%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en The Gateway Tradition http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gateway-tradition <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Gateway Tradition</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--717--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--717.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-southwestern-colorado-showing-distribution-gateway-tradition-sites"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Region-Map_Gateway_Fremont_Anasazi_0.jpg?itok=0-vgUL26" width="1000" height="1301" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-southwestern-colorado-showing-distribution-gateway-tradition-sites" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of southwestern Colorado showing the distribution of Gateway tradition sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The distribution of Gateway tradition sites in relation to the Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont culture areas.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--719--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--719.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gateway-tradition-masonry-structure"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gateway-tradition-structure_0.jpg?itok=5dbVJYmh" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gateway-tradition-masonry-structure" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gateway tradition masonry structure</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Photograph of a Gateway tradition masonry structure.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--720--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--720.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gateway-tradition-stone-structures"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gateway-Structures-figure_0.jpg?itok=-gho3NmE" width="1000" height="1360" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gateway-tradition-stone-structures" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gateway tradition stone structures</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Plan maps of Gateway tradition stone structures showing the variability within this feature type.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-13T09:32:14-07:00" title="Friday, November 13, 2015 - 09:32" class="datetime">Fri, 11/13/2015 - 09:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gateway-tradition" data-a2a-title="The Gateway Tradition"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgateway-tradition&amp;title=The%20Gateway%20Tradition"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Gateway tradition refers to a set of archaeological sites within western Montrose and <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel</strong></a> Counties, Colorado, that appear similar to <strong>Pueblo II</strong>–period (AD 900–1150) sites to the south in the core homeland of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> </a>(Figs. 1 and 2). The sites in Montrose and San Miguel Counties, however, lack key diagnostic attributes of Pueblo II–period Ancestral Pueblo sites, such as<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong> kivas</strong></a> and a highly patterned layout of habitation structures, plazas, and refuse deposits. Archaeologists in the region have attributed the sites to the Ancestral Puebloans, the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"> <strong>Fremont</strong></a>, and to local groups that adapted traits of both. Recent reanalysis of archaeological materials excavated at the Weimer Ranch site complex northwest of <strong>Norwood</strong>, Colorado has provided convincing evidence that the Gateway tradition represents a short-term incursion of Ancestral Puebloans into west-central Colorado.</p> <h2>History of the Gateway Tradition Concept</h2> <p>Early archaeological investigations in southwestern Colorado focused on Ancestral Puebloan sites south of the San Miguel Mountains in the San Juan River drainage. Although a few sites with masonry architecture reminiscent of Ancestral Puebloan sites had been reported north of the San Miguel Mountains, most of the archaeological sites there were known to be stone artifact scatters without apparent architecture or pottery. The region was considered to be outside of the main homeland of the Ancestral Puebloans.</p> <p>The Colorado State Historical Society conducted some of the first archaeological excavations in the area north of the San Miguel Mountains in 1924, focusing on several noncontiguous, rectangular masonry rooms in the Paradox Valley in western Montrose County. The investigators concluded that the structures represented Ancestral Puebloan summer homes, based on the nature of the architecture and pottery.</p> <p>Further excavations in the 1930s and 1940s, focusing on the larger architectural sites, produced Ancestral Puebloan pottery types. The revealed architectural styles, however, were not entirely compatible with those of Ancestral Puebloan sites located south of the San Miguel Mountains. The sites contained no kivas, which are nearly universal at Pueblo-period habitation sites in the Ancestral Puebloan homeland. The typical pattern of Ancestral Puebloan site layout, with surface habitation structures at the northern end of the site; a plaza and subterranean kiva just south of the surface habitation structures; and a midden, or refuse deposit, at the southern end of the site was not evident at the excavated sites in western <a href="/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a>. In a review of these various archaeological investigations, Albert Schroeder concluded that the sites represented a northward expansion of either Pueblo II–period Ancestral Puebloans or aspects of their ways of life.</p> <p>After a thirty-year hiatus in archaeological excavations in San Miguel and western Montrose Counties, Metropolitan State College in Denver commenced an excavation project at ten structural sites on the Weimer Ranch. Excavations revealed rectangular and circular rooms, evidence of corn, stone arrow points, and pottery. The pottery was classified into Ancestral Puebloan types, essentially indicating a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>–region ceramic assemblage. The pottery was thought to represent Ancestral Puebloan types, but the circular masonry structures and aspects of site layout were more similar to the Fremont culture. Thus, investigators suggested that the Weimer Ranch sites were occupied by an indigenous group that borrowed elements of both Ancestral Puebloan and Fremont cultures.</p> <p>Meanwhile, archaeological surveys attributed structures on some sites to the Fremont. This trend intensified when Utah archaeologists suggested that cultural variation was one of the defining characteristics of Fremont sites.</p> <p>In 1997, Alan Reed coined the Gateway tradition as a way to describe sites in west-central Colorado with pottery, evidence of corn, and masonry architecture. The tradition was defined to mark the region’s sites as substantially different from those of either the Ancestral Pueblo or the Fremont core areas. Fremont ceramics were believed to be rare in the region, and other key elements of the Fremont—such as one-rod-and-bundle basketry, moccasins made from the hock of a deer or mountain sheep, clay figurines and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> depictions of trapezoidal figures with elaborate ornamentation, and a distinct ceramic tradition—were not known from the area.</p> <p>The widespread presence of round masonry habitation rooms and the absence of kivas and highly patterned site layouts argued against direct affiliation with the Ancestral Puebloans. Furthermore, it seemed clear that full progression of Ancestral Pueblo culture—as represented by the <strong>Basketmaker III</strong>, <strong>Pueblo I</strong>, and Pueblo III archaeological units—was not represented in west-central Colorado. The Gateway tradition sites were thought to represent a local development that adapted elements of the farming-based cultures living to the south and west.</p> <h2>Recent Insights into the Gateway Tradition</h2> <p>In 2006 archaeologists completed a reexamination of the Weimer Ranch materials with funds provided by the Colorado State Historic Fund. Site maps, photographs, and basic architectural descriptions were compiled. Stone, bone, and pottery artifacts were analyzed and organized. Eleven <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon date</strong></a>s were processed, including five dates produced by accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) dating, a different type of radiocarbon dating.</p> <p>Perhaps most important, the ceramic artifacts from the Weimer Ranch sites were submitted to Lori Reed, an expert in prehistoric pottery of the Four Corners area. The sample of 250 Ancestral Pueblo pottery fragments revealed types commonly dated between AD 900 and 1100—the Pueblo II period. The ceramics were attributed to three manufacturing locales, based on temper materials, paste characteristics, and slip. Some of the fragments were evidently manufactured in the Northern San Juan River drainage—the general vicinity of the <strong>Four Corners</strong>. A second set of pottery fragments was outwardly similar to the Pueblo II<sub>­ </sub>period ceramics from the Northern San Juan area, but displayed subtle differences. Lori Reed suggests that this set of pieces was produced near Weimer Ranch.</p> <p>Largely as a result of the Weimer Ranch reanalysis, it now seems likely that the Gateway tradition represents an actual incursion into west-central Colorado by Ancestral Pueblo peoples from the Northern San Juan drainage. These people either brought pottery from the Northern San Juan drainage with them or obtained it through trading networks. Once settled in west-central Colorado, they continued making their familiar pottery types using local materials. Possibly because their new communities were small, kivas were unnecessary. Round masonry rooms, where present, may have been constructed if little village growth was anticipated.</p> <h3>Dating the Gateway Tradition</h3> <p>The Gateway tradition is currently dated between about AD 900 and 1030, though the sample of high-quality AMS dates is small. The sample of AMS dates and ceramic types from various sites suggest that the Gateway tradition may have been of relatively short duration and limited to the Pueblo II period.</p> <h3>Settlement Patterns and Distribution</h3> <p>Although early researchers mention a few masonry sites with Puebloan ceramics on the eastern side of the <strong>Uncompahgre Plateau</strong>, the large majority is on the lower western flanks of the Uncompahgre Plateau in the San Miguel and lower Dolores River drainages. This area includes western Montrose County and northwestern San Miguel County (Fig. 1). Sites are generally clustered between 6,600 feet (2,011 m) and 7,100 feet (2,164 m), probably within the elevation zone where corn horticulture was possible during the time of occupation. Sites often occur on canyon rims. Structural sites appear to have between one and seven rooms. One of the more elaborate multiroom structures is Cottonwood Pueblo (Fig. 3).</p> <p>A few Gateway tradition sites are located in relatively high elevations. Situated at 9,560 feet (2,914 m), the Jeff Lick site and its four or five circular structures may represent a summer or fall base camp and outpost for storage of plants and animals procured atop the Uncompahgre Plateau. The Fallen Deer site is a nonstructural site at the southern end of the Uncompahgre Plateau with Pueblo II–period ceramics at 8,160 feet (2,487 m). It, too, probably represents foraging trips above the farming belt.</p> <h3>Subsistence</h3> <p>The available subsistence data suggest a strategy based on corn horticulture. Wild plants were also important, however, and included grass seeds, pinyon nuts, juniper berries, acorns, cactus pads, and goosefoot seeds. Hunting was important, especially of deer. Bones of reptiles, small birds, rodents, rabbits, hares, elk, bison, <a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a>, and bears have also been recovered at Gateway tradition sites. Bones are frequently heavily processed, suggesting extraction of bone grease.</p> <h3>Technology</h3> <p>Gateway tradition stone-working and ceramic technologies are generally similar to those of the Northern San Juan area. Projectile points are dominated by small corner-notched varieties that are thought to have been arrow tips. Pottery from the Northern San Juan River drainage was brought to sites in west-central Colorado, but similar pottery styles were also locally manufactured. Whereas two-hand manos, or grinding stones, are common in the Northern San Juan area, they are uncommon in west-central Colorado. At Weimer Ranch, 97 percent of the recovered manos were of the one-hand variety. This suggests that corn milling may have been less intensive at Weimer Ranch than at contemporaneous sites in the Northern San Juan drainage.</p> <h2>Conclusion</h2> <p>Although the suspected origins of the people represented by the Gateway tradition has changed in light of new archaeological information, the tradition continues to be a useful way to think about local variation in the archaeological record. Even though the tradition probably represents a Pueblo II–period phenomenon, Gateway tradition sites do vary from contemporaneous sites in the Four Corners area. The Gateway tradition should prove useful for future studies of Ancestral Puebloan migrations, interactions between immigrant farmers and indigenous hunter-gatherers, defensive strategies, mechanisms of social integration, and aspects of technology that directly reflect cultural affiliation.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/reed-alan-d" hreflang="und">Reed, Alan D. </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/greubel-rand" hreflang="und">Greubel, Rand A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gateway-tradition" hreflang="en">Gateway Tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-culture" hreflang="en">Fremont culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paradox-valley" hreflang="en">Paradox Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anasazi" hreflang="en">Anasazi</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/migrations" hreflang="en">migrations</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwestern-prehistory" hreflang="en">Southwestern prehistory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/masonry-architecture" hreflang="en">masonry architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-ii-period" hreflang="en">Pueblo II period</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Cathy J. Crane, <em>A Comparison of Archaeological Sites on the Uncompahgre Plateau and Adjacent Areas</em> (Master’s thesis, Eastern New Mexico University, 1977).</p> <p>Cathy J. Crane, “Cultural Adaptation along the Tributaries of the San Miguel River, West Central Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 44 (December 1978).</p> <p>Rand A. Greubel, Bradford W. Andrews, and Alan D. Reed, <em>The Weimer Ranch Sites Revisited: Analysis of Materials from a Prehistoric Farming Community in West Central Colorado</em>, prepared by Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado, for Uncompahgre/Com. Inc., Delta, Colorado (Montrose, Colorado: Bureau of Land Management, 2006).</p> <p>Rand A. Greubel, Alan D. Reed, and Bradford W. Andrews, “Gaining Ground on the Gateway Tradition: Analysis of Materials from Weimer Ranch, a Prehistoric Farming Settlement in West-Central Colorado,” <em>Colorado Archaeology</em> 75 (Spring/Summer 2009).</p> <p>David B. Madsen, <em>Exploring the Fremont</em>, University of Utah Occasional Publication No. 8 (Salt Lake City: Utah Museum of Natural History, 1989).</p> <p>David B. Madsen and Steven R. Simms, “The Fremont Complex: A Behavioral Perspective,” <em>Journal of World Prehistory</em> 12 (September 1998).</p> <p>Kae McDonald, <em>Archaeological Excavations at the Fallen Deer Site (5SM2578)</em>, prepared by Metcalf Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Eagle, Colorado, for Western Land Group, Inc., Denver, Colorado (Delta, Colorado: Grand Mesa, Uncompahgre, and Gunnison National Forests Supervisor’s Office, 1998).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed, “The Gateway Tradition: A Formative Stage Culture Unit for East-Central Utah and West-Central Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 63 (Summer 1997).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed, and Steven D. Emslie, <em>Archaeological Assessment of Twelve Gateway-Tradition Sites in Western Montrose and San Miguel Counties, Colorado</em>, prepared by Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado and University of North Carolina, Wilmington (Montrose: Colorado Archaeological Society, Chipeta Chapter, 2008).</p> <p>Lori Stephens Reed, “Ceramic Artifacts,” appendix A in <em>The Weimer Ranch Sites Revisited: Analysis of Materials from a Prehistoric Farming Community in West Central Colorado</em>, prepared by Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado (Montrose, Colorado: Bureau of Land Management, 2006).</p> <p>Albert H. Schroeder, “The Cultural Position of Hurst’s Tabeguache Caves and Pueblo Sites,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 29 (March 1964).</p> <p>Steven R. Simms, “New Evidence for Fremont Adaptive Diversity,” <em>Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology</em> 8, no. 2 (1986).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>C. T. Hurst, “The Cottonwood Expedition, 1947—A Cave and a Pueblo Site,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 14 (June 1948).</p> <p>C. T. Hurst, “The 1945 Tabeguache Expedition,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 12 (June 1946).</p> <p>Betty H. Huscher and Harold A. Huscher, "The Hogan Builders of Colorado," <em>Southwestern Lore </em>9 (September 1943).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed, “Settlement and Subsistence during the Formative Era in West-Central Colorado,” <em>Colorado Archaeology</em> 71 (Winter 2005).</p> <p>Henry W. Toll III, <em>Dolores River Archaeology: Canyon Adaptations as Seen through Survey, </em>Cultural Resource Series no. 4 (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1977).</p> <p>George Woodbury and Edna Woodbury, “The Archaeological Survey of Paradox Valley and Adjacent Country in Western Montrose County, Colorado, 1931,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 9 (January 1932).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Nov 2015 16:32:14 +0000 yongli 908 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org The Formative Period in Prehistory http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Formative Period in Prehistory</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-03T10:09:38-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 3, 2015 - 10:09" class="datetime">Tue, 11/03/2015 - 10:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory" data-a2a-title="The Formative Period in Prehistory"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fformative-period-prehistory&amp;title=The%20Formative%20Period%20in%20Prehistory"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Formative is the last of several periods in a sequence of cultural development that traces the overall progression from stone-tool-using, hunter- gatherer societies to fully developed agricultural societies. The process that occurred is analogous to the Old World’s “Neolithic Revolution.” It is evident in Colorado and led to the rise of cultures such as those at prehistoric <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>, although its origins lay far to the south in Mexico.</p> <h2>What Is Formative?</h2> <p>A prehistoric society is said to have reached a Formative stage of development when it is fully dependent on agriculture and completely settled with people living in permanent villages. The Formative was reached at different times in different parts of the world. In general, it happened later in the New World than in the Old World because people have been in North and South America for a shorter period of time than, for example, in Asia and Africa. Also, for the most part Formative development was achieved earlier in tropical and subtropical climates than in temperate latitudes, where more native plants existed that could be domesticated into crops.</p> <p>In Colorado, true Formative development only took place in the southwestern corner of the state, in the <strong>Four Corners</strong> region, where Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona come together. However, prehistoric agriculture was widespread in Colorado even if most people never came to rely completely on food crops for their survival. Outside the Four Corners region, people remained essentially hunters and gatherers of wild plant foods, but in some areas supplemented their diets with domesticated crops. The beginning date for Formative development is 1000 BC and the ending date is AD 1450. The actual dates vary from one area to the next. Establishing a beginning date is especially difficult because in any area the transition to full dependency on agriculture was a gradual process.</p> <h2>Domesticated Plants in Colorado</h2> <p>Three crops were grown prehistorically in Colorado: corn (maize), beans, and squash. These cultivated plants were not domesticated in Colorado. All native to Mexico, they arrived in western North America in fully domesticated form. Corn is basically a domesticated form of grass, and compared to other crops developed from wild grasses it is not especially nutritious. Archaeologists in the United States often refer to corn, beans, and squash as the “triad,” indicating that the most favorable diet for prehistoric farmers featured all three crops, which complemented each other in a nutritional sense. While this is true, the three crops have different histories of dispersion despite their common Mexican origin.</p> <p>Corn was the first to arrive in the American Southwest, where it has been found in archaeological sites in the Tucson, Arizona, area that date to around 2000 BC. Within a few centuries it had spread northward to the Colorado Plateau, the high-desert region that encompasses the Four Corners. Domesticated squash was the next to arrive. Its northward progress is not as well documented as that of corn, but it is known to have been present in the Southwest by sometime in the first millennium BC. Beans were the last to arrive, probably reaching the Southwest around 200 BC, but not appearing regularly in archaeological sites until the AD 300–600 interval, and possibly during the latter portion of that span. Clearly, the corn-beans-squash dietary combination is a relatively new when the overall history of agriculture in western North America is taken into consideration.</p> <p>Not all areas of Colorado were suitable for agriculture. The corn that spread from the southern deserts to the Colorado Plateau had adapted to a higher, colder <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> over time, but its usefulness as a food crop was still constrained by the length of the growing season as well as by water availability. Even areas where corn thrived during most years could be affected by drought, and both elevation and latitude affected the growing season. In general, valleys at lower elevations where water was most plentiful and the growing season reliably longer were the optimal locations for farming. South-facing mesa surfaces were also farmed. Such environments were present in the southwestern corner of the state. Farther north, along the western margin of Colorado, farming possibilities diminished as latitude increased, and only a few low-elevation settings have provided good archaeological evidence of prehistoric agriculture. Agriculture was also practiced to some degree in southeastern Colorado in the upper Purgatoire River Valley and adjacent Park Plateau east of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, and in the vast network of canyons in the dry plains to the east. There is virtually no evidence of plant cultivation in the Colorado mountains or on the northeastern plains.</p> <h2>Shift from Hunting/Gathering to Agriculture</h2> <p>Why do hunter-gatherers become farmers? The shift is not inevitable, as there are many historical examples of hunter-gatherers living near farming societies without adopting agriculture themselves. Commonly, there is interaction between such groups such as trade or even intermarriage. But adoption of agriculture is not automatic, and anthropologists have long noted that hunter-gatherers on average work less hard than farmers to obtain the food products needed for survival. Proximity to agricultural technology is not by itself an adequate explanation for the shift away from a hunting-gathering way of life.</p> <p>Population pressure may be a primary reason that hunter-gatherers turn to agriculture. Not long after the last Ice Age, which ended about 10,000 years ago, the world was essentially “full,” meaning that humans occupied most habitable areas, although in many places the population density was low. Human populations have a natural tendency to increase in numbers. With gradual population increases over time, and essentially no place for people to migrate to without creating conflict with other groups, it became necessary to improve food production capacity. In some places, at various times, environmental changes such as long-term drought also may have pushed people to adopt new methods of producing food. In essence, the beginnings of domestic plant cultivation in hunter-gatherer societies were about establishing greater food security rather than a newfound preference for farming.</p> <p>Agriculture may spread to new areas through either outright migration of people or by diffusion of crops and farming technology from one society to another. We may never learn which mechanism was mainly in play in prehistoric Colorado, and perhaps some of both are reflected in the various societies that adopted farming in different parts of the state. It should be noted, though, that hunter-gatherer groups were well-established in all parts of Colorado prior to the introduction of agriculture, and it seems probable that the part- and full-time farmers we see in the archaeological record were mainly descended from these indigenous groups.</p> <p>When hunter-gatherers first began to experiment with agriculture, there was little about the structure of their societies that changed. They remained highly mobile and lacked permanent dwellings because there was no reason to make investments of time and labor in building houses that would only see short-term use. Domesticated plants such as corn may have been planted in the spring and left to mature with little further attention as people followed traditional hunting-and-gathering routines. But domesticates generally don’t do well without human intervention, and some will not reproduce at all. Casual farming is often ineffective because crops, once planted, need to be watered, weeded, and protected against pests. Otherwise, crop yields are low and some crops will fail altogether. Over time, as the commitment to domesticated crops grew in some societies, patterns of human settlement changed. People became semisedentary as some members of the group were left behind to tend crops while others left to&nbsp; hunt and collect wild plant foods. The justification for building more permanent dwellings increased, while at the same time diets began to reflect a more even mix of domesticated and wild foods. Eventually some groups became reliant on agricultural products for most of their subsistence needs, a process that unfolded over the course of centuries or even a millennium or more. Permanent, year-round settlements were established near prime farming areas, with houses that could be occupied for a generation or longer.</p> <h2>Agriculture in Colorado, 1000 BC–AD 1450</h2> <p>Five prehistoric culture groups in Colorado are known to have practiced agriculture. However, only the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>people of the Four Corners region, with a culture sequence dating from 1000 BC to AD 1300, became completely dependent on agriculture and lived in permanent villages. The remaining four cultures combined hunting and gathering of wild foods with agriculture to varying degrees. The <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture">Fremont</a> tradition</strong> (AD 400–1300) extended into northwestern Colorado from Utah and is best known from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a> area. The <strong>Gateway tradition </strong>(400 BC–AD 1250) was located along the Colorado-Utah border midway between the Ancestral Pueblo and Fremont areas. In southeastern Colorado, people of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sopris-phase"><strong>Sopris phase</strong></a> (AD 1050–1200) occupied the upper Purgatoire River Valley and Park Plateau in the Trinidad vicinity, while the<a href="/article/apishapa-phase"> <strong>Apishapa phase</strong> </a>(AD 1050–1450) is associated with the extensive network of canyons of the lower Purgatoire River and other <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> tributaries. In southeastern Colorado there is archaeological evidence of small-scale experimentation with agriculture that predates the Sopris and Apishapa phases by a thousand years or more.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/zier-christian-j" hreflang="und">Zier, Christian J. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/neolithic-revolution" hreflang="en">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/maize" hreflang="en">maize</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-culture" hreflang="en">Fremont culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gateway-tradition" hreflang="en">Gateway Tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apishapa-phase" hreflang="en">Apishapa phase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sopris-phase" hreflang="en">Sopris phase</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Anne Birgette Gebauer and T. Douglas Price, eds.<em>, Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory</em>. Monographs in World Archaeology, no. 4 (Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, 1992).</p> <p>William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and Richard H. Wilshusen, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed, “Settlement and Subsistence during the Formative Era in West Central Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 71, no. 4 (December 2005).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed and Michael D. Metcalf, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>W. H. Wills, “Archaic Foraging and the Beginning of Food Production in the American Southwest,” in <em>Last Hunters—First Farmers</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1995).</p> <p>Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mary J. Adair, “Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains,” <em>University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology,</em> 16 (Lawrence: Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, 1988).</p> <p>Peter Bellwood, <em>First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies</em> (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> <p>Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).</p> <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds. <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest </em>(Los Angeles: UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 03 Nov 2015 17:09:38 +0000 yongli 751 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org