%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Great Divide http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Divide</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3157--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3157.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/continental-divide-rabbit-ears-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great%20Divide%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=vYvuXiu1" width="1090" height="610" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/continental-divide-rabbit-ears-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Continental Divide at Rabbit Ears Pass</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Continental Divide is a geologic crest running through Colorado's Rocky Mountains. Rivers on the west slope of the divide drain into the Pacific Ocean, and water on the east slope drains into the Atlantic.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3158--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3158.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/north-american-continental-divides"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great%20Divide%20Media%202_0.png?itok=fcLj92wA" width="900" height="900" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/north-american-continental-divides" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">North American Continental Divides</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Great Divide, shown here in red, is one of many Continental Divides in North America. Divides are geologic formations that separate watersheds. On the east side of the Great Divide, water flows to the Atlantic Ocean; on the west side, it flows to the Pacific.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T13:44:13-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 13:44" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 13:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide" data-a2a-title="Great Divide"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgreat-divide&amp;title=Great%20Divide"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The beautiful and imposing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountain scenery</strong></a> of Colorado’s Great Divide has led to the common belief that the state is home to a singular “Continental Divide.” The divide in Colorado, however, is only a piece of the larger Great Divide, a geologic crest that runs from Alaska through South America. The larger Great Divide separates the North American continent into eastern (Atlantic) and western (Pacific) watersheds. It runs some 650 miles through the heart of Colorado, crossing twenty-one counties and many of the state’s famous mountain peaks.</p> <p>Colorado’s Great Divide has played a prominent role in the history of both the state and the nation. As an immense, living barrier, it has determined the routes of rivers, railroads, highways, and county lines. It has also been the scene of immense feats of engineering, including the <strong>Moffat Tunnel</strong>, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%e2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado­–Big Thompson</strong></a> (C-BT) <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> project, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eisenhower-tunnel"><strong>Eisenhower-Johnson</strong></a> highway tunnels. Meanwhile, the divide’s spectacular, snowy vistas attract millions of tourists each year. Parts of the 3,000-mile Continental Divide National Scenic Trail run along or near the Great Divide in Colorado.</p> <h2>Colorado’s Divide</h2> <p>Within the state, the area east of the Great Divide is generally referred to as the Eastern Slope—or the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>—while the area west of the divide is known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. At 14,278 feet, <strong>Grays Peak</strong> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clear-creek-county"><strong>Clear Creek</strong></a>-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit County</strong></a> border is the highest point of the Great Divide in North America.</p> <p>From north to south, the Great Divide in Colorado follows a serpentine path through <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/routt-county"><strong>Routt</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jackson-county"><strong>Jackson</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a>, Clear Creek, Summit, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county"><strong>Lake</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pitkin-county"><strong>Pitkin</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hinsdale-county"><strong>Hinsdale</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rio-grande-county"><strong>Rio Grande</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta</strong></a> Counties. The divide forms part of the boundaries of each county it touches. Major passes along the divide include <strong>Rabbit Ears, </strong><strong>Berthoud</strong>, Loveland, Independence, Cottonwood, Monarch, and Wolf Creek.</p> <p>The Great Divide in Colorado is the source of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>, <strong>Rio Grande</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Rivers, three of the continent’s most important waterways. It also contains headwaters of the Colorado River’s major tributaries, such as the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> and <strong>San Juan</strong> Rivers. The altitude and environment of the divide ranges from high alpine tundra at places like Grays Peak and the flanks of <strong>San Luis Peak</strong> (14,022 ft) to lower-elevation basins, such as the area just east of <strong>Rabbit Ears Pass</strong> at the southern end of <strong>North Park</strong>. In most parts of the state, the route of the divide is flanked by coniferous forests and inhabited by a variety of flora and fauna, including marmots, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Human History</h2> <p>Humans have relied on the high-altitude resources of Colorado’s Great Divide for millennia. Beginning around 1400, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people lived and hunted along the divide, making seasonal treks across its many passes and forging trails that later became the routes of railroads and highways.</p> <p>The Great Divide in what became Colorado played a pivotal role in national politics during the 1840s and 1850s, when the United States was considering routes for a transcontinental railroad. American explorers such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-c-fremont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-w-gunnison"><strong>John W. Gunnison</strong></a> probed the divide for railroad routes, but ultimately the towering granite wall proved impassable at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad eventually settled on a far easier route through Wyoming’s South Pass.</p> <p>People began tapping the mineral wealth of the divide’s mountains in the 1850s, most famously during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. Discoveries of gold, silver, lead, and other valuable metals drove the creation of settlements near or along the Great Divide, including <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/creede"><strong>Creede</strong></a>.</p> <p>The twentieth century saw the Great Divide’s status as a great barrier somewhat diminished, as Coloradans and the federal government used new technology and advanced engineering to bore through its granite flanks and create tunnels for rails, roads, and water. In 1922 the state legislature passed a bill to create a 6.2-mile tunnel through the Great Divide for the Denver, Northwestern &amp; Pacific Railway; the tunnel had long been planned as part of the late businessman <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/david-h-moffat"><strong>David H. Moffat</strong></a>’s rail line, nicknamed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-northwestern-pacific-railway-hill-route-moffat-road"><strong>Moffat Road</strong></a>. The Moffat Tunnel, as it came to be known, was completed in 1928, with its east portal located along South <strong>Boulder Creek</strong> west of <strong>Rollinsville</strong> and its west portal located in <strong>Winter Park</strong>.</p> <p>Between the 1930s and 1950s, the Colorado–Big Thompson Project was completed, bringing water from the Colorado River on the Western Slope to thirsty farms and cities along the Front Range. The lynchpin of the project is the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel"><strong>Alva B. Adams Tunnel</strong></a>, bored through the Continental Divide under <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>. Water passes through the tunnel on its way to a labyrinth of reservoirs, canals, and ditches along the Front Range. Built to provide additional water to the more populous Front Range, the C-BT fomented resentment among many living on the Western Slope, who felt (and still feel) that self-serving urban governments and state politicians forced them to agree to funneling away a large amount of their water.</p> <p>In the 1960s and 1970s, Coloradans again bored through the Great Divide, this time to run <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> underneath the Front Range near Loveland Pass at an elevation of about 11,155 feet. The Eisenhower-Johnson Tunnels took more than ten years to build, with the first completed in 1973 and the second opening to traffic in 1979.</p> <h2>Recreation</h2> <p>The twentieth century also saw the rise of recreational development along Colorado’s Great Divide. Today, skiing, hiking, and camping are among the most popular activities. The <strong>Loveland</strong> <strong>Ski Area</strong> in Clear Creek County was founded in 1936, followed by <strong>Wolf Creek</strong> in Mineral County (1938), <strong>Monarch</strong> in Chaffee County (1939),<strong> Winter Park Resort</strong> in Grand County (1939–40), and later <strong>Arapahoe Basin </strong>(1946) and <strong>Copper Mountain</strong> (1972) in Summit County. Today, skiers can take the Ski Train from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to Winter Park via the Moffat Tunnel.</p> <p>Large sections of Colorado’s Great Divide are part of federally managed <strong>wilderness areas</strong>, such as the Indian Peaks Wilderness and the San Juan Wilderness, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>national forests</strong></a>, such as the Arapaho, Roosevelt, and Rio Grande National Forests. The part of the divide near the Colorado River headwaters is managed by Rocky Mountain National Park.</p> <p>Colorado’s Continental Divide also contains approximately 650 miles of the more than 3,000-mile <strong>Continental Divide Trail</strong>, which was approved by an act of Congress in 1978 and mostly built by the late 1990s. With input from the <strong>National Park Service</strong> and <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong>, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> approved a comprehensive management plan in 1985. Initial construction was overseen by the Continental Divide Trail Association (CDTA), a public-private group formed in 1995 to build the trail and generate public support.</p> <p>Today, the Continental Divide Trail in Colorado and elsewhere is maintained and managed by volunteers with the Continental Divide Trail Coalition, a group organized in 2013 after the closing of the CDTA. Parts of the trail are still not complete, requiring hikers to cut their own way through or walk around incomplete sections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-divide" hreflang="en">great divide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande-river" hreflang="en">rio grande river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geography" hreflang="en">Geography</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-river" hreflang="en">colorado river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/north-platte-river" hreflang="en">north platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-divide-colorado" hreflang="en">great divide in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide-trail" hreflang="en">continental divide trail</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Colorado Ski History, “<a href="http://www.coloradoskihistory.com/areahistory/monarch.html">Monarch</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Colorado Ski History, “<a href="http://www.coloradoskihistory.com/areahistory/wolfcreek.html">Wolf Creek Ski Area</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Continental Divide Trail Coalition, “<a href="https://continentaldividetrail.org/history-of-the-cdt/">History of the CDT</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Continental Divide Trail Society, “<a href="https://banksfamilylaw.com/colorado.htm">Where’s the Trail in Colorado?</a>” updated May 10, 2012.</p> <p>Mark A. Gonzalez, “<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117052801/https:/www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/NEWSLETTER/NLS03/pdf/Divide.pdf">Continental Divides in North Dakota and North America</a>,” North Dakota Geological Society Newsletter 30, no. 1 (2013).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/planyourvisit/divide.htm">Continental Divide National Scenic Trail</a>,” n.d.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Liz Thomas, <em>Best Hikes on the Continental Divide Trail </em>(Golden: Colorado Mountain Club Press, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 20:44:13 +0000 yongli 3112 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Trail Ridge Road http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trail-ridge-road <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trail Ridge Road</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2018-05-22T15:50:37-06:00" title="Tuesday, May 22, 2018 - 15:50" class="datetime">Tue, 05/22/2018 - 15:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trail-ridge-road" data-a2a-title="Trail Ridge Road"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftrail-ridge-road&amp;title=Trail%20Ridge%20Road"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Trail Ridge Road snakes roughly fifty miles across <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>, from <strong>Estes Park</strong> to <strong>Grand Lake</strong>. Planned and built from about 1929 to 1938, the road provided a safer route across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> for the park’s growing number of visitors. Trail Ridge Road reaches an elevation of 12,183 feet, making it the highest continuous paved road in the United States. Hailed by the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> as a “scenic wonder road of the world,” Trail Ridge Road continues to draw millions of visitors annually during its open season from Memorial Day to Columbus Day.</p> <h2>Building Trail Ridge Road</h2> <p>Construction of Trail Ridge Road was motivated by the shortcomings of Fall River Road. Fall River Road opened in 1920 as one of the first auto routes in Rocky Mountain National Park. However, the narrow, one-way road was not paved, suffered from numerous <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a> slides and deep snow, and had only limited access to scenic overlooks. Wanting to provide the public with a safer and more enjoyable way to drive through the park, engineers from the US Bureau of Public Roads chose a route that emphasizes the area’s stunning beauty. Congress appropriated $450,000 for Trail Ridge Road in April 1928, and construction began in 1929. Construction of the road provided steady employment in the region for several years, insulating the area from the harshest effects of the <strong>Great Depression</strong>.</p> <p>A relatively mild winter in 1929–30 increased expectations among the public and park officials that the road would be completed ahead of schedule. More typical winter weather in the following years dampened such expectations. US Highway Engineer W.&nbsp;L. Lafferty oversaw general construction of Trail Ridge Road,&nbsp; but the road was actually built in two sections, each by a different contractor. Construction on the eastern portion was overseen by C.&nbsp;A. Colt of <strong>Las Animas</strong>. In 1932 Colt completed his stretch of road, spanning just over seventeen miles, between Deer Ridge (8,937 feet) and Fall River Pass (11,794 feet). In 1933 L.&nbsp;T. Lawler of Butte, Montana, completed the western half of the road by connecting through to Grand Lake (8,369 feet). Final touches, including paving and rock work in the higher-elevation portions of the road, would continue for the next several years.</p> <h2>Unrivaled Natural Landscape</h2> <p>Trail Ridge Road boasts eleven miles of road above 11,000 feet, as well as four miles topping out at more than 12,000 feet. Stretches of road can be covered by up to twenty-five feet of snow in winter months, especially on the wetter western half, where sudden blizzards are typical. Wildflower blooms from late May through the early summer draw a host of nature enthusiasts, as do the <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> herds that come annually to mate in the area in September and October. Many cyclists test their stamina on Trail Ridge Road, reveling in the challenge of pedaling one of the world’s foremost mountain roads.</p> <p>Designated as an All-American Road by the US secretary of transportation in 1996, Trail Ridge Road is an American Byway, one of eleven such roads in Colorado. Now part of US Highway 34, the road offers motorists sweeping views of the <strong>Mummy Range</strong> to the north, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> peaks to the south, and the <strong>Never Summer Mountains</strong> to the west. Impressively, Trail Ridge Road scales the Continental Divide at Milner Pass without ever exceeding grades of 7 percent, roughly half as steep as the steepest grade on Fall River Road. Unlike the one-way Fall River Road, Trail Ridge Road facilitates two-way travel. Finally, Trail Ridge was designed to incorporate frequent pullouts and parking areas as it winds over Milner Pass.</p> <p>There are several notable photo and recreational opportunities along the road. Traveling from east to west, Deer Ridge Junction (8,978 feet), at the eastern portal, offers access to hiking trails with views of <a href="/article/longs-peak"><strong>Longs Peak</strong></a>, Moraine Park Valley, and the Mummy Range. Next up, Hidden Valley (9,325 feet) has a visitor center that is now open year round and attracts both downhill and cross-country skiers. Farther to the west, two of the most popular photo destinations are found at Rainbow Curve (10,875 feet) and the tundra protection area of Forest Canyon (11,758 feet). From there, visitors frequently marvel at the Lava Cliffs (12,135 feet), evidence of the area’s previous volcanic activity. The Alpine Visitor Center (11,799 feet) is the highest such facility in the National Park Service, featuring alpine exhibits, a gift shop, and a café. Highlights on the western portion of the road include Milner Pass (10,755 feet) atop the Continental Divide. Before its western terminus near Grand Lake, the road is dotted with campgrounds and hiking trails.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/hannigan-frank" hreflang="und">Hannigan, Frank</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trail-ridge-road" hreflang="en">Trail Ridge Road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-national-park" hreflang="en">rocky mountain national park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fall-river-road" hreflang="en">fall river road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/estes-park" hreflang="en">Estes Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-lake" hreflang="en">grand lake</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-county" hreflang="en">Grand County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Brian Brenner, “Trail Ridge Road,” <em>Leadership and Management in Engineering</em> 5, no. 3 (2005).</p> <p>Sierra Standish, “Rocky Mountain National Park MPS,” National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form (September 2004).</p> <p>Trail Ridge Road—Rocky Mountain National Park, “<a href="https://www.codot.gov/travel/scenic-byways/north-central/trail-ridge-rd">Travel Center</a>,” September 13, 2016.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Andrew M. Greller and National Park Service, “Vegetation of Roadcut Slopes in the Tundra of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado,” <em>Biological Conservation</em> 6, no. 2 (1974).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 22 May 2018 21:50:37 +0000 yongli 2923 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Wichita State University Plane Crash http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wichita-state-university-plane-crash <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wichita State University Plane Crash</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1914--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1914.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/highway-memorial-wichita-state-football-team"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Wichita-State-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=lLAMShwG" width="1000" height="1333" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/highway-memorial-wichita-state-football-team" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Highway memorial, Wichita State football team</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The thirty-one victims of the Wichita State University plane crash in October 1970 are commemorated in this memorial near the Eisenhower Tunnel along Interstate 70.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-10-03T12:07:36-06:00" title="Monday, October 3, 2016 - 12:07" class="datetime">Mon, 10/03/2016 - 12:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wichita-state-university-plane-crash" data-a2a-title="Wichita State University Plane Crash"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwichita-state-university-plane-crash&amp;title=Wichita%20State%20University%20Plane%20Crash"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In early October 1970, a twin-engine aircraft carrying forty people associated with the Wichita State University football team crashed into Mt. Bethel along Colorado’s <a href="/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, killing thirty-one passengers. The crash spurred the Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) to review and revise its regulations concerning air taxi services, and public pressure forced it to perform its inspection duties more diligently. Today, a memorial below the crash site on <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> commemorates the tragedy, and the FAA has gone on to pass stricter regulations with each passing year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Crash</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On Friday, October 2, 1970, a pair of Martin 404 twin-engine aircraft took off from Wichita, Kansas, carrying the Wichita State University (WSU) football team, coaches, and VIP supporters. They were bound for Logan, Utah, to play the Utah State University Aggies the following day. Both airplanes refueled at Denver’s <a href="/article/stapleton-international-airport"><strong>Stapleton Airport</strong></a>. One of the planes proceeded to Utah via southern Wyoming, avoiding Colorado’s high mountain wall. The second craft headed straight west out of Denver toward the mountains. Pilot Danny Crocker and copilot Ronald Skipper did not file a flight plan.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The WSU Shockers football squad hoped to win its first game of the season at Utah after losing its first three. This was also the first time the team would play that far west. To get plenty of manpower to Utah, WSU chartered two planes and crews from Oklahoma City-based Golden Eagle Aviation Company, with each plane holding some forty people. The plane now bound for the high mountains of the Continental Divide carried WSU athletic director Bert Katzenmeyer, head coach Ben Wilson, Kansas state legislator Carl Fahrbach, the university’s admissions director, several of their wives, ticket manager Floyd Farmer, and twenty-two starting players. The passengers enjoyed the aerial view of the changing autumn leaves, with the village of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/georgetown%E2%80%93silver-plume-historic-district"><strong>Georgetown</strong></a> gleaming below.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ahead stood the Continental Divide, nearly 13,000 feet above sea level. To its passengers, the plane seemed quite low, and some of them heard the pilot announce that it was taking the “scenic route” through the Rocky Mountains. The plane followed the new Interstate 70, where a construction crew worked below on the Straight Creek (<a href="/article/eisenhower-tunnel"><strong>Eisenhower</strong></a>) Tunnel. Copilot Skipper had been gaining altitude since departure from Denver, but it was quickly becoming apparent that the plane was too low to proceed over the lofty granite barrier looming ahead. Below on the interstate, California tourists Mr. and Mrs. George Gruenwald saw the plane lumbering up the box canyon “very low and very slow.” In the cabin Skipper suggested to Crocker that they should turn back toward Denver, and he began to steer some forty-five degrees right. But Crocker seized the controls and began a left turn. At 1:14 pm, highway workers saw the plane dip and strike the side of Mt. Bethel, exploding twice on the slope.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Linebacker Glen Kostal lost consciousness for a few seconds on impact. Awakening disoriented, he later recalled “being under a lot of people and wreckage. I looked up and there was a huge hole. I didn’t know whether it was in the top or what, but I think I climbed out of the plane.” Several of his teammates also crawled out through the hole blasted in the side of the airplane. Rick Stephens, sitting toward the front, was ejected. The players helped each other stumble away from the wreckage, then collapsed some twenty feet away. Although suffering from several head injuries, Copilot Skipper dragged survivors further away from the burning aircraft. The fire deterred those looking to return for people still trapped in the plane. Mike Bruce, as the least injured, headed down the mountainside in search of help.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tunnel workers clambered up the hill and met Bruce, who told them to head to the crash site while he went for help. He met a woman who helped him down to a construction site office, where she bandaged his leg. Construction worker Jerry Meyer told the press, “we passed seven of the survivors coming down the hill. Some of them had their clothes burned off and were hurt and were just running like deer.” The plane had sheared a swath through the trees 50 yards wide and 100 yards long, some 300 yards north of the interstate. To prevent the fire from spreading, the construction crew cut down trees and foliage surrounding the crash site. Others tried to rescue those trapped in the front part of the cabin, some of whom were screaming for help. But the fire still prevented rescuers from getting inside. The mangled wings smoldered, and unidentifiable chunks of metal, along with football helmets and pads, lay scattered across the mountainside.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Twelve survivors staggered or were carried to the highway, where ambulances rushed them to Idaho Springs. Dr. Morgan Durham, the only physician in town at the time, administered rudimentary treatment before transferring eleven of the twelve survivors to Denver hospitals. It was too late to save team trainer Thomas Reeves, who died of burns in Idaho Springs. Army helicopters landed on the highway below the crash site, waiting to transport other survivors. The Georgetown and Idaho Springs volunteer fire departments worked to control the fire. There was no water nearby, so they smothered flames with extinguishers and dirt, but new fires started when oxygen bottles in the cabin exploded. The blazes finally died out several hours later. Under a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pine</strong></a> tree searchers found a body hurled from the plane, later identified to be Crocker, the twenty-seven-year-old pilot.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Investigation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) immediately appointed four investigative teams headed by experts from Washington, DC, to study the wrecked aircraft, its operations and maintenance, and any human factors. Charles O. Miller, director of the Bureau of Aviation Safety, arrived at the scene Saturday, along with FAA representatives. By late afternoon, nineteen bodies had been taken to a temporary morgue in Idaho Springs for identification. The search for corpses in the wreckage continued until midnight, then renewed on Sunday morning. The FAA impounded the other Martin 404 that had successfully landed in Utah for a safety inspection. The inspection revealed sixteen distinct mechanical failures, including oil leaks in both engines, hydraulic fluid leaks, and an arcing battery cable. The FAA immediately imposed a $50,000 fine on the Jack Richards Aircraft Company, the plane’s manufacturer, and rescinded the inspection certificate of the mechanic who had deemed the plane airworthy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Public hearings began October 21 to determine the cause of the tragedy. Ronald Skipper, copilot of the downed plane and president of Jack Richards Aircraft Company, testified that he did not know why Crocker grabbed the controls from him or why the engines began vibrating immediately before the crash. Investigators interrogated him for hours about details of contractual arrangements. To most questions, he replied “I don’t recall.” Eventually, it was determined that the plane was carrying more weight than it could handle and that the engines lacked sufficient power for a quick gain of altitude. Once Crocker flew into the dead-end canyon, there was insufficient distance or engine power to clear the Continental Divide, which measured 12,705 feet at Mt. Bethel. Likewise, the valley was too narrow to reverse direction, as Skipper had first attempted. The plane’s sudden bank to the left, and then immediately to the right, decreased its velocity to the point of a stall. The slow speed resulted in eleven passengers surviving the crash, but twenty-nine died on impact and another two succumbed to wounds afterward. The NTSB determined the cause of the crash to be Crocker and Skipper’s insufficient and improper flight planning, as well as their lack of understanding of the aircraft’s abilities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first lawsuit was filed five days after the crash. Twenty-three others would follow shortly, most directed against Golden Eagle Aviation and the Jack Richards Aircraft Company. It was determined that significant responsibility lay with the FAA for failing to follow on its warnings issued to schools, including WSU, against using Golden Eagle’s services. Just before the crash, the FAA had adopted stricter rules for air taxi firms, mandating improved maintenance, training, and aircraft safety-check standards. Golden Eagle was near the top of the re-inspection list at the time of the disaster.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Epilogue</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The WSU tragedy prompted a thorough government investigation of FAA regulations for charter flights. In 1977 WSU was found liable for not carrying adequate insurance on the passengers. Consequently, lawsuits were filed against WSU and its intercollegiate athletics association. Suits were also pending in federal court on grounds that the FAA erroneously certified the plane as airworthy. Eventually, the NCAA paid insurance benefits totaling $25,000 to the families of each student and coach killed, and in 1978 the state of Kansas offered $1 million to settle the remaining suits. In the late 1980s a marker engraved with the victims’ names was built beside Interstate 70 beneath the crash site. Today, wreckage from the crash remains on the slope of Mt. Bethel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Ariana Harner, “‘Scenic Route Through the Rockies’: The Wichita State University Tragedy,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 18, no. 1 (1998).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plane-crash" hreflang="en">Plane Crash</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wichita-state-plane-crash" hreflang="en">wichita state plane crash</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mt-bethel" hreflang="en">mt bethel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/disasters" hreflang="en">disasters</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aviation" hreflang="en">aviation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/interstate-70" hreflang="en">interstate 70</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/georgetown" hreflang="en">georgetown</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Pat Suellentrop, “<a href="https://www.kansas.com/sports/college/wichita-state/article37204563.html">Remembering the 1970 Wichita State Football Plane Crash</a>,” <em>The Wichita Eagle</em>, October 1, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Pat Graham, “<a href="https://www.al.com/sports/index.ssf/2010/09/forgotten_tragedy_survivors_qu.html">Forgotten Tragedy: Survivors’ Quest to Keep Memories of 1970 Wichita State Crash from Fading</a>,” Associated Press, September 26, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gabe Juhnke and Stacey Jenkins, <a href="https://watch.kpts.org/video/1870760480/"><em>Black &amp; Gold: Remembering the WSU Plane Crash</em></a>, KPTS, aired October 2, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Transportation Safety Board, “Aircraft Accident Report: Martin 404, N464M 8 Statute Miles West of Silver Plume, Colorado, October 2, 1970,” Report no. NTSB-AAR-71-4 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 1970).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 03 Oct 2016 18:07:36 +0000 yongli 1915 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Alva B. Adams Tunnel http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Alva B. Adams Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--456--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--456.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/construction-adams-tunnel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CBT%20History_0.jpg?itok=ybd1q9Ri" width="220" height="320" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/construction-adams-tunnel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Construction of Adams Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Workers used railed carts like the one shown here to excavate the 13.1-mile Alva B. Adams Tunnel. Construction of the tunnel, which would become the largest water diversion project in the state, lasted between 1940 and 1944.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1821--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1821.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado-big-thompson-project-east-wing"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Will_Rempel-CBT_System_EastWest%28AdamsTunnel%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=Psq8S45D" width="1090" height="462" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado-big-thompson-project-east-wing" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado-Big Thompson Project, East Wing</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Alva B. Adams Tunnel was the linchpin of the controversial Colorado-Big Thompson Project, a massive feat of engineering that redirected millions of gallons of Colorado River water from the Western Slope to farms and subdivisions along the Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-06-12T15:35:42-06:00" title="Friday, June 12, 2015 - 15:35" class="datetime">Fri, 06/12/2015 - 15:35</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel" data-a2a-title="Alva B. Adams Tunnel"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Falva-b-adams-tunnel&amp;title=Alva%20B.%20Adams%20Tunnel"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Beneath the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a>-carved peaks and valleys of <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>, below the alpine lakes and rushing streams, a concrete-lined tunnel belies the illusion of a pristine wilderness. In 1944, the two ends of the Alva B. Adams Tunnel were connected with a blast of dynamite, creating the largest <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> diversion project in the state of Colorado. This monumental engineering feat re-directed the<strong> </strong><a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> and several other rivers and streams and reshaped the state’s political landscape. From statewide debates that preceded its construction to current disagreements over how much of the Colorado River headwaters should be sent from the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> to the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>, the Adams Tunnel has served as a conduit for not only water but also controversy and collaboration.</p> <h2>Colorado–Big Thompson Project</h2> <p>The Adams Tunnel is the linchpin of the <strong><a href="/article/colorado–big-thompson-project">Colorado–Big Thompson</a></strong><a href="/article/colorado–big-thompson-project"><strong> Project</strong></a> (C-BT), which spans 250 miles from water collection on the Western Slope of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> to water delivery on the Eastern Slope. Runoff from the Rocky Mountains at the headwaters of the Colorado River is captured in <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, a natural body of water, and in three reservoirs – Shadow Mountain Reservoir, <strong>Lake Granby</strong>, and Willow Creek Reservoir. The diverted water flows by gravity through the Adams Tunnel beneath Rocky Mountain National Park for 13.1 miles, the length of a half marathon.</p> <p>After exiting the tunnel’s East Portal, the water merges with the <strong>Big Thompson River</strong> and cascades nearly 2,900 vertical feet down the slopes of the Front Range, passing through a series of six power plants to generate hydroelectricity. On the plains below, the water is stored in three Eastern Slope reservoirs in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> basin – <strong>Horsetooth Reservoir</strong>, Carter Lake, and <strong>Boulder Reservoir</strong>. Canals and pipelines distribute water from these reservoirs to more than 640,000 acres of farmland and ranchland, to industries, and to approximately 860,000 people in portions of eight counties (<a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a>, <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a>, <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan</strong></a>, <a href="/article/morgan-county"><strong>Morgan</strong></a>, <strong>Sedgwick</strong>, <a href="/article/washington-county"><strong>Washington</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld</strong></a>) and cities such as <strong>Fort Collins</strong>, <strong>Boulder</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>. Each year on average the Colorado–Big Thompson Project delivers more than 200,000 acre-feet of water (1 acre-foot of water is considered enough to meet the needs of two families for one year).</p> <p>During the late nineteenth century, as agriculture expanded in Colorado, the northeastern plains provided farmers with fertile soil and abundant sunshine. But in drought-stricken summers their <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches ran dry. For relief they looked to the Western Slope, where approximately 70 percent of the state’s water flows. In the 1890s, construction began on Grand Ditch. Carved with hand tools into rugged mountainsides of the Never Summer Range on the Western Slope, Grand Ditch allowed Colorado River water to cross the Continental Divide by way of La Poudre Pass into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>. The ditch was expanded several times until 1936. During the <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> and the <strong>Great Depression</strong> of the 1930s, local leaders in northeastern Colorado conceived of a trans-mountain diversion much more massive than Grand Ditch that would send liquid relief to their parched fields. Unable to fund the mega-project themselves, they turned to the federal government.</p> <p>The US <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a>, guided by President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> policies to develop public works projects, was eager to build water infrastructure in the West. But before the bureau could showcase its engineering prowess by building this project and the fields of northeastern Colorado could receive a steady flow of irrigation water through the Adams Tunnel, water wrangling between political factions on opposite sides of the Continental Divide had to be settled. Congress was reluctant to authorize the project if Colorado’s leaders were not unified in wanting it built. But tension between residents on the Eastern Slope, who demanded more water, and those on the Western Slope, who wanted to keep their water resources local, is a theme that runs throughout Colorado’s history.</p> <p>Politicians on both sides of the Continental Divide agreed that water from the Colorado River should be put to use in the state of Colorado instead of escaping downstream to be used by California and Arizona, both of which were growing rapidly. Unified by the threat of losing water to downstream states and by a shared interest in securing federal water development funds for Colorado, representatives from the Western Slope and the Eastern Slope managed to bridge the divide. They agreed that the Western Slope would get a water storage project of its own – <strong>Green Mountain Reservoir</strong> on the <strong>Blue River</strong> near its confluence with the Colorado River – to help compensate for water transferred to the Eastern Slope. This agreement, along with other provisions to protect the Western Slope’s water rights and future water needs, was formalized in a federal document approved by Congress in 1937, and it cleared the way for the C-BT project to proceed. Also in 1937, the <strong>Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</strong> was established as a public agency in the state of Colorado to contract with the federal government to build the C-BT and distribute water from the project to counties on the Eastern Slope. Construction began in 1938.</p> <p>Progress slowed during World War II, and inflation and design changes sent the final cost of the project spiraling to almost four times the original estimate. Nonetheless, when the C-BT was finally completed in 1957, water diverted through the Adams Tunnel increased agricultural productivity in northeastern Colorado. But as population swelled on the northern Front Range, sugar beets were supplanted by suburban housing, and potato fields gave way to office parks. Much of the water to support this urban development was converted from agricultural water delivered by the C-BT. Congress had authorized the project primarily for the purpose of providing supplemental irrigation water, but in response to population growth, water originally intended for farms made its way to subdivisions.</p> <h2>Windy Gap Project</h2> <p>In 1967, cities of the northern Front Range, concerned about running short of water, started pursuing another project on the Western Slope to increase the amount of Colorado River water delivered through the Adams Tunnel. The Western Slope opposed the project, as expected, and there was also staunch resistance from the environmental movement, which was gaining momentum across the nation. Opponents of the proposed Windy Gap Project used federal environmental laws passed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as the National Environmental Policy Act and the Endangered Species Act, to slow the proposed project to a crawl. Proponents of Windy Gap finally managed to navigate the legal labyrinth and secure the necessary permits. The project was completed in 1985, but because of a lack of storage capacity and a lack of water in dry years, the Windy Gap Project could not send a reliable supply of water to the Eastern Slope.</p> <h2>Windy Gap Firming Project</h2> <p>In December 2014 the Bureau of Reclamation approved the Windy Gap Firming Project, which will create a new reservoir on the Eastern Slope to "firm up" - make more reliable - the supply of water diverted from Windy Gap through the Adams Tunnel. Opponents of the project cite studies by state biologists that have identified extensive damage to the upper Colorado River caused by the Windy Gap Reservoir and by water being diverted out of the river basin. They argue that protecting the health of the state’s namesake river, which serves as the lifeblood of the Western Slope’s economy, is paramount.</p> <p>Proponents of the project point out that a gap between water supply and water demand is widening as the population of Colorado’s Front Range continues to grow. They insist that to fill this gap, more water must be diverted from the Colorado River to the Eastern Slope. All parties involved agree that the state’s economy and environment will be significantly impacted in coming years by the management of water diversions sent through the Adams Tunnel. They are working toward a collaborative agreement to increase the amount of water diverted while also protecting the river's health.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/grace-stephen" hreflang="und">Grace, Stephen</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/adams-tunnel" hreflang="en">adams tunnel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alva-b-adams" hreflang="en">alva b. adams</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-river" hreflang="en">colorado river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-big-thompson-project" hreflang="en">colorado-big thompson project</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/big-thompson" hreflang="en">big thompson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Autobee, “The Colorado–Big Thompson Project,” Bureau of Reclamation (1996).</p> <p>Barry R. Nehring, Brian Heinold, and Justin Pomeranz, “Colorado River Aquatic Resources Investigations – Federal Aid Project F-237R-18,” Colorado Division of Wildlife (June 2011).</p> <p><a href="http://www.northernwater.org/sf/home">Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</a></p> <p>Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District, "<a href="http://www.northernwater.org/docs/WindyGapFirming/FactSheetWGFP.pdf">Windy Gap Firming Project</a>," 2016.</p> <p>Gregory M. Silkensen, “Technical Report no. 61: Windy Gap: Transmountain Water Diversion and the Environmental Movement” (Fort Collins: Colorado Water Resources Research Institute, Colorado State University, August 1994).</p> <p>Daniel Tyler, <em>The Last Water Hole in the West: The Colorado–Big Thompson Project and the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1992).</p> <p>United States Congress, Senate Document 80, “Synopsis of Report on Colorado–Big Thompson Project, Plan&nbsp;of Development and Cost Estimate Prepared by Bureau of Reclamation, Department of&nbsp;Interior,” 75th Congress, 1st session (June 15, 1937).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Colorado-Big+Thompson+Project">Colorado–Big Thompson Project</a>, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.</p> <p>Norris Hundley Jr., <em>Water and the West: The Colorado River Compact and the Politics of Water in the American West</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).</p> <p><a href="http://www.usbr.gov/gp/ecao/wgfp_feis/index.html">Windy Gap Firming Project, Final Environmental Impact Statement</a>, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 12 Jun 2015 21:35:42 +0000 yongli 458 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org