agency, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, December 18, 1875” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p> <p>Henry F. Bond, Indian agent, Los Piños Indian Agency, “Letter to J. Q. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, May 24, 1876” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p> <p>Felix R. Brunot, chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, “Letter to Columbus Delano, Secretary of the Interior, May 24, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Jerome B. Chaffee, delegate, Colorado Territory, “Letter to Columbus Delano, Secretary of the Interior, May 15, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Thomas K. Cree, secretary, Board of Indian Commissioners, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 27, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Thomas K. Cree, secretary of the Commission to Negotiate with the Ute Tribe, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, “Interview with Ouray, Chief of the Utes, Cheyenne, Wyoming, June 24–25, 1873,” in Report of the Commission to Negotiate with the Ute Tribe of Indians, October 15, 1873, <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1873</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874).</p> <p>Thomas K. Cree, secretary of the Commission to Negotiate with the Ute Tribe, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, “Minutes of the Council Held with the Ute Indians, at Los Piños Agency, Colorado, September 6–12, 1873,” <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1873</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874).</p> <p>Thomas K. Cree, secretary of the Commission to Negotiate with the Ute Tribe, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, “Report of the Commission to Negotiate with the Ute Tribe of Indians, October 15, 1873,” <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1873</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874).</p> <p>Columbus Delano, Secretary of the Interior, “Letter to Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 20, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Charles J. Kappler, compiler, “An Act to Ratify an Agreement with Certain Ute Indians in Colorado, and to Make an Appropriation for Carrying Out the Same, April 29, 1874,” <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</em>, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904).</p> <p>Allen Nossaman, <em>Many More Mountains</em>, vol. 1: <em>Silverton’s Roots</em> (Durango, CO: Allen Nossaman, 2006).</p> <p>Major William Redwood Price, “Letter to Lt. William J. Sartte, AAA Genl., District of New Mexico, September 7, 1872” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, “Letter to Felix R. Brunot and Nathan Bishop, June 21, 1873” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 203).</p> <p>James B. Thompson, special agent, Special Indian Agency, Denver, “Letter to the President, December 15, 1875” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p> <p>J. A. Williamson, Secretary of the Interior, “Letter to J. Q. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, July 24, 1876” (Washington, DC: National Archives, Microcopy 234, Roll 206).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://ocs.fortlewis.edu/forestPlan/roundtable/brunotAgreement.pdf">Brunot Agreement, 1874 (text)</a>, Fort Lewis College.<br /> <br /> Peter Decker, <em>“The Utes Must Go!</em>”<em> American Expansion and the Removal of a People</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p> <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1972).</p> <p>Jan Petit, <em>Utes, the Mountain People</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Printing, 1982).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 18 May 2016 20:41:15 +0000 yongli 1408 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ute History and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute History and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T16:52:01-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 16:52" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 16:52</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe" data-a2a-title="Ute History and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe&amp;title=Ute%20History%20and%20the%20Ute%20Mountain%20Ute%20Tribe"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe is one of three federally recognized tribes of the Nuche (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) people. Their tribal lands comprise 597,288 acres of trust land and 27,354 acres of fee land in southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and small, isolated sections of Utah. Approximately 2,200 tribal members live on, work on and use these lands. The largest portion of the reservation is in <a href="/article/montezuma-county"><strong>Montezuma County</strong></a>, which is bordered by <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> to the northeast, the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> to the east, the Diné (<strong>Navajo</strong>)<strong> </strong>Nation to the south and west, and a mix of US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) public lands and private lands, including the city of <strong>Cortez</strong>, to the north. Tribal Headquarters is located in the town of <strong>Towaoc</strong> at the base of Sleeping Ute Mountain in the southwest corner of Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The history of the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe is dominated by a long process of territory contraction and cession. Prior to contact with Europeans, the Ute people inhabited a vast expanse that included much of present-day Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico. They are generally believed to have first appeared as a distinct people in AD 1000–1200 in the southern part of the Great Basin, an area roughly located in eastern California and southern Nevada. The Ute people migrated to the Four Corners region by 1300, from where they continued to disperse across Colorado’s Rocky Mountains over the next two centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As they expanded across the Great Basin the Utes were connected by the Southern Numic language, a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Numic branch spread with the dispersal of the Utes from the southern Great Basin, with three linguistic divisions eventually emerging west of the Rockies: Western Numic, which includes Mono, Northern Paiute, Snake, and Bannock; Central Numic, spoken by <strong>Comanche</strong>, Gosiutes, and <strong>Shoshone</strong>; and Southern Numic, which includes the <strong>Southern Paiute</strong>, Kawaiisu, Chemehuevi, and Ute. While there were regional differences in Ute speech, all dialects were mutually intelligible. This mutual intelligibility implies many overlapping social networks in spite of the vast territory the Ute inhabited.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early seventeenth century, Nuche territory included portions of the Great Basin, the <strong>Colorado Plateau</strong>, and the Central and Southern Rockies. This extensive area was inhabited by a population estimated at upwards of 5,000–10,000, although lower population levels may be more likely. While a definitive listing of Ute bands is made difficult by their fluid membership and high mobility, a loose confederation of thirteen bands was in place by the seventeenth century. It included seven eastern bands with ranges primarily in present-day Colorado and six western bands in present-day Utah. The eastern bands included the Yampa, Parianuche, Sabuagan, Tabeguache, Weeminuche, Capote, and Muache, and the western bands were the Uintah, Timpanogots, Pahvant, Sanpits, Seuvarits, and Moanunts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1860s, white American officials described the eastern bands in terms of three amalgamated groups: the “Uncompahgre,” “White River,” and “Weenuche.” By the 1890s, these amalgamated bands resided on three distinct reservations in eastern Utah and southwestern Colorado. The band eventually composing the Ute Mountain Ute people is referred to in historic texts as both the Weeminuche and Weenuche; on its website the tribe refers to itself as the Weeminuche.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>European Contact</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The earliest known records of European contact with Indigenous inhabitants in western Colorado are from <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan María de Rivera</strong></a>, who explored the region during two expeditions in 1765. Rivera recorded a group he called the Sabuagans, which part of the group that later came to be called the Uncompahgre. A decade later Fray Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and his partner Silvestre Escalante traveled farther north, reaching the White River in 1776, then west as far as Utah. The Dominguez-Escalante journal mentions various encounters with “Sabuagana Yutas” in areas around the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> near <strong>Grand Mesa</strong> and the <strong>Roan Plateau</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Dominguez-Escalante expedition, there were few expeditions into western Colorado by Euro-Americans until the 1820s. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Equestrian Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite claims by historians past and present that the Nuche obtained horses from the Spanish, there is evidence that horses were endemic in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. Whether or not they obtained horses from the Spanish or developed existing herds, by the time of first contact the Weeminuche had become fine horsemen. Trade with the Spanish allowed them to expand their herds. They lived parts of the springs and summers in large encampments of 200 or more lodges. Horses allowed the Utes to travel farther than previously possible for subsistence. They expanded the seasonal circuits within their traditional territory, venturing as far east as the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. Travel times decreased, allowing them to stay together for longer periods throughout the year. The size and importance of winter encampments also grew, as Utes were able to pack additional food and supplies capable of sustaining more people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The horse became an integral part of Ute culture. Horses were one of the most prized possessions and were a principal symbol of wealth and pride. Through both trade and theft, the Utes amassed large herds, which thrived on the native grasses of the mountain valleys and plains and multiplied quickly without selective breeding. Utes often rode bareback or used leather pads with short stirrups. These special stirrups hung from the horse’s mane and allowed the rider to drop to one side and shoot under the horse during battle. The Nuche also developed their own saddles, sometimes using animal horns to make the pommel in the front of the saddle and the cantle in the back. Mastery of horses allowed  to accumulate more material goods and expand both their territory and their role as important middlemen in the intertribal horse trade.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The horse made the Utes among the most feared and powerful tribes in the Four Corners by the early eighteenth century. They carried out raids in northern New Mexico, stealing horses and goods from the Spaniards, Pueblo peoples, the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> to the east, and the Navajos to the southwest. They raided the unmounted Western Shoshone and Southern Paiutes to steal women and children, whom they sold to the Spanish in New Mexico. While the Utes entered into a treaty with the Spanish in 1670, they sided with the Pueblo people during the 1680 Pueblo Revolt and subsequently used the opportunity to raid the pueblos, including the Hopi. By 1700 the Utes were aligned with the Comanche, who first acquired horses via the Utes in the late seventeenth century. Together, the two tribes intermittently carried out extensive raids against their neighbors for the next fifty years.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Nineteenth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early nineteenth century, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur</strong></a> trappers and traders began arriving in Ute territory in increasing numbers. Since their arrival, the Spanish had been largely successful in limiting the Ute’s trade with outside peoples. But as trade restrictions were relaxed in 1810, the Utes were gradually able to interact more with outsiders, and with Mexico’s independence in 1821 the doors were opened even wider. French Canadians and Americans soon arrived—seeking <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a>, otters, and other furs—and all but ended the isolation of the Utes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Adding to this was the additional traffic brought on by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/old-spanish-national-historic-trail"><strong>Old Spanish Trail</strong></a>, a trade route between Santa Fe and California that by the late 1820s was being used extensively by pack trains. While it provided the Utes new opportunities for trading and looting, the trail also opened up their traditional territory to a flood of newcomers seeking land and resources. <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>Trading posts</strong></a> and Euro-American trade goods became part of the Ute landscape during this period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the Mexican period, the eastern and southern Ute bands were able to maintain their traditional lands and were minimally affected by white expansion. The territory of the three Southern Ute bands changed little from the arrival of the Spanish through the 1840s. However, drastic encroachments on that territory would ensue after the United States’ victory in the Mexican-American War (1846–48).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1849 twenty-eight principal and subordinate Ute chiefs signed the Calhoun Treaty, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of Abiquiú</strong></a>. Generally considered the first treaty with the Utes, it submitted the tribe to the jurisdiction of the United States and agreed to peace with US citizens and allies. The treaty also provided US citizens with free passage through Ute territory and allowed for the establishment of military and trading posts. In exchange for these concessions, the Utes were promised presents and farming implements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty of 1849 was followed by a series of other treaties and land cessions that forced the Utes into ever smaller territories. Ute reservation boundaries were repeatedly reduced during the period, especially after the<a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"> </a><strong><a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush">Colorado Gold Rush</a> </strong>of 1858–59. Following the 1879 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>, in 1881 the White River and Uncompahgre Utes were forcibly removed to reservation lands in eastern Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During this stage the government hoped that persuading Native Americans to live a settled, agricultural existence might curb the raids that had sustained the tribes in preceding years. However, this policy did not address the fact that the Utes had led a migratory existence for centuries, and as settlement was forced upon them, they became increasingly hostile toward the government and settlers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On August 8, 1855, the governor of the New Mexico Territory negotiated a treaty with the Capote Utes in New Mexico. The treaty provided the Utes with 2,000 square miles north of the <strong>San Juan River</strong> and east of the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> if they agreed to stay out of New Mexico. It was never ratified, however, and after violent conflicts between Utes and miners in Colorado, a treaty council was convened in 1863 in an effort to move the Ute bands to the Four Corners area. Openly protesting relocation, the Weenuche, Capote, and Muache bands refused to attend the council or sign the treaty. Several Taviwach chiefs did sign the treaty, relinquishing all the Utes’ mineral rights and land in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Lu</strong><strong>is Valley</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Additional Land Cessions</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The creation of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861 placed many Ute people into separate jurisdictions, ignoring extended kinships and friendships. With reduced trade relations and diminished access to game, the Nuche were forced to depend on the US government. In response, the government established <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>agencies</strong></a> at Abiquiú​, Tierra Amarilla, and Cimarron in order to provide food and supplies before each winter and spring.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Increased pressure from white settlers and the US government led to additional treaties that diminished the Utes’ tribal lands. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868">Treaty of 1868</a> was signed by most of the Colorado Ute bands in 1868 and reduced Ute lands from approximately 56 million acres to about 18 million. This treaty established the first Ute reservation in Colorado and promised the Utes that non–Native Americans could not pass through or reside on the reservation. Additionally, it established an agency on the <strong>Los Piños River</strong> to serve the Tabeguache, Muache, Weeminuche, and Capote bands as well as an agency on the <strong>White River</strong> to serve the Grand River, Yampa, and Uintah bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Soon after the 1868 treaty, however, large mineral deposits were discovered in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>, and under pressure from mining interests the US government negotiated the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873.The agreement appropriated an additional 3.45 million acres from the Colorado Ute bands. As a result of this agreement, the southern portion of the Ute reservation became a section of land approximately 110 miles long running east from the Utah boundary along the New Mexico–Colorado border, and fifteen miles wide running due north of the New Mexico boundary.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The second half of the 1870s was characterized by anger, frustration, and tragedy as the various Ute bands adjusted to difficult and unfamiliar living conditions. Reluctant to take up permanent residences, the Muache and Capote nonetheless began to yield to life on a reservation and started moving north out of New Mexico. The Weeminuche maintained a degree of independence, sustaining themselves in the Four Corners region. However, the situation of the Utes was in constant flux, as demonstrated by Congress’s repeated attempts to move the three Southern Ute bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> in northwest Colorado, 665 Utes from the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> were forcibly relocated to the Uintah Reservation in 1880. There they found 800 other Utes from various bands. A total of 361 Uncompahgre Utes were also forced to sell their lands and move under armed guard to Ouray, a new reservation in Utah established by an executive order in 1882. This new reservation was adjacent to the Uintah Reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The federal government passed the <a href="/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act</strong></a> in 1887, which divided reservation lands into allotments that belonged to individual tribal members. Family heads were to receive 160 acres and single individuals 60 acres, although in reality the allotments were more haphazard. The thought was that with land of their own, Indigenous people could live more like the people who stole and divided their land. While a portion of the unallotted land was to be left to the tribe for common use, ensuing acts by Congress eventually made it public domain, and the land became available to white <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteaders</strong></a> at minimal prices.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Creation of Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Weeminuche resisted the Dawes Act, whereas the Muache and Capote bands accepted the allotment. The Weeminuche band, under <strong>Ignacio</strong>’s leadership, found the idea so alien to their tradition that they refused to accept allotments and moved to the western portion of the Southern Ute Indian Reservation, which later became the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation. Lands not allotted, or about 85 percent of the reservation, were declared “excess” by the federal government and opened to white settlers in 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1896 371 Muache and Capote adults and minors had received allotments of land totaling approximately 73,000 acres, with the much larger portion of the eastern Consolidated Ute Reservation (523,079 acres) becoming public domain open to homesteaders. The Weeminuche, having refused to agree to the allotment, maintained a portion of the southwestern corner of Colorado. This approximately fifteen-by-fifty-mile tract of land (plus nearly six adjacent townships in New Mexico) eventually became the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation by the early 1900s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1911 one of the last pieces of land taken from the Ute people was the area that now makes up Mesa Verde National Park. The federal government acquired more than 52,000 acres of land for the park in 1911, in exchange for some acreage on the northern boundary of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1930s, government policies began shifting away from the internal colonialism of the nineteenth century and early twentieth. In 1934 the Wheeler-Howard Act, also known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal"><strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong></a> or the Indian New Deal, provided for self-government by tribes through tribal councils composed of elected members and a chairman. Until 1970 tribal constitutions and bylaws required the approval of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), federal money provided to tribes was managed by the BIA, and tribal budgets were subject to approval by the secretary of the interior. In 1970, however, President Richard M. Nixon publicly proclaimed a new era in Indian affairs—one of true self-determination.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though not all Nuche supported the move, Colorado's two federally recognized tribes did establish themselves as self-governing sovereign nations. In 1936, well before Nixon’s proclamation of Indian self-determination, the Southern Ute Tribe adopted a constitution and established a tribal council. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe followed suit in 1940. As a result of these newly formed and recognized governments petitioning Washington, orders of restoration returned 222,000 acres to the Southern Ute Tribe in 1937 and 30,000 acres to the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in 1938.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Ute Mountain Ute people have been building a thriving community ever since. Successful Ute-owned enterprises now include the Weeminuche Construction Authority, which worked with the BLM to build the Animas–La Plata project dam and intake pump station, as well as the Ute Mountain Casino, the largest employer on the reservation, and the Farm and Ranch Enterprise, an award-winning producer of a wide variety of agricultural crops. Additionally, the Ute Mountain Tribal Park contains some of the nation’s most spectacular ruins and supports a thriving heritage tourism business.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/potter-james-m" hreflang="und">Potter, James M. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-utes" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">northern ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uintah-and-ouray-reservation" hreflang="en">uintah and ouray reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weeminuche-ute" hreflang="en">Weeminuche Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weenuche-ute" hreflang="en">Weenuche Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Steven G. Baker, “Historic Ute Culture Change in West-Central Colorado,” in <em>Archaeology of the Eastern Ute: A Symposium</em>, ed. Paul R. Nickens, Occasional Paper 1 (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven G. Baker, Richard F. Carrillo, and Carl D. Späth, “Protohistoric and Historic Native Americans,” in <em>Colorado History: A Context for Historical Archaeology</em>, ed. Minette C. Church et al. (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sam Burns, “The Ute Relationships to the Lands of West Central Colorado: An Ethnographic Overview Prepared for the US Forest Service” (Durango, CO: Office of Community Services, Fort Lewis College, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donald Callaway, Joel Janetski, and Omer C. Stewart, “Ute,” in <em>Great Basin</em>, ed. Warren L. D’Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard O. Clemmer and Omer C. Stewart, “Treaties, Reservations, and Claims,” in <em>Great Basin,</em> ed. Warren L. D’Azevedo, <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael B. Husband, <a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/606.pdf"><em>Colorado Plateau Country Historic Context</em></a> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1984).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lyla June-Johnston, "<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/yes-world-there-were-horses-in-native-culture-before-the-settlers-came">Yes world, there were horses in Native culture before the settlers came</a>," <em>Indian Country Today</em>, July 3, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joseph Gilbert Jorgensen, <em>The Sun Dance Religion</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David R. Lewis, <em>Neither Wolf Nor Dog: American Indians, Environment, and Agrarian Change</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David B. Madsen and David Rhode, eds., <em>Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joseph P. Sanchez, <em>Explorers, Traders, and Slavers: Forging the Old Spanish Trail, 1678–1850</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Silbernagel, <em>Troubled Trails: The Meeker Affair and the Expulsion of Utes from Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>An Act to Ratify an Agreement with Certain Ute Indians in Colorado, and to Make an Appropriation for Carrying Out the Same</em></a>, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., 1874, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 1, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Decker, <em>The Utes Must Go! American Expansion and the Removal of a People </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>General Allotment Act, Act of Feb. 8, </em>1887</a>, 49th Cong., 2nd sess. 1877, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 1, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>Indian Reorganization Act, or Howard-Wheeler Act</em></a>, 73rd Cong., 2nd sess., 1934, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. V, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Marsh, <em>People of the Shining Mountains: The Utes of Colorado</em>, the Pruett Series (Portland, OR: WestWinds Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>PART III.—Executive Orders Relating to Indian Reserves</em></a>, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 1, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>Part IV—Unratified Treaties: Treaty with the Capote Band of Utahs in New Mexico</em></a>, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. V, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Pettit, <em>Utes: The Mountain People</em>, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wilson Rockwell, <em>The Utes: A Forgotten People</em>, 2nd ed. (Lake City, CO: Western Reflections, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>Treaty with the Utah-Tabeguache Band, 1863</em></a>, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 2, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers"><em>Treaty with the Ute, 1868</em></a>, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 2, ed. Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> <a href="https://www.utemountainutetribe.com/index.html">Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Reservation, Towaoc, Colorado</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 22:52:01 +0000 yongli 1365 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fort Davy Crockett http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-davy-crockett <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Davy Crockett</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1364--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1364.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/rocky-mountain-rendezvous"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/SCBL_18%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=wpWHXDZk" width="1000" height="649" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/rocky-mountain-rendezvous" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountain Rendezvous</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Many of the fur traders and trappers who passed through Fort Davy Crockett attended one or more of the sixteen rendezvous held between 1825 and 1840. This is William Henry Jackson’s interpretation of a Wyoming rendezvous, probably painted in the 1930s.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T16:19:03-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 16:19" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 16:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-davy-crockett" data-a2a-title="Fort Davy Crockett"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffort-davy-crockett&amp;title=Fort%20Davy%20Crockett"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Fort Davy Crockett was one of three known nineteenth-century forts and <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, in the drainage systems of the Green and <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a> Rivers. From the mid-1830s to 1840, Fort Davy Crockett, along with <a href="/article/fort-uncompahgre"><strong>Fort Uncompahgre</strong></a> and Fort Uintah, served as centers of trade with Native American tribes, fur trappers, and passing travelers. Prior to the establishment of Fort Davy Crockett, the location was an important wintering spot for Native Americans and early fur trappers. Once established, the fort would become an important trade hub, social center, and crossroads linking the northern and southern frontiers.</p> <p>The exact date of Fort Davy Crockett’s construction is unknown; however, several accounts suggest its origin sometime in the mid-1830s. The fort was established along the Green River in the far northwest corner of what became Colorado, within a naturally sheltered area referred to as <strong>Brown’s Hole</strong>. Brown’s Hole is just over eight miles long and is surrounded by upland landforms that shelter it from winter snows. Prior to the establishment of the fort, the area was a favored wintering and trade spot frequented by European fur trappers and Native American tribes such as <strong>Shoshones</strong> and <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Utes</strong></a>.</p> <p>Trapper William Ashley gave the first description of the area in 1825. Following this, the Colonel Bean Party of Arkansas Trappers spent the winter of 1831–32 at Brown’s Hole. As the location became better known, partners William Craig, Philip Thompson, and Prewett (aka Pruett or Previtt) Sinclair—the three men originally part of the Bean Party—built a post at Brown’s Hole. By 1836 the post was known as Fort Davy Crockett, named after the Texas hero killed at the Alamo.</p> <p>Much of what is known of the fort has been garnered through historical accounts from visitors passing through the area on established trails. One of the best accounts is given by Thomas Jefferson Farnham, leader of an Oregon-bound party in 1839. Farnham described the fort as “a hollow square of one-story log cabins with roofs and floors of mud.” Less than a week later, Dr. F. A. Wislizenus, a German doctor passing through the area, painted a dismal picture of the fort when he stated “the fort itself is the worst thing of the kind that we have seen on our journey . . . in short, the whole establishment appeared somewhat poverty-stricken.” &nbsp;The doctor’s account goes on to state that the fort was commonly known as Fort Misery (Fort de Misere) by local trappers.</p> <p>The fort operated into 1840 when <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Christopher “Kit” Carson</strong></a> served as one of a band of hunters for the fort. In that same year, the last trade rendezvous occurred north of Brown’s Hole along the upper Green River, signaling the end of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> era. The closing of the fort was precipitated by an incident involving one of the fort owners, Philip Thompson, in which horses were stolen from Fort Hall and from Indian allies. Thompson’s compatriots, unwilling to condone his actions, ultimately brought about the dissolution of the fort’s partnership between Thompson, Craig, and Sinclair. Although there were documented trading events in Brown’s Hole, the fort was no longer inhabited when <a href="/article/john-c-fr%C3%A9mont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> passed through Brown’s Hole in 1844 during his second western expedition. Frémont wrote that he camped across the river from “the remains of an old fort.” Considering that Frémont was accompanied by Kit Carson, the “old fort” was undoubtedly Fort Davy Crockett.</p> <p>The fort was again mentioned by Captain Randolph B. Marcy as he trekked along the Green River during his near-fatal winter expedition over the Rocky Mountains in 1857. Marcy knew of the fort and stated that “Fort Davy Crockett was now in ruins, its crumbling walls presenting mute evidence of the passing of the hectic days of the fur trade.”</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pfertsh-jack-e" hreflang="und">Pfertsh, Jack E. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/19th-century-trading-posts" hreflang="en">19th century trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trapper" hreflang="en">fur trapper</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/browns-park" hreflang="en">Browns Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-misery" hreflang="en">Fort Misery</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historical-archaeology" hreflang="en">historical archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-fur-trade-colorado" hreflang="en">history of fur trade in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-c-fremont" hreflang="en">john c. fremont</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/browns-hole" hreflang="en">Brown&#039;s Hole</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-uncompahgre" hreflang="en">fort uncompahgre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Shoshone Indian tribe</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>William B. Butler, <em>The Fur Trade in Colorado</em> (Lake City, CO: Western Reflections, 2012).</p> <p>Frank W. Eddy, “The Archaeological Mitigation Program and Excavation at Site 5MF605, Browns Park National Wildlife Refuge, Moffat County, Colorado,” unpublished report prepared for US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Interagency Archeological Services Branch (Boulder: University of Colorado, 1982).</p> <p>Thomas Jefferson Farnham, “<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/48046/48046-0.txt">Travels in the Great Western Prairies: The Anahuac, and Rocky Mountains, and in the Oregon Country</a>,” in <em>Early Western Travels 1748–1846</em>, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites, vol. 27 (Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark, 1906).</p> <p>Brevet Captain John C. Frémont, <em>Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843–’44</em> (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1845).</p> <p>LeRoy R. Hafen, “Fort Davy Crockett, Its Fur Men and Visitors,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 29 (January 1952).</p> <p>Colonel R. B. Marcy, <em>Thirty Years of Army Life on the Border</em> (New York: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1866).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John D. Barton, “<a href="http://historytogo.utah.gov/utah_chapters/trappers,_traders,_and_explorers/fortdavycrockett.html">Fort Davy Crockett</a>,” Utah History to Go, n.d..</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 22:19:03 +0000 yongli 1362 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Wickiups and Other Wooden Features http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wickiups and Other Wooden Features</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T16:55:21-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 16:55" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 16:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features" data-a2a-title="Wickiups and Other Wooden Features"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwickiups-and-other-wooden-features&amp;title=Wickiups%20and%20Other%20Wooden%20Features"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Wickiups were temporary conical and domed shelters constructed by the Native American inhabitants of Colorado for millennia. Because of the perishable nature of their construction materials, a vast majority of wickiups and other prehistoric wooden structures have vanished from the landscape. Consequently, most of the remaining wooden features in Colorado were built during the past 100 to 300 years.</p> <p>Those features that do remain as archaeological resources are rapidly disappearing as a result of natural deterioration, fire, human destruction—whether intentional or not—livestock and wildlife impacts, and other physical threats. The remnants of these features are leading archaeologists to some of the last habitation sites of the late prehistoric and more recent Native Americans in the state.</p> <p>Almost universally attributed to the early historic <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>, many wickiup sites and features in the state have yet to be fully recorded. It is acknowledged that in portions of Colorado many are likely of <strong>Shoshone, Comanche, Arapaho, Cheyenne</strong>, or other tribal origins. A majority of the sites known in the state are in the plateau/canyon country of west-central and northwest Colorado; however, sites have been documented in the mountains and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Colorado Wickiup Project</h2> <p>Dominquez Archaeological Research Group’s (DARG) Colorado Wickiup Project (CWP) is an ongoing effort to document the aboriginal wooden features in the state. The CWP, during its initial 13 years, has documented 446 wooden features on 90 sites primarily in the <strong>piñon-juniper</strong> habitat of western Colorado. These features include wickiups, <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipi</strong></a> frames, lean-tos, sunshades/ramadas, canvas wall tent sites, tree platforms, windbreaks, corrals and fences, pole caches, firewood piles, tripods, utility poles and racks, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/culturally-modified-trees"><strong>culturally modified trees</strong></a>. The findings have provided new insights into the final decades of the state’s sovereign Native American occupants, including extensive evidence of off-reservation activities after the 1880s, and their continued occupancy of traditional homelands after the removal of a majority of people to reservations.</p> <p>Several observations from the data are of particular interest. Of the 446 features, 244 (55 percent) are wickiups and other shelters—including five lean-tos, one ramada, two wall tents, and eight structures interpreted as possible tipi frames. Of these shelters, 236 (53 percent) are wickiups/tipis. Two-thirds of the wickiups/tipis are categorized as “leaners” and “pull-downs,” which are supported by standing trees rather than freestanding. Taking into consideration the variety of factors outlined by CWP researchers, primarily the additional reinforcement offered by support trees, it appears that freestanding wickiups may have originally been as prevalent, perhaps even more so, as leaner wickiups on Ute sites.</p> <h2>Archaeological Field Methods</h2> <p>Essential documentation for all wooden features includes the completion of one of the CWP’s Aboriginal Wooden Feature Component forms that provides precise location data, measurements, photographs, and plan maps of standing structures. Further analysis of selected sites involves mapping of artifacts, excavation, metal detection, and the collection of time diagnostic artifacts as well as dating and collection of botanical samples. The information is then assembled into a localized and accessible database.</p> <p>Accurate dating of these very recent features (in the realm of archaeology) is critically important in relation to a number of research topics. Unfortunately, <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dating</strong></a> typically provides date ranges of several decades or more. This margin of uncertainty is not a significant problem for sites that date from thousands of years in the past but it clearly presents difficulties for more recently used places that date to mere centuries ago—where the difference of a few decades, or even a few years, can make a critical difference in the interpretation of a site.</p> <p>By far the most successful dating technique that is being used on these “late” Native American sites is<a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"> <strong>tree-ring dating</strong></a>. In general, the Colorado Wickiup Project has restricted its tree-ring sampling to wooden elements such as wickiup poles that show evidence of having been harvested while alive. This is done to avoid relying on dates that reflect when a tree died of natural causes decades or centuries before it was collected and used by a site’s occupants, also known as the old wood issue. This research has produced dates ranging from AD 1771 to 1916.</p> <p>The mere presence of historic ceramic wares on a site is an indicator of a resource’s age, and the nature of these artifacts can provide further indications of a site’s age (sometimes to within a few years or decades) in addition to insights into such factors as the presence of horses, guns, and so forth. Along with the tree-ring analysis of ax-cut feature elements and source trees, systematic scrutiny of anthills for glass seed beads, and the use of extremely fine mesh sifting screens (window screen and 1-millimeter mesh) to isolate bullet primers, shotgun pellets, and beads during excavation, metal detection has proven to be an absolute requirement for the analysis and interpretation of historic Native American sites.</p> <h2>Research Results</h2> <p>Nearly half of the sites (42 percent) provide evidence of Euro-American trade goods—from iron projectile points and decorative tinklers to bullets and horse tack. If the twenty-three higher elevation sites are removed from the sample—where very little remains in the way of ax scars or other evidence—this percentage increases to over half. It is surmised that even more of the sites date to post-European contact times based on the overall condition of the feature wood and the assumption that a percentage of these sites simply have not yet produced evidence of trade wares.</p> <p>Eight of the fifteen sites that have produced “target” tree-ring cut dates (all within the piñon-juniper vegetation zone) demonstrate post-“Ute removal” occupation—that is, after 1881. Again, it can be assumed that a higher percentage of the tree-ring dated sites are post-removal, but it cannot be demonstrated as such due to the absence of an unknown number of outer rings on the tree-ring samples due to natural or cultural attrition.</p> <p>The characteristics of wickiups and other forms of shelter make it clear that Ute peoples were much more opportunistic and pragmatic, and less rigid and ritualistic, regarding the design and construction of their shelters than has been previously suggested in the literature. Entryways, for example, have been found to be oriented in virtually every compass direction and hearths are found both on the interior and exterior of wickiups in roughly equal numbers and in various locations.</p> <p>The documentation of the last remaining wickiups and other structures, along with the associated artifacts, is extremely important. In addition to the finding and recording of new wickiup sites in Colorado, there is a critical need to revisit all of the known sites in the state and bring the documentation and data collection up to current standards.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/martin-curtis" hreflang="und">Martin, Curtis</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tipi" hreflang="en">Tipi</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tree-ring-dating" hreflang="en">tree-ring dating</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/radiocarbon-dating" hreflang="en">radiocarbon dating</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cmt" hreflang="en">CMT</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ramada" hreflang="en">ramada</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/old-growth-forests" hreflang="en">old growth forests</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/architecture" hreflang="en">architecture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Curtis Martin, Michael J. Brown, and John E. Lindstrom, “The Colorado Wickiup Project Volume VI: Test Excavation of the Black Canyon Ramada (5DT222) and the Documentation of Four Additional Premier Aboriginal Wooden Feature Sites in Colorado,” unpublished manuscript on file at the Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, and the Bureau of Land Management Colorado State Office, Lakewood, Colorado (Grand Junction, CO: Dominquez Archaeological Research Group, Inc., 2011).</p> <p>Curtis Martin, John E. Lindstrom, and Holly “Sonny” Shelton, “The Colorado Wickiup Project Volume VII: Documentation of Selected Ephemeral Wooden Feature Sites in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado,” unpublished manuscript on file at the Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, and Rocky Mountain National Park, Estes Park, Colorado (Grand Junction, CO: Dominquez Archaeological Research Group, Inc., 2012).</p> <p>Curtis Martin, Richard Ott, and Nicole Darnell, “The Colorado Wickiup Project Volume I: Context, Data Assessment and Strategic Planning,” unpublished manuscript on file at the Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, and the Bureau of Land Management Colorado State Office, Lakewood, Colorado (Grand Junction, CO: Dominquez Archaeological Research Group, Inc., 2005).</p> <p>Curtis Martin, Richard Ott, and Nicole Darnell, “The Colorado Wickiup Project Volume III: Recordation and Re-evaluation of Twelve Aboriginal Wooden Structure Sites in Eagle, Garfield, Mesa, and Rio Blanco Counties, Colorado,” unpublished manuscript on file at the Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, and the Bureau of Land Management Colorado State Office, Lakewood, Colorado (Grand Junction, CO: Dominquez Archaeological Research Group, Inc., 2006).</p> <p>Joanne Sanfilippo, “Ute Wikiups or Navajo Forked-Stick Hogans: Determining Ethnicity Through Architecture in the Archaeological Record” (Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="http://www.dargnet.org/projects/cwp/index-cwp.html">The Colorado Wickiup Project</a>,” Dominquez Archaeological Research Group, Inc.</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.grandriverinstitute.com/#!publications/c1fzg">Publications</a>,” Grand River Institute, 2014.</p> <p>Peter R. Decker, “<em>The Utes Must Go!”: American Expansion and the Removal of a People</em> (Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p> <p>Curtis Martin, <em>Ephemeral Bounty: Wickiups, Trade Goods, and the Final Years of the Autonomous Ute</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2016).</p> <p>Robert Silbernagel, <em>Troubled Trails: The Meeker Affair and the Expulsion of Utes From Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2011).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 22:55:21 +0000 yongli 1318 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org White River Ute Indian Agency http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1298--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1298.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/White-River-Ute-Indian-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=JscUomd-" width="1000" height="657" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The ruins of the White River Ute Indian Agency in 1879 shortly after the Meeker Incident. Courtesy of the Western History Collection, Denver Public Library, X-30699; the original is from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, December 6, 1879.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1299--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1299.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/commemorative-marker-white-river-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/White-River-Ute-Indian-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=6h4MKy4_" width="1000" height="610" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/commemorative-marker-white-river-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Commemorative Marker for the White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Commemorative marker for the White River Ute Indian Agency and site of the Meeker Massacre of 1879 just west of Meeker, Colorado. Courtesy of the Western History Collection, Denver Public Library, X-30688.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-04-29T15:38:03-06:00" title="Friday, April 29, 2016 - 15:38" class="datetime">Fri, 04/29/2016 - 15:38</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency" data-a2a-title="White River Ute Indian Agency"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwhite-river-ute-indian-agency&amp;title=White%20River%20Ute%20Indian%20Agency"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The White River Ute Agency at <a href="/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a>, Colorado was established at the same time as the first <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piños Agency</strong></a> under provisions of the <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>. The agency was intended to serve the White River Ute band as well as some of the other bands from northwestern Colorado. As the site of the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> and the<strong> <a href="/article/battle-milk-creek">Battle of Milk Creek</a></strong>, the White River Agency was the focal point of important episodes of violence between Native Americans and whites that led to the removal of many <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Utes</strong></a> from the state. These violent episodes as well as the story of the White River Agency epitomize the consequences of the US government’s nineteenth-century policy toward Indigenous people, which pushed people like the Utes to the point of desperation, either through basic ineptitude or outright deceit and neglect of existing treaty terms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Agency, which consisted of a collection of cheaply constructed, primarily log buildings, was first built several miles east of present-day Meeker on mountainous terrain near the White River. The site was eventually moved to a much more promising location with lots of pasture and fertile land in Powell Park along the White River, just west of Meeker. The agency served as an administrative and logistic center that distributed rations and sponsored a school.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Powder Keg</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><strong><a href="/article/nathaniel-meeker">Nathaniel Meeker</a> </strong>served as <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agent</strong></a> for the White River Agency. It was Meeker’s incompetence as Indian agent that ultimately brought about the agency’s destruction. Rations and <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuity goods</strong></a> often arrived late or did not arrive at all, and the Utes depending on those goods railed at the government’s many broken promises. The Utes were in near-starving condition, yet Meeker would not allow them to leave the reservation to hunt buffalo. Moreover, he attempted to destroy their long-established horse-based culture and force them to take up farming. Meeker so antagonized the Utes of his agency that hostility filled the air and threatened to envelop the facility in violence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Ute band was a considerably more fractious Ute group than the Uncompahgre-Tabeguache band had been under the leadership of <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Chief Ouray</strong></a>. In 1879 the White River Utes were restless and possibly preparing to participate in a widespread uprising to throw off the oppressive mantle of the US government. White people in Colorado justifiably feared that the White River Utes might ally with other bands and tribes and prompt a full-scale war. Meeker became fearful of his Ute charges and asked the army to send troops to help keep them on the reservation and protect whites at the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explosion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When troops arrived, the Utes saw the soldiers’ presence on the reservation as an overt violation of their sovereignty and treaty rights. Utes from the White River Agency attacked the army’s relief columns at what became known as the Battle of Milk Creek, which lasted for several days. Fighters killed the commanding officer, Major Thornburg, and many other troops in what is often described as the longest-lasting single battle with Indigenous people in American history. The Utes also attacked the agency and burned most of the facility. They killed Meeker and the rest of the white male agency workers and also took Meeker’s wife, daughter, and another family captive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These actions provoked white outrage throughout Colorado and the nation, leading to a concerted round of investigations and finger-pointing; while never fully resolved, the search for whom to blame reached into the highest echelons of government, including the Secretary of the Interior. In large measure, the “Meeker Affair” or "Meeker Massacre," as it came to be called, sealed the fate of all of the Utes living in Colorado north of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. The Utes from the second Los Piños Agency were removed to Utah in the fall of 1881, while those attached to the White River Agency were forced into Utah the following year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thereafter, the remains of the old agency at White River disappeared and became used as hay pastures. Today there is little or nothing left on the ground surface to indicate the former presence of the facility. There is, however, a marker along Colorado Highway 64 just west of Meeker indicating the general location of the old agency.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/baker-steven-g" hreflang="und">Baker, Steven G.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/los-pinos-agency" hreflang="en">Los Pinos Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nathaniel-meeker" hreflang="en">nathaniel meeker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/meeker-massacre" hreflang="en">meeker massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/meeker-colorado" hreflang="en">meeker colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">northern ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache-ute" hreflang="en">Tabeguache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/battle-milk-creek" hreflang="en">Battle of Milk Creek</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred A. Conetah, <em>A History of the Northern Ute People</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Decker, <em>The Utes Must Go! American Expansion and the Removal of a People </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark E. Miller, <em>Hollow Victory: The White River Expedition of 1879 and the Battle of Milk Creek</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Silbernagel, <em>Troubled Trails: The Meeker Affair and the Expulsion of Utes from Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marshall Sprague, <em>Massacre: The Tragedy at White River</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1957).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Office of Indian Affairs, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs (LROIA) (microfilm), Colorado Superintendency (Washington, DC: National Archives, 1863–1880).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Steven G. Baker, “Final Project Report for the 2002–2003 Old Agency Initiative of the Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project. Volume I, Historical Archaeological Exploration and Assessment of the 2<sup>nd</sup> Los Pinos Indian Agency (5OR139),” Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project Report No. 5, unpublished report on file at History Colorado, Denver (Montrose, CO: Centuries Research, Inc., 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donald G. Callaway, Joel C. Janetski, and Omer C. Stewart, “Ute,” in <em>Great Basin</em>, ed. Warren L. D’Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Warren Covington, “Relations Between the Ute Indians and the United States Government, 1848–1900” (PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, 1949).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joseph G. Jorgenson, <em>The Sun Dance Religion: Power for the Powerless</em> (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/White_River_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">White River Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” FamilySearch.org, last modified March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>The White River Ute Agency at Meeker, Colorado was created under provisions of the Treaty of 1868. The agency was meant to serve the White River Ute band as well as other bands from northwestern Colorado. The White River Agency was the focal point of violence between Native Americans and whites. The conflicts led to the removal of many Utes from the state. The story of the White River Agency shows the impact of nineteenth-century policy toward Indigenous people. The policies pushed the Utes to the point of desperation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Agency was a collection of log buildings. It was first built several miles east of present-day Meeker. It was located on mountainous terrain near the White River. The site was moved to an area with fertile land in Powell Park along the White River, just west of Meeker. The agency distributed food and sponsored a school.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Powder Keg</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nathaniel Meeker served as Indian agent for the White River Agency. Meeker’s incompetence caused the agency’s destruction. Rations and annuity goods often arrived late or did not come at all. The Utes depending on those goods were angry at the government’s many broken promises. They were in near-starving condition. Meeker would not allow them to leave the reservation to hunt buffalo. He attempted to destroy the Ute's horse-based culture and force them to take up farming. Hostility filled the air and threatened to cause violence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Ute band was a fractious Ute group. In 1879 the White River Utes were restless. They were possibly preparing to participate in an uprising to throw off the mantle of the US government. White people in Colorado feared that the White River Utes might ally with other bands and tribes and start a full-scale war. Meeker became fearful. He asked the army to send troops to help keep the Utes on the reservation and protect whites at the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explosion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When troops arrived, the Utes saw the soldiers’ presence as a violation of their treaty rights. Utes from the White River Agency attacked the army’s relief columns. It became known as the Battle of Milk Creek. The battle lasted for several days. Fighters killed the commanding officer, Major Thornburg, and many other troops. It is often described as the longest-lasting single battle with Indigenous people in American history. The Utes attacked the agency. They burned most of the facility. They killed Meeker and the rest of the white male agency workers. The Utes took Meeker’s wife, daughter, and another family captive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The battle caused white outrage throughout Colorado and the nation. There were investigations and finger-pointing. The search for whom to blame reached into the highest levels of government. The “Meeker Affair,” or "Meeker Massacre," sealed the fate of Utes living in Colorado north of the San Juan Mountains. The Utes from the second Los Piños Agency were moved to Utah in the fall of 1881. Those at the White River Agency were forced into Utah the following year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The remains of the old agency at White River disappeared. They were used as hay pastures. Today there is little left to indicate the former presence of the facility. A marker along Colorado Highway 64 just west of Meeker shows the general location of the old agency.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The White River Ute Agency at Meeker, Colorado was established under provisions of the Treaty of 1868. The agency was meant to serve the White River Ute band as well as other bands from northwestern Colorado. The White River Agency was the focal point of violence between Native Americans and whites. The conflicts led to the removal of many Utes from the state. The story of the White River Agency shows the impact of nineteenth-century policy toward Indigenous people. The policies pushed the Utes to the point of desperation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Agency consisted of a collection of primarily log buildings. It was first built several miles east of present-day Meeker on mountainous terrain near the White River. The site was moved to an area with pasture and fertile land in Powell Park along the White River, just west of Meeker. The agency distributed rations and sponsored a school.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Powder Keg</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nathaniel Meeker served as Indian agent for the White River Agency. It was Meeker’s incompetence that caused the agency’s destruction. Rations and annuity goods often arrived late or did not come at all. The Utes depending on those goods railed at the government’s many broken promises. The Utes were in near-starving condition. Meeker would not allow them to leave the reservation to hunt buffalo. He attempted to destroy their horse-based culture and force them to take up farming. Meeker antagonized the Utes of his agency. Hostility filled the air and threatened to cause violence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Ute band was a fractious Ute group. In 1879 the White River Utes were restless. They were possibly preparing to participate in an uprising to throw off the mantle of the US government. White people in Colorado feared that the White River Utes might ally with other bands and tribes and prompt a full-scale war. Meeker became fearful of his Ute charges. He asked the army to send troops to help keep the Utes on the reservation and protect whites at the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explosion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When troops arrived, the Utes saw the soldiers’ presence as a violation of their treaty rights. Utes from the White River Agency attacked the army’s relief columns. It became known as the Battle of Milk Creek. The battle lasted for several days. Fighters killed the commanding officer, Major Thornburg, and many other troops. It is often described as the longest-lasting single battle with Indigenous people in American history. The Utes attacked the agency and burned most of the facility. They killed Meeker and the rest of the white male agency workers. The Utes took Meeker’s wife, daughter, and another family captive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These actions provoked white outrage throughout Colorado and the nation. There were investigations and finger-pointing. The search for whom to blame reached into the highest levels of government. The “Meeker Affair” or "Meeker Massacre," sealed the fate of Utes living in Colorado north of the San Juan Mountains. The Utes from the second Los Piños Agency were removed to Utah in the fall of 1881. Those attached to the White River Agency were forced into Utah the following year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The remains of the old agency at White River disappeared and became used as hay pastures. Today there is little or nothing left to indicate the former presence of the facility. However, a marker along Colorado Highway 64 just west of Meeker shows the general location of the old agency.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The White River Ute Agency at Meeker, Colorado was established under provisions of the Treaty of 1868. The agency was intended to serve the White River Ute band as well as other bands from northwestern Colorado. The White River Agency was the focal point of violence between Native Americans and whites that led to the removal of many Utes from the state. The story of the White River Agency shows the impact of nineteenth-century policy toward Indigenous people. The policies pushed the Utes to the point of desperation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Agency consisted of a collection of primarily log buildings. It was first built several miles east of present-day Meeker on mountainous terrain near the White River. The site was moved to an area with pasture and fertile land in Powell Park along the White River, just west of Meeker. The agency served as a logistic center that distributed rations and sponsored a school.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Powder Keg</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nathaniel Meeker served as Indian agent for the White River Agency. It was Meeker’s incompetence that brought about the agency’s destruction. Rations and annuity goods often arrived late or did not arrive at all. The Utes depending on those goods railed at the government’s many broken promises. The Utes were in near-starving condition. Meeker would not allow them to leave the reservation to hunt buffalo. He attempted to destroy their long-established horse-based culture and force them to take up farming. Meeker antagonized the Utes of his agency. Hostility filled the air and threatened to envelop the facility in violence.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The White River Ute band was a more fractious Ute group than the Uncompahgre-Tabeguache band had been under the leadership of Chief Ouray. In 1879 the White River Utes were restless. They were possibly preparing to participate in a widespread uprising to throw off the oppressive mantle of the US government. White people in Colorado feared that the White River Utes might ally with other bands and tribes and prompt a full-scale war. Meeker became fearful of his Ute charges. He asked the army to send troops to help keep them on the reservation and protect whites at the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explosion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When troops arrived, the Utes saw the soldiers’ presence on the reservation as an overt violation of their sovereignty and treaty rights. Utes from the White River Agency attacked the army’s relief columns at what became known as the Battle of Milk Creek, which lasted for several days. Fighters killed the commanding officer, Major Thornburg, and many other troops in what is often described as the longest-lasting single battle with Indigenous people in American history. The Utes also attacked the agency and burned most of the facility. They killed Meeker and the rest of the white male agency workers and also took Meeker’s wife, daughter, and another family captive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These actions provoked white outrage throughout Colorado and the nation, leading to a concerted round of investigations and finger-pointing; while never fully resolved, the search for whom to blame reached into the highest echelons of government, including the Secretary of the Interior. In large measure, the “Meeker Affair” or "Meeker Massacre," as it came to be called, sealed the fate of all of the Utes living in Colorado north of the San Juan Mountains. The Utes from the second Los Piños Agency were removed to Utah in the fall of 1881, while those attached to the White River Agency were forced into Utah the following year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thereafter, the remains of the old agency at White River disappeared and became used as hay pastures. Today there is little or nothing left on the ground surface to indicate the former presence of the facility. There is, however, a marker along Colorado Highway 64 just west of Meeker indicating the general location of the old agency.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 29 Apr 2016 21:38:03 +0000 yongli 1297 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Los Piños Indian Agency http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/los-pinos-indian-agency <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Los Piños Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1837--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1837.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/archaeological-plan-map-2nd-los-pinos-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Los%20Pinos%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=VAfe9iNn" width="1090" height="782" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/archaeological-plan-map-2nd-los-pinos-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Archaeological plan map of 2nd Los Pinos Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Post-excavation plan of the agent’s house and partial original map of the 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency on the Uncompahgre River near Colona, Colorado, as excavated by the Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project in 2003. Courtesy of Centuries Research, Inc., Montrose, Colorado.bak</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1300--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1300.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/2nd-los-pinos-ute-indian-agency-1870s"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Los-Pinos-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=DEpcoSLr" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/2nd-los-pinos-ute-indian-agency-1870s" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency in the 1870s</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency on the Uncompahgre River in the 1870s while it was operational.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1301--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1301.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/post-office-los-pinos-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Los-Pinos-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=cxll5LBj" width="1000" height="751" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/post-office-los-pinos-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Post office at the Los Piños Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Group portrait in front of the post office at the 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency, ca. 1877–1879.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1838--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1838.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/post-excavation-photo-agents-house-2nd-los-pinos-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Los-Pinos-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=Gdlb6rjY" width="1000" height="675" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/post-excavation-photo-agents-house-2nd-los-pinos-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Post-excavation photo of the agent’s house at the 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>2003 post-excavation photo of the ruins of the agent’s house at the 2nd Los Piños Ute Indian Agency (5OR139) on the Uncompahgre River. Courtesy of Centuries Research, Inc., Montrose.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-04-29T15:32:40-06:00" title="Friday, April 29, 2016 - 15:32" class="datetime">Fri, 04/29/2016 - 15:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/los-pinos-indian-agency" data-a2a-title="Los Piños Indian Agency"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flos-pinos-indian-agency&amp;title=Los%20Pi%C3%B1os%20Indian%20Agency"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>After the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868">Treaty of 1868</a></strong>, the Los Piños Indian Agency became the center of governmental authority for the Uncompahgre Utes on the Ute Indian Reservation in western Colorado. While largely forgotten after its abandonment in 1881, the site of the second iteration of the agency is now under archaeological study and provides a window into one of the darker periods in the history of Colorado’s Ute people.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>The Nuche, or&nbsp;<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>&nbsp;people,&nbsp;occupied the mountainous regions of what would become Colorado at the time of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>. The gold rush, followed by the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862 and an <a href="/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>1863 treaty</strong></a> that compelled&nbsp;the Nuche&nbsp;to leave the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> to whites,&nbsp;encouraged white colonists to start pushing deeper into the Ute heartland. With the end of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> in 1865, miners and settlers poured into the <strong><a href="/article/colorado-territory">Colorado Territory</a>,</strong> and the government had to address the potential for conflict&nbsp;on Ute lands. The American people were deeply divided on how best to remove&nbsp;Indigenous people from their lands.&nbsp;</p> <p>Many in the military believed it would be best to destroy Native nations&nbsp;through warfare. Many Colorado politicians, such as former Governor <strong>Frederick Pitkin</strong>,&nbsp;held such a belief. Others believed that Indigenous people&nbsp;could be led to give up their hunting and gathering and be taught to farm, learn trades, and follow the ways of white people on reservations. After the Civil War, under President Ulysses S. Grant, the latter belief prevailed in the form of the Peace Policy—a set of government policies that was essentially nonviolent but would still strip Indigenous people of their land and culture.&nbsp;</p> <p>This policy led to the establishment of many Indian reservations and associated <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a> under the purview of the Office of Indian Affairs, part of the Department of the Interior. Indian agencies were administrative centers where <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> (food and other provisions)&nbsp;were distributed and Indigenous people received instruction on farming and other white endeavors. The agencies also served to tether&nbsp;Indigenous people&nbsp;to the government, which reduced their political autonomy and allowed for easier takeover of their land.</p> <p>There was a great deal of fraud and malfeasance involved in the administration of the agency and reservation system, and the Indigenous people&nbsp;were frequently starving when&nbsp;annuities did not arrive in a timely fashion.</p> <h2>First Los Piños Agency</h2> <p>It was in this political context that the Los Piños (the Pines) Ute Indian Agency was established soon after the Civil War. Some Ute leaders, including <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Chief Ouray</strong></a>, agreed to the <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>. This founded a reservation that covered nearly all of Colorado west of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>. Under provisions of the 1868 treaty, an agency was to be established by the Office of Indian Affairs on the Los Piños River in extreme southern Colorado to serve some of the Ute bands.</p> <p>For various reasons the agency could not be constructed on the river. Instead, it was established in the high mountains near Cochetopa Pass south of <strong>Gunnison</strong>, which was close to the eastern boundary of the new reservation. This poorly constructed facility (eventually known as the first Los Piños Agency) was so high in the mountains that it could not be easily supplied and the surrounding land was unsuitable for growing crops. The facility’s primary purpose was to serve the combined Uncompahgre (earlier known as Sabuagana) and Tabeguache Ute bands. By the late 1860s these two bands had merged, largely because the Uncompahgres had been severely reduced in numbers by disease and warfare. For a number of years this combined band was simply known as the Tabeguaches.</p> <h2>Second Los Piños Agency</h2> <p>By the early 1870s, miners and settlers were encroaching on the eastern boundary of the reservation, and the authorities deemed it prudent to move the Los Piños Agency westward, farther away from the white settlements around Gunnison. In 1875 the agency was moved to the <strong>Uncompahgre Valley,</strong> roughly 100 miles from the old agency. This was the very heart of the Ute reservation, some of their prime hunting grounds, and the homeland of what was by then one of the last free Native nations in the United States. The Utes had an immense reservation in Colorado that was coveted by white miners and settlers. If the agency could be established in this area, it would be a simple matter to bring the Tabeguaches into fully dependent status and ultimately remove them from Colorado.</p> <p>By 1876 what became known as the second Los Piños Agency was in operation, and now that it was located on the Uncompahgre River, it also became known as the Uncompahgre Agency. &nbsp;Facilities were constructed of cheap adobe, stone, and wood-frame buildings. Located at the modern community of <strong>Colona</strong>, some nine miles south of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montrose"><strong>Montrose</strong></a>, it primarily served the combined Uncompahgre and Tabeguache bands.</p> <p>The agency’s history is filled with despair for the Uncompahgres and Tabeguaches. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the south had been ceded away by the Utes in the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement of 1873</strong></a>, and trespassers began pushing hard against the southern boundary of the reservation from there as well as from Gunnison on the east. Fraud and deceit characterized much of the Indian agents’ administration, though there were some bright, thoughtful moments under the administration of others.</p> <p>Two events at the end of the 1870s led to the removal of most of the Nuche from their Colorado homeland. In 1879 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a>'s harsh enforcement of the Peace Policy at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River&nbsp;Agency</strong></a> provoked a Ute uprising in which Meeker and his entire staff were killed. Of course, the&nbsp;<a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>&nbsp;brought the fury of the US military and, in Colorado especially,&nbsp;calls for the Utes to be wiped out or forcefully removed. In early 1880, Ouray and other Nuche leaders were brought to Washington, D.C. to testify about the Meeker Incident and sign a new treaty that would send their people to Utah.</p> <p>In the fall of 1881, the US Army rounded up all remaining members of these old bands that it could find and force-marched them to a new reservation in Utah. Ouray, who died in the summer of 1880, did not live to see his people force-marched off their ancestral lands.&nbsp;The second Los Piños Agency was abruptly abandoned, and all government property at the short-lived facility was sold. The old agency soon passed into history and was largely forgotten.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>In recent years the Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project has relocated the old agency and conducted extensive archaeological studies at the site. Today, US Highway 550 South passes directly through the center of the old agency on the north boundary of the community of Colona in <a href="/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray County</strong></a>. There are, however, no commemorative monuments marking the location of the old agency, and many Utes today see it only as a reminder of a dark and unhappy chapter in their history.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/baker-steven-g" hreflang="und">Baker, Steven G.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote-ute" hreflang="en">Capote Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache-ute" hreflang="en">Muache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabeguache-ute" hreflang="en">Tabeguache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/uncompahgre-ute" hreflang="en">Uncompahgre Ute</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Steven G. Baker, “Final Project Report for the 2002–2003 Old Agency Initiative of the Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project. Volume I, Historical Archaeological Exploration and Assessment of the 2<sup>nd</sup> Los Pinos Indian Agency (5OR139),” Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project Report No. 5, unpublished report on file at History Colorado, Denver (Montrose, CO: Centuries Research, Inc., 2004).</p> <p>Steven G. Baker, “Final Project Report for the 2002–2003 Old Agency Initiative of the Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project. Volume II, Late Contact ‘Chief Ouray’ Phase Ute Ethnohistory and Archaeology in Association with the 2nd Los Pinos Indian Agency on the Uncompahgre River (5OR139), Montrose and Ouray Counties, Colorado,” Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project Report No. 6, unpublished report on file at History Colorado, Denver (Montrose, CO: Centuries Research, Inc., 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Steven G. Baker, “Historical Archaeological Assessment of the 1870s Reservation Period Ute/Mexican Component at the Chief Ouray Ranch (5MN847), Montrose County, Colorado,” Uncompahgre Valley Ute Project Report No. 11, unpublished report on file at History Colorado, Denver (Montrose, CO: Centuries Research, Inc., 2005).</p> <p>Donald G. Callaway, Joel C. Janetski, and Omer C. Stewart, “Ute,” in <em>Great Basin</em>, ed. Warren L. D’Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986).</p> <p>James Warren Covington, “Relations Between the Ute Indians and the United States Government, 1848–1900,” (PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, 1949).</p> <p>William T. Hagan, “United States Indian Policies, 1860–1900,” in <em>History of Indian-White Relations</em>, ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 4 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988).</p> <p>Sidney Jocknick, <em>Early Days on the Western Slope of Colorado</em> <em>and Campfire Chats with Otto Mears, the Pathfinder, from 1870 to 1883, Inclusive</em>, 2<sup>nd</sup> ed. (first published by The Carson-Harper Co., Denver, 1913; Lake City, CO: Western Reflections Publishing Co., 1998).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Los_Pinos_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Los Piños Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” FamilySearch.org, updated March 30, 2015.</p> <p>Wilson Rockwell, <em>The Utes: A Forgotten People</em>, 2nd ed. (first published by Sage Press, Denver, 1956; Lake City, CO: Western Reflections, 1998).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>US Office of Indian Affairs, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs (LROIA) (microfilm), Colorado Superintendency (Washington, DC: National Archives, 1863–1880).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 29 Apr 2016 21:32:40 +0000 yongli 1296 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Agencies and Agents http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Agencies and Agents</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1217--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1217.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-19367_0.jpg?itok=-vvK5tKD" width="1000" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Lyon, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Fort Lyon with tents outside, c. 1862-64.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1219--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1219.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-2_20009286_0.jpg?itok=O3VFhid6" width="1000" height="649" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Nuche (Ute People) in Ignacio</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute people&nbsp;at the Southern Ute Agency at Ignacio, about 1890.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1221--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1221.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-3_20102505_0.jpg?itok=WTYhdzRD" width="1000" height="711" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Camp, Los Pinos Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute encampment in the Uncompahgre Valley near the Los Pinos Agency, ca. 1878-1881.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span 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OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-15T12:10:56-06:00" title="Tuesday, March 15, 2016 - 12:10" class="datetime">Tue, 03/15/2016 - 12:10</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents" data-a2a-title="Indian Agencies and Agents"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-agencies-and-agents&amp;title=Indian%20Agencies%20and%20Agents"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Indian Agencies were established by the US government as part of the formal relationship with Indigenous nations as it acquired lands from them. Indian Agents were individuals responsible for cultivating relationships with Indigenous people and extending government policies. As <a href="/article/indian-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and agreements were negotiated and reservations were established, these relationships became increasingly complex and controversial.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Territorial Period</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Initial management of Indigenous affairs in what would become Colorado was a result of acquisition of Mexican territory during the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1846 General Stephen Watts Kearney occupied New Mexico, and government interaction with Native Americans was largely to ensure peaceful relations and regulate trade. That year, Kearney appointed<strong> Charles Bent</strong> as civilian governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the newly acquired land. Bent’s experience with numerous Native American groups through his affiliation with <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> and with <strong>Fort St. Vrain</strong> and through his store in Taos made him a natural choice, but he spent only a few months at the post before he was killed during the Taos Revolt in January 1847.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Subsequent governors followed Bent in the role as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in New Mexico, as was the case with later territorial governors. The Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were formally organized in 1850. The Utah Territory extended eastward over the entire western third of Colorado to the <a href="/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, and the New Mexico Territory included the southern portion of Colorado east of the mountains. The Kansas and Nebraska territories were established in 1854, with the Kansas Territory covering the central portion of Colorado east of the mountains and Nebraska Territory covering northern Colorado east of the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agents were appointed to assist the territorial governors or superintendents of Indian Affairs on a somewhat regional basis that conformed to areas occupied by one or more Indigenous nations. The agents were posted to communities or forts that were in relatively close proximity to the Native American groups they were to serve. In these early years, agents often had some direct contact with the Indigenous people in their jurisdiction, with most of their time spent attempting to ascertain which groups were present, their numbers, their modes of life and habits, and their ranges, as well as controlling illicit trade by whites or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Utah Territory, the first agent seems to have been John Wilson, who was stationed at Fort Bridger beginning in August 1849. His wide area covered land occupied mainly by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Utes</strong></a>, <strong>Shoshones</strong>, and <strong>Paiutes</strong>. J. S. Calhoun was the first agent in New Mexico; he was posted at Santa Fe and negotiated the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of 1849</strong></a> with the Utes at Abiquiú. His jurisdiction covered lands occupied or entered by <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, Ute, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, and various Puebloan groups. In Kansas, former trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick was assigned the area of the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers by 1847 and was mostly concerned with the safety of travelers along the <a href="/article/santa-fe-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In an effort to protect emigrants traveling through the region on their way to California and Oregon, the US government signed a treaty known as the <strong><a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></strong> with Indigeneous nations on the Great Plains in 1851. Part of the treaty assigned territories for the various Plains Indian groups. Among these, the Arapaho and Cheyenne were jointly assigned to the area east of the Rockies between the North Platte and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Rivers. <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Annuity goods</strong></a> were distributed to them at Bent’s Fort, and the agent for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-arkansas-indian-agency"><strong>Upper Arkansas Agency</strong></a> was stationed there beginning in 1858. Annuity goods were useful items—such as clothing, tools, cookware, decorative items, hunting and fishing supplies, and canvases for <strong><a href="/article/tipi-0">tipi</a></strong><a href="/article/tipi"><strong>s</strong></a>—that were distributed to Indigenous people as stipulated by a signed treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1855 two treaties were negotiated with two Ute bands in the New Mexico Territory. With the assistance of Lorenzo Labadi, who served as the agent for both bands at Abiquiú​, Territorial Governor David Merriwether finalized treaties with the Capote Utes on August 8, 1855, and with the Mouache Utes on September 11. Reservations were proposed for the Capote along the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River </strong></a>and for the Mouache along the Rio Grande, both extending into present-day Colorado. Though Congress failed to ratify either treaty, the treaties were the first in a series that followed national policy of attempting to have Native American groups cede a large portion of their territories for small reservations in return for money, goods, and services.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Fort Wise/Fort Lyon Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 15, 1861, within two weeks of the establishment of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> the Cheyenne and Arapaho signed the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Fort Wise Treaty of 1861</strong></a>, which was deemed necessary because of increased conflict between the two tribes and the influx of miners and settlers to the area after the discovery of gold along the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> in 1858. Discussions with the Native Americans had been initiated in 1860. The Cheyenne and Arapaho agreed to cede most of their traditional lands for a smaller reservation that took up a considerable amount of southeastern Colorado and was bound on the north by Sand Creek and on the south by the boundary between the New Mexico and Colorado Territories. The western portion of the reservation was to be occupied by the Arapaho and the eastern portion by the Cheyenne.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the treaty and establishment of the Colorado Territory, A. G. Boone was made the agent at Fort Wise (soon renamed Fort Lyon), to be succeeded by <a href="/article/samuel-gerish-colley"><strong>Samuel G. Colley</strong></a> in 1862. The Kiowa and Comanche residing in southern Colorado were also attached to the agency at Fort Lyon, though a treaty had not been made with them. The Cheyenne and Arapaho never really occupied the reservation, mostly because the buffalo that they depended on were no longer present and only minimal improvements had been made for the agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>, which took place on the reservation in 1864, resulted in widespread warfare. The <strong>Treaty of 1865</strong> resulted in removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado to reservation lands in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Upper Arkansas Agency was terminated.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Middle Park and Conejos Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the establishment of Colorado Territory on February 10, 1861, the Colorado territorial governor became the local superintendent of Indian affairs. Two agencies were established in Colorado. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0"><strong>Conejos Agency</strong></a> had already been established in 1860 in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> to administer to the Tabeguache Utes, who had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Taos Agency under <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> as early as 1856. Prior to its official establishment, the Conejos ranch of <a href="/article/lafayette-head-1825-1897-0"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a> had been where annuity goods for the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Tabeguache</strong></a> and <strong>Mouache Utes</strong> were distributed beginning in 1858. Head became the first agent at the Conejos Agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0"><strong>Middle Park Agency</strong></a> was established in 1862 for the Grand River, Uinta, and Yampa Utes. Simeon Whiteley was appointed the first agent for the Middle Park Agency in 1862. The agency had no real headquarters, though its business was carried out at <strong>Hot Sulphur Springs</strong>, <strong>Breckenridge</strong>, <strong>Empire</strong>, and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Responsibilities for Native Americans under Treaties</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> resulted in Colorado’s Utes ceding much of their traditional homeland, including the San Luis Valley and the most heavily mined areas in the Colorado Rockies. The eastern boundary was at 107 degrees latitude, which was mostly west of the Continental Divide. The treaty stipulated that two new agencies would be established on the reservation. The Conejos Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Pinos Agency</strong></a> west of <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, and the Middle Park Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> along the White River in northwestern Colorado; both were established in 1869. In order to satisfy treaty stipulations, the agent became the manager of several employees—typically a farmer, blacksmith, and schoolteacher, but often including cattle herders and sawmill operators. A full complement of buildings was constructed, including residences, shops, barns, school houses, and warehouses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Employees were to teach Indigenous people their respective skills. The agent ordered and distributed annuity goods and rations, made sure the agency was well supplied; hired, fired, and managed employees; and completed arduous financial accounting tasks. In addition, he was to enforce ever-changing government policies and respond to crises between Native Americans and whites. Despite the best intentions of most of agents, they were subject to accusations of malfeasance by Indigenous people as well as encroaching whites, and to removal for political reasons.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Federal Policy and Selection of Agents</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under President Ulysses S. Grant, Christian reformers were included in developing and implementing Native American policy. This resulted in the Board of Indian Commissioners being established in 1869 and Christian evangelism being incorporated into Indigenous policy. With these changes, tribal traditions were discouraged; the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>treaty system was revised</strong></a> so that it was no longer a nation-to-nation agreement; monetary annuities were discouraged in favor of goods, agency improvements, and services; and Indigenous people were considered wards of the government for their protection. With proper oversight, it was thought that Native Americans could be educated in industry, civilization, and Christianity so they could eventually attain US citizenship and become self-supporting.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indigenous people were initially to be placed on small reservations, with the goal being that when ready, they would be granted exclusive ownership of land in parcels of 160 acres or less. This was designed to teach them the values of land ownership and enable them to earn a living from their labor on their land. All of these goals were made without Indigenous input, ran contrary to Native American customs, and were demoralizing. Under the new policy, candidates for agents were to be put forward by Christian religious groups. Inadequate candidates were immediately available. For example, the initial agents for the Los Piños and White River agencies were former military officers who were available as a result of the reduction of military force following the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>. Congress rejected this approach of appointing former military officers as public servants to fill civil positions in July 1870, so the American Unitarian Union began nominating candidates as agents for the two Indian Agencies in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>White River Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the Middle Park Agency at White River, <strong>Daniel C. Oakes</strong>, successor to Simeon Whiteley, selected the agency location and began construction of the buildings. Lieutenant W. W. Parry, who was completely unprepared for the job, replaced Oakes in June 1869. Governor <strong>Edward M. McCook</strong> appointed several ineffective military officers as agents thereafter. More successful were agents <strong>John S. Littlefield</strong> and Edward H. Danforth, both nominated by the Unitarians and serving as agents from 1871 to 1878. Danforth was followed by <strong><a href="/article/nathan-meeker">Nathan C. Meeker</a>.</strong> Meeker was not a Unitarian but was highly religious and brought utopian ideals from the agricultural colony of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> to the agency. After moving the agency to a new location a few miles downstream along the White River, Meeker’s rigidity and zealotry precipitated a Ute uprising known as the <strong><a href="/article/meeker-incident">Meeker Incident</a></strong> in late September 1879. Utes killed Meeker and ten others, including most of the agency’s employees, and the US troops sent to assist Meeker were defeated at the <a href="/article/battle-milk-creek"><strong>Battle of Milk Creek</strong></a>. The incident prompted the eventual removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Los Piños Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Lieutenant Calvin T. Speer was the first agent for the Los Piños Agency, beginning in 1869. He selected the agency location and initiated construction of its buildings. Speer was replaced by Unitarian Jabez Nelson Trask, the first of three Unitarian agents between 1871 and 1876. Thereafter, the agency was served by a succession of agents unaffiliated with the Unitarian Church whose rapid, near-annual turnover provided no stable leadership until the Utes associated with the agency were removed from Colorado in late 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Denver Special Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A large number of Utes who were to be attached to the White River Agency refused to move to the reservation and desired to continue hunting buffalo on the plains, spending summers in North and Middle Parks, and wintering near Denver. Although attached to the Middle Park Agency, these Utes had become accustomed to visiting the agent in Denver, where they acquired goods and services from the government. Rather than force the Utes onto the reservation on the west side of the Rockies, James B. Thompson, personal secretary and brother-in-law of Governor McCook, continued the practice of supplying the Indigenous people in Denver in 1869. This practice was formalized through the establishment of the Denver Special Agency in 1870. It continued to serve the Utes through 1874, when they agreed to go to the reservation and be served by the White River Agency. After a brief reopening in 1875, the agency was permanently closed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Removal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Meeker Incident was the catalyst for removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. The bands associated with the White River Agency were forced to the Uintah Reservation in Utah in late summer 1881. The Tabeguache Utes attached to the Los Piños Agency, under the leadership of <strong><a href="/article/ouray">Ouray</a>,</strong> negotiated an agreement shortly before his death in 1880 that stipulated that they would be moved to a smaller reservation, likely at the confluence of the Grand and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Rivers in present-day <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>. With this in mind, a survey of the proposed new reservation was completed that included several townships in what is known as the Ute Principal Meridian. If the land there was found unsuitable, then other lands could be considered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Ute Commission, following the lead of member <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, found the land at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers unsuitable for agricultural settlement, so decided that land at the confluence of the Green and White Rivers in Utah should be the new reservation. This land was annexed to the existing Uintah Reservation, and the reservation is now known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/.../northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray- reservation"><strong>Uintah and Ouray Reservation</strong></a>. Tabeguache Utes formerly attached to the Los Pinos Agency were forced to the new reservation in September 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations and Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A separate <strong>Southern Ute Agency</strong> was established for the Capote, Mouache, and Weeminuche Utes in early 1877, with Francis H. Weaver as the agent. The actual agency site selected that June was on the Los Piños River, much to the consternation of the Utes, who expected it to be placed on the Navajo River. A post office at the agency was named Ignacio when it opened in 1882. When the town of Ignacio grew nearby, the post office was moved there in 1914. Indigenous people attached to the agency were formerly served at agencies in Abiquiú​ and Cimarron, New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Ignacio</strong>, leader of the Southern Utes—as the three bands came to be known—had the foresight to distance his group from Ouray during the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> of 1873, when the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> were ceded to the US government. A strip of land fifteen miles wide and south of the territory ceded in the Brunot Agreement was recognized as the domain of the Southern Utes. The Southern Utes agreed to move to this reservation along the southern border of Colorado in 1880. Because they were recognized as separate from the Utes attached to the Los Piños and White River agencies, they were allowed to remain in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the reservation was to be allotted to individual tribal members with the remaining land sold for the benefit of the tribe. Ignacio objected to the plan and desired to retain contiguous land for the Weeminuche band. An agreement in 1895 resulted in the allotment of the eastern portion of the reservation, still known as the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong>, with its agency at Ignacio. The 374 allotments designated to the Utes in the eastern portion of the reservation amounted to about 60,000 acres of land, leaving 636,000 acres open for entry to other settlers beginning in May 1899.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The western portion was established as the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> for Utes who did not want to participate in the allotment program, with agency headquarters at Navajo Springs. Because of a lack of water, the agency at Navajo Springs was quickly abandoned and a new agency was constructed in about 1898 at <strong>Towaoc</strong>. Reconfiguration of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in 1911 resulted in a land exchange that took 12,760 acres of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation in exchange for 7,840 acres of land vacated from the original configuration of the park and 19,520 acres on the north side of Ute Mountain that extended to the south side of McElmo Canyon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/military-posts" hreflang="en">military posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts" hreflang="en">trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/annuity-goods" hreflang="en">annuity goods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>F. H. Abbott and James McLaughlin,<em> Letter to the Secretary of Interior, June 5, 1911</em>, Major James McLaughlin Papers on microfilm (Denver: Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, 1911).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Bauer, “The Colorado Postal Encyclopedia: La Plata County, Part 1,” <em>Colorado Postal Historian</em> 20, no. 1 (2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Bent, “Indian Tribes of New Mexico,” in <em>Information Respecting the History, Conditions and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States: Collected and Prepared under the Direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per Act of Congress of March 3d, 1847</em>, by Henry R. Schoolcraft (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo &amp; Company, 1853).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Felix R. Brunot, Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, and Robert Campbell, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, “Letter to J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC, October 29, 1870,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1870</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to C. E. Mix, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, September 27, 1858,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, For the Year 1858</em> (Washington, DC: Wm. A. Harris, Printer, 1858).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Evans, Governor and ex officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to W. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, October 30, 1862,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Fitzpatrick, Indian Agent, Upper Arkansas and Platte, Bent’s Fort, Arkansas River, “Letter to Thomas H. Harvey, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, St. Louis, Missouri, September 18, 1847,” in <em>Annual</em> <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Transmitted with the Message of the President, at the First Session of the Thirtieth Congress, 1847…1848</em> (Washington, DC: Wendell and Van Benthuysen, Printers, 1848).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Gilpin, Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to William P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, June 19, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Sonja L. Cohen, “<a href="https://www.uuworld.org/articles/history-ute-indians">Unitarians Worked to ‘Save’ Ute Indians</a>,” <em>U U World Magazine</em> 23 (Winter 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fred A. Conetah, <em>A History of the Northern Ute People</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Decker, <em>The Utes Must Go! American Expansion and the Removal of a People</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Los_Pinos_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Los Pinos Indian Agency (Colorado),</a>” Familysearch.org, updated March 30, 2015,</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Petit, <em>Utes, the Mountain People</em> (Boulder: Johnson Printing, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/White_River_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">White River Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” Familysearch.org, updated March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Mar 2016 18:10:56 +0000 yongli 1216 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sapiah http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sapiah <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sapiah</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1159--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1159.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-chief-buckskin-charley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=UgY6VG9l" width="1080" height="1496" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-chief-buckskin-charley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Chief Buckskin Charley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Buckskin Charlie Chief of the Southern Utes in wool coat and cap, wearing braids.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1163--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1163.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-and-wife-wee"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10033158_0.jpg?itok=BXAxsopI" width="1000" height="1266" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-and-wife-wee" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley and wife To-Wee</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Chief Buckskin Charley and wife To-wee or Tee-Wee (Emma Naylor Buck). To-wee wears a buckskin dress, concho belt, beaded necklace, large earrings and beaded moccasins. Buckskin Charley wears a cloth shirt with hair locks and beaded moccasins. He wears the Rutherford Hayes Indian Peace Medal and carries a catlinite pipe and beaded pipe bag.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1165--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1165.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/antonio-and-julian-buck"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=Ioueh8xx" width="1000" height="1505" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/antonio-and-julian-buck" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Antonio and Julian Buck</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cabinet photo of Buckskin Charley and Emma Buck’s sons in traditional Ute dress. Antonia Buck is standing and Julian Buck is seated.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1166--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1166.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-peace-medal"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-33926_0.jpg?itok=fuW7MGou" width="1000" height="1283" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-peace-medal" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley with Peace Medal</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Buckskin Charley in traditional dress with 4-winds cross and Rutherford Hayes Indian Peace Medal.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1169--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1169.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/three-ute-chiefs"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10047987_0.jpg?itok=rwZY8_pz" width="1000" height="1349" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/three-ute-chiefs" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Three Ute Chiefs</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Three Ute chiefs standing in front of a teepee. Seated is Chief Buckskin Charley (Moache), to his right is Chief Ignacio (Weeminuche) and to his left is Severo (Caputa). Severo and Ignacio wear Indian Police badges.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1170--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1170.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/southern-utes"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=SFMlme6r" width="1000" height="788" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/southern-utes" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Southern Utes</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Group of seven males, three females and a child in traditional Ute dress standing in front of teepees, probably near Ignacio, Colorado. Chief Buckskin Charley is fifth from left, Severo is sixth from left, and Emma Buck is eighth from left. Presumably this is Buckskin Charley’s family.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1172--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1172.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-horse"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/skin-Media-7_0.jpg?itok=3b4Ak4bL" width="1000" height="1034" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-horse" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley on horse</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Southern Ute Chief Buckskin Charley on horseback wearing overalls, boots and a western hat.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1174--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1174.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/beaded-moccasins"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-8_0.jpg?itok=u8-dLvBH" width="1000" height="1007" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/beaded-moccasins" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Beaded moccasins</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pair of beaded moccasins (ca. 1880) presumably belonging to Buckskin Charley and given as gift to Issakson family.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-01T16:41:15-07:00" title="Tuesday, March 1, 2016 - 16:41" class="datetime">Tue, 03/01/2016 - 16:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sapiah" data-a2a-title="Sapiah"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsapiah&amp;title=Sapiah"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Sapiah (1840–1936) was the preeminent chief of the Muache band of the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> beginning around 1870. He was born to a Muache father and an <strong>Apache</strong> mother, perhaps in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico. The origins of his English name, "Buckskin Charley," are obscure, and later in life he was also referred to as Charles Buck. He married Te-Wee, also known as To-Wee (Emma Naylor Buck). They had two sons: Julian and Antonio Buck.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout his long tenure as chief of the Southern Ute Tribe, Sapiah traveled to Washington, DC, numerous times, meeting seven US presidents. He was presented the Rutherford Hayes Peace Medal by President Benjamin Harrison in 1890. Sapiah and five other Native leaders were in Theodore Roosevelt’s inaugural parade. In 1905 Sapiah and his youngest son, Antonio Buck, traveled to Washington to meet with President Roosevelt.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Leader</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the Nuche (Ute people) lived in disparate bands with their own leaders, throughout the late nineteenth century the US government recognized <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, leader of the Tabeguache band, as de facto head of all Ute people. In 1880 Ouray died of Bright's disease. His death came at a trying time for the Nuche in Colorado, especially the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Northern</strong></a> bands, whom the US government forced out of Colorado after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>With Ouray gone, it fell to Sapiah and other Ute leaders to navigate a fraught relationship with the United States. Sapiah and other chiefs, including <strong>Severo</strong> of the Capote, shared Ouray's vision of coexistence with white Americans. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1886 Sapiah, <strong>Ignacio</strong>, and the Capote chief <strong>Tapuche </strong>went to Washington, DC, with C.F. Stollsteimer, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agent</strong></a> at Ignacio. Under pressure from white colonists and on the heels of violent events like the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek Massacre</strong></a>, the three chiefs agreed to leave Colorado. A proposal was made for the removal of the Utes to southeastern Utah, but the agreement was never ratified, in part due to opposition from Utah politicians. Sapiah, Severo, and most of the Southern Utes kept their people on the reservation lands near Ignacio.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1894 the issue of removing Colorado's Ute people again came to a head, with Congress deciding that the Utes should stay in the state. In 1895 Congress passed the Hunter Act. This act imposed upon the Southern Ute Reservation the terms of the <a href="/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>General Allotment Act of 1887</strong></a>, which authorized the president to survey and divide tribal land. By a vote of 153 to 148, the Southern Ute males agreed to accept the privatization of their land. The majority of the 153 were from the Muache and Capote bands, with most of the dissenting votes from the Weeminuche.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The government divided the reservation into two parts. The eastern portion was to be allocated into 80- and 160-acre parcels; the western part of the reservation was to remain unallotted, with the lands held in common by the Weeminuche. The Muache and Capote bands under Sapiah and Severo took the allotments and remained the Southern Ute Tribe under federal law, and the Weeminuche, led by Ignacio, moved to <strong>Navajo Springs</strong>, close to <strong>Towaoc</strong>, and were federally recognized as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a>. Chief Severo died in 1913, leaving Sapiah as the principal chief of the Southern Utes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Leader on the Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah was one of the most enterprising and farm-oriented leaders of the Utes. He settled into farming and ranching on his 160-acre allotment and became one of the tribe’s principal owners of cattle and sheep. In this regard, he was the government's ideal example of its vision for the Utes, a role model for his people. Sapiah’s economic success, however, was due in part to agency policies that resulted in preferential treatment of male leaders, including gratuity payments, salaries for reservation police, setup of pre-allotment farms and equipment, double allotments, and by 1911 allowing tribal leaders limited control over their own bank accounts. Sapiah was considered one of the favored Utes, although he continued with relative success after gratuities were removed in the early twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah was also an advocate of youth education, as long as the children did not have to leave the reservation. Early on, Ute children were sent to Boarding Schools such as Old <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-lewis"><strong>Fort Lewis</strong></a> at Hesperus, Colorado, the "<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction-indian-boarding-school"><strong>Teller Institute</strong></a>" in <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>, or further away to Santa Fe or Albuquerque, New Mexico. Many children suffered and died in these places, where they were exposed to unsanitary conditions and forced to abandon their language and traditions. Chief Ignacio is said to have lost three of his children while they attended boarding school in Albuquerque.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah and his wife, Emma Buck, were active participants in the peyote rites of the <strong>Native American Church</strong>. The Sun Dance religion took a firm hold on the Southern Ute Reservation with Sapiah as its leader. In contrast, Severo and Julian Buck, Charley’s oldest son, were converts to the Presbyterian Church. At the invitation of Julian Buck, Rev. A. J. Rodríguez set up a mission school near the Ignacio Agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Forty-five years after Ouray’s death, Sapiah took the lead to recover the dead chief’s remains and have them reburied in Ouray Memorial Cemetery along the <strong>Los Pinos River</strong> in Ignacio.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah died on May 8, 1936, at the age of ninety-six. He was preceded in death by his oldest son, Julian. On September 24, 1939, the Ute Chieftains Memorial Monument was dedicated in honor of four Ute Chiefs: Ouray, Sapiah, Severo, and Ignacio. After Sapiah’s death, his son Antonio Buck, Sr., the last hereditary chief of the Southern Utes, became the first elected chairman of the Southern Indian Tribe.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/charles-mona-c" hreflang="und">Charles, Mona C. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sapiah" hreflang="en">Sapiah</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote-ute" hreflang="en">Capote Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache-ute" hreflang="en">Muache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dawes-act" hreflang="en">dawes act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/allotment" hreflang="en">allotment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-leaders-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous leaders colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-leaders-colorado" hreflang="en">indian leaders colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ignacio" hreflang="en">Ignacio</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gary Courtney, “<a href="http://www.blackhawkpublishing.com/BP010102Vallecito%20Stories.htm#Early Pioneer of Vallecito">Early Pioneer of Vallecito: Chief Buckskin Charley</a>,” The Vallecito Legend, November 13, 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Delaney, ed., <em>Southern Ute Lands, 1848–1899: The Creation of a Reservation</em>, Occasional Paper of the Center of Southwest Studies, No. 1, Fort Lewis College (Durango, CO: Center of Southwest Studies, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Barry M. Pritzker, <em>Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples, </em>vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frances Leon Quintana, <em>Ordeal of Change: The Southern Utes and Their Neighbors </em>(New York: Altamira Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rio Blanco County Historical Society, “<a href="http://www.meekercolorado.com/HSociety.htm">Meeker Colorado and White River Valley</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bertha Pauline Dutton, <em>The Ranchería, Ute, and Southern Ute Peoples</em>, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Pettit, <em>Utes: The Mountain People,</em> rev. ed. (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P. David Smith, <em>Ouray:</em> <em>Chief of the Utes</em> (Ouray, CO: Wayfinder Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marshall Sprague, <em>Massacre: The Tragedy at White River </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Omer C. Stewart, <em>Ute</em> <em>Indians: Before and After White Contact </em>(Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1966).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 01 Mar 2016 23:41:15 +0000 yongli 1160 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lafayette Head http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lafayette-head <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lafayette Head</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1625--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1625.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lafayette-head-and-family"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lafayette%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=h4aPL4zg" width="317" height="358" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lafayette-head-and-family" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lafayette Head and family</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Major Lafayette Head with his son George and wife Maria Juana.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--710--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--710.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/colorado-ute-indian-delegation-1868"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/delegation.jpg?itok=yHkJDBOP" width="1090" height="422" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/colorado-ute-indian-delegation-1868" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Ute Indian Delegation, 1868</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Major Lafayette Head, standing sixth from right, with the delegation of Colorado Ute Indians as well as government officials in Washington, DC, to discuss the Treaty of 1868.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1626--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1626.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lafayette-head"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lafayette-Head-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=TSkFoOc0" width="500" height="766" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lafayette-head" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lafayette Head</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Portrait of Lafayette Head identifying him as “corner man,” which meant he was responsible for placing cornerstones.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-21T16:08:26-06:00" title="Friday, August 21, 2015 - 16:08" class="datetime">Fri, 08/21/2015 - 16:08</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lafayette-head" data-a2a-title="Lafayette Head"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flafayette-head&amp;title=Lafayette%20Head"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Major Lafayette Head (1825–97) was an <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agent</strong></a> to the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> tribe for nine years after serving in the Mexican American War. In 1877, he became the first lieutenant governor of Colorado. He was influential in the early development of towns across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Born in Hunter County, Missouri in 1825, Lafayette Head came to New Mexico during the Mexican American War (1846–48), where he served as a private with the Second Regiment of Missouri Volunteers. He fought in four battles in 1847, including La Canada, Santa Clara, and the Taos Rebellion. During this time, he ascended to the rank of major. Head spoke English and Spanish. In about 1847, Head married a Hispanic woman named Maria “Juanita” Juana de la Cruz Martinez.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>San Luis Valley Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head was influential in the establishment of communities across the San Luis Valley. In 1854, he led families from Abiquiu, New Mexico, to a new location along the Conejos River, where they together built the Plaza de Guadalupe on the <strong>Mexican land grant</strong> acquired in 1842. Located in present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos County</strong></a>, the plaza was one of the first permanent settlements in the region. In partnership with <a href="/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, Head started the first sawmill and gristmill in southern Colorado in 1855, and in 1856 he helped establish Our Lady of Guadalupe Parish, the earliest church in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indian Agent</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the discovery of gold in 1858 came an influx of Anglo-American settlers to the region, and the population surge led to the establishment of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado </strong><strong>Territory</strong></a> in 1861. In an effort to increase the land available to miners, Territorial Governor <a href="/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a> established an Indian agency to handle tribal relations. In 1859, Head was appointed as Special Agent to the Apache and Ute tribes at Abiquiu, but in 1860, the agency was reorganized, and Head was reassigned to the Tabeguache Ute tribe in Conejos, where he served as Indian agent until 1868. During this time, he ran a general store, stables, and school in association with the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Indian agent, Head worked closely with a Ute interpreter named <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>. In 1863 Head and Ouray traveled to Washington, DC, with a delegation to meet with President Abraham Lincoln and discuss the “Treaty with the Utah—Tabeguache Band.” This treaty established the boundaries for tribal lands at the 37th parallel and was signed in October 1863 in Colorado with 1,500 Ute representatives and US government officials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later in 1868, Head helped the US government negotiate another <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty</strong></a> that created one reservation for all seven Ute bands and relocated them to the Western Slope. In these negotiations the government demanded to work with one representative of all seven Ute bands, and it recognized Chief Ouray, whom Head worked with and knew well, as that representative.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Politician</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career dates back to as early as 1847, when he served as Sheriff of Rio Arriba County in New Mexico. He also served as a US marshal in New Mexico. In 1853 he served as one of five representatives from Rio Arriba County in the Third Territorial Legislative Assembly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career did not resume until about thirty years later. In 1874, after operating a business for several years, he returned to politics in the Tenth Colorado Territorial Assembly as the Councilman for the Eleventh District, which included Conejos County. (This position is similar to today’s state senator.) Head attended the constitutional convention to help establish the Colorado State Constitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1876, when Colorado officially became a state, Head was nominated to become the first state governor at the Republican Convention in Pueblo. He lost to <a href="/article/john-l-routt"><strong>John Routt</strong></a>, but served as the state’s first lieutenant governor. In 1879 Head left politics and returned to Conejos County, where he lived with his wife. He died during a trip to Denver on March 8, 1897.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lanier-claire-l" hreflang="und">Lanier, Claire L. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/major-lafayette-head" hreflang="en">Major Lafayette Head</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lieutenant-governor" hreflang="en">lieutenant governor</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Frederic J. Athearn, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/blm/co/17/chap5.htm"><em>Land of Contrast: A History of Southeast Colorado</em></a>, Cultural Resources Series, Number 17 (Denver: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>"<a href="http://c70003.eos-intl.net/ELIBSQL12_C70003_Documents/349-44.pdf">Major Lafayette Head," Pioneer Interviews Collection</a> (Denver: US Civil Works Administration, 1934).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven F. Mehls,<em> The Valley of Opportunity: A History of West-Central Colorado</em>, Cultural Resource Series, Number 12 (Denver: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Forbes Parkhill, "<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/Researchers/ColoradoMagazine_v33n3_July1956.pdf">Colorado's First Survey</a>," <em>The</em> <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 33, no. 3 (July 1956).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul O'Rourke, <em>Frontier in Transition: A History of Southwestern Colorado</em>, Cultural Resource Series, Number 10 (Denver: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Melissa Shipp, "<a href="https://www.adams.edu/lutherbean/aotm_apr2008_melissashipp_knights%20templar%20sword.pdf">Knights Templar Sword</a>," Luther Bean Museum (Alamosa, CO: Adams State University, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Laurie Simmons and Thomas H. Simmons, "<a href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/feature/places/pdfs/14000433.pdf">Saguache Downtown</a>," National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form (Denver: National Park Service, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Thompson, "<a href="http://newmexicohistory.org/2013/01/11/lafayette-head/">The Politician Who Bridged the 37th Parallel</a>," Office of the State Historian of New Mexico.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/archives/legislative-records">Legislative History</a>, Colorado State Archives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.museumtrail.org/san-luis-flour-mill-grinding-stone.html">San Luis Flour Mill Grinding Stone</a>, San Luis Valley Museum Association.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/chronology/">Southern Ute Tribe History and Chronology</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://newmexicohistory.org/2013/06/21/us-territorial/">US Territorial Period, Office of the State Historian of New Mexico</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Videos, <a href="https://www.museumtrail.org/photography/videos">San Luis Valley Museum Association</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Major Lafayette Head (1825–97) was an Indian agent to the Ute tribe. In 1877, he became the first lieutenant governor of Colorado. He helped develop early towns across the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lafayette Head was born in Hunter County, Missouri in 1825. He came to New Mexico during the Mexican American War (1846–48). He served as a private with the Second Regiment of Missouri Volunteers. Head fought in four battles. He rose to the rank of major. Head spoke English and Spanish. In 1847, Head married a woman named Maria “Juanita” Juana de la Cruz Martinez.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>San Luis Valley Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head helped found communities across the San Luis Valley. In 1854, he led families from Abiquiu, New Mexico. The families went to a location along the Conejos River. They built the Plaza de Guadalupe. The plaza is located in present-day Conejos County. It was one of the first permanent settlements in the region. Head worked with Otto Mears. The men started the first sawmill in southern Colorado in 1855. In 1856, Head helped establish Our Lady of Guadalupe Parish. It was the earliest church in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indian Agent</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the discovery of gold in 1858 came Anglo-American settlers. The population surged. This led to the creation of the Colorado Territory in 1861. Leaders wanted to increase the land available to miners. Territorial Governor William Gilpin created an Indian agency to handle tribal relations. In 1859, Head was appointed as Special Agent to the Apache and Ute tribes at Abiquiu. In 1860, the agency was reorganized. Head was reassigned to the Tabeguache Ute tribe in Conejos. He served as Indian agent until 1868. During this time, he also ran a general store, stables, and a school.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Indian agent, Head worked with a Ute interpreter named Ouray. In 1863 Head and Ouray traveled to Washington, DC. They met with President Abraham Lincoln. The men discussed the “Treaty with the Utah—Tabeguache Band.” This treaty established the boundaries for tribal lands. It was signed in October 1863 in Colorado. There were 1,500 Ute representatives and US government officials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later in 1868, Head helped the US government negotiate another treaty. The treaty created one reservation for all seven Ute bands. It also relocated them to the Western Slope. In these negotiations, the government demanded to work with one representative of all seven Ute bands. The government recognized Chief Ouray as that man.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Politician</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career dates back to 1847. He served as a Sheriff in New Mexico. He also served as a US marshal.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1874, Head returned to politics in the Tenth Colorado Territorial Assembly. He was the Councilman for the Eleventh District. The district included Conejos County. (This position is similar to today’s state senator.) Head helped establish the Colorado State Constitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1876, Colorado became a state. Head was nominated to become the first state governor. He lost to John Routt. Instead, Head served as the state’s first lieutenant governor. In 1879 Head left politics. He returned to Conejos County. Head lived there with his wife. He died during a trip to Denver on March 8, 1897.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Major Lafayette Head (1825–97) was an Indian agent to the Ute tribe. In 1877, he became the first lieutenant governor of Colorado. He was influential in the early development of towns across the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lafayette Head was born in Hunter County, Missouri in 1825. He came to New Mexico during the Mexican American War (1846–48). There, he served as a private with the Second Regiment of Missouri Volunteers. He fought in four battles. During this time, he rose to the rank of major. Head spoke English and Spanish. In 1847, Head married a woman named Maria “Juanita” Juana de la Cruz Martinez.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>San Luis Valley Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head was influential in the founding of communities across the San Luis Valley. In 1854, he led families from Abiquiu, New Mexico, to a location along the Conejos River. They built the Plaza de Guadalupe. The plaza is located in present-day Conejos County. It was one of the first permanent settlements in the region. In partnership with Otto Mears, Head started the first sawmill and gristmill in southern Colorado in 1855. In 1856, he helped establish Our Lady of Guadalupe Parish. It was the earliest church in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indian Agent</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the discovery of gold in 1858 came Anglo-American settlers. The population surge led to the creation of the Colorado Territory in 1861. Leaders wanted to increase the land available to miners. Territorial Governor William Gilpin created an Indian agency to handle tribal relations. In 1859, Head was appointed as Special Agent to the Apache and Ute tribes at Abiquiu. In 1860, the agency was reorganized. Head was reassigned to the Tabeguache Ute tribe in Conejos. He served as Indian agent until 1868. During this time, he ran a general store, stables, and a school in association with the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Indian agent, Head worked with a Ute interpreter named Ouray. In 1863 Head and Ouray traveled to Washington, DC. They met with President Abraham Lincoln to discuss the “Treaty with the Utah—Tabeguache Band.” This treaty established the boundaries for tribal lands. It was signed in October 1863 in Colorado. There were 1,500 Ute representatives and US government officials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later in 1868, Head helped the US government negotiate another treaty. The treaty created one reservation for all seven Ute bands. It also relocated them to the Western Slope. In these negotiations, the government demanded to work with one representative of all seven Ute bands. The government recognized Chief Ouray as that man.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Politician</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career dates back to 1847. He served as Sheriff of Rio Arriba County in New Mexico. He also served as a US marshal in New Mexico. In 1853, he was one of five representatives from Rio Arriba County in the Third Territorial Legislative Assembly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career did not resume until about thirty years later. In 1874, he returned to politics in the Tenth Colorado Territorial Assembly. He was the Councilman for the Eleventh District. The district included Conejos County. (This position is similar to today’s state senator.) Head helped establish the Colorado State Constitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1876, Colorado became a state. Head was nominated to become the first state governor. He lost to John Routt. However, Head served as the state’s first lieutenant governor. In 1879 Head left politics. He returned to Conejos County. Head lived there with his wife. He died during a trip to Denver on March 8, 1897.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Major Lafayette Head (1825–97) was an Indian agent to the Ute tribe. In 1877, he became the first lieutenant governor of Colorado. He was influential in the early development of towns across the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lafayette Head was born in Hunter County, Missouri in 1825. He came to New Mexico during the Mexican American War (1846–48). There, he served as a private with the Second Regiment of Missouri Volunteers. He fought in four battles. During this time, he rose to the rank of major. Head spoke English and Spanish. In 1847, Head married a Hispanic woman named Maria “Juanita” Juana de la Cruz Martinez.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>San Luis Valley Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head was influential in the founding of communities across the San Luis Valley. In 1854, he led families from Abiquiu, New Mexico, to a new location along the Conejos River. Together, they built the Plaza de Guadalupe. Located in present-day Conejos County, the plaza was one of the first permanent settlements in the region. In partnership with Otto Mears, Head started the first sawmill and gristmill in southern Colorado in 1855. In 1856, he helped establish Our Lady of Guadalupe Parish. It was the earliest church in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indian Agent</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the discovery of gold in 1858 came an influx of Anglo-American settlers to the region. The population surge led to the establishment of the Colorado Territory in 1861. In an effort to increase the land available to miners, Territorial Governor William Gilpin established an Indian agency to handle tribal relations. In 1859, Head was appointed as Special Agent to the Apache and Ute tribes at Abiquiu. In 1860, the agency was reorganized. Head was reassigned to the Tabeguache Ute tribe in Conejos. He served as Indian agent until 1868. During this time, he ran a general store, stables, and school in association with the agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Indian agent, Head worked closely with a Ute interpreter named Ouray. In 1863 Head and Ouray traveled to Washington, DC, with a delegation to meet with President Abraham Lincoln and discuss the “Treaty with the Utah—Tabeguache Band.” This treaty established the boundaries for tribal lands at the 37th parallel and was signed in October 1863 in Colorado with 1,500 Ute representatives and US government officials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later in 1868, Head helped the US government negotiate another treaty that created one reservation for all seven Ute bands and relocated them to the Western Slope. In these negotiations the government demanded to work with one representative of all seven Ute bands, and it recognized Chief Ouray, whom Head worked with and knew well, as that representative.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Politician</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career dates back to as early as 1847, when he served as Sheriff of Rio Arriba County in New Mexico. He also served as a US marshal in New Mexico. In 1853 he served as one of five representatives from Rio Arriba County in the Third Territorial Legislative Assembly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Head’s political career did not resume until about thirty years later. In 1874, after operating a business for several years, he returned to politics in the Tenth Colorado Territorial Assembly as the Councilman for the Eleventh District, which included Conejos County. (This position is similar to today’s state senator.) Head attended the constitutional convention to help establish the Colorado State Constitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1876, when Colorado officially became a state, Head was nominated to become the first state governor at the Republican Convention in Pueblo. He lost to John Routt, but served as the state’s first lieutenant governor. In 1879 Head left politics and returned to Conejos County, where he lived with his wife. He died during a trip to Denver on March 8, 1897.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:08:26 +0000 yongli 604 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org