%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Conifers http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conifers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3510--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3510.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lodgepole-and-spruce-forest-sprague-lake"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Picea_engelmannii_Pinus_contorta_Sprague_Lake_0_0.jpg?itok=LhKMAunR" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lodgepole-and-spruce-forest-sprague-lake" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden"> Lodgepole and Spruce Forest, Sprague Lake</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado's high alpine forests are dominated by the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta, far left, left-center, and far right) and the Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii, bottom center, bright brown cones). Brown and grey beetle-killed trees stand in the background as a reminder of both species' vulnerability to bark beetle infestations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3513--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3513.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lodgepole-pine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/lodgepole_0_0.jpg?itok=ndavvkzM" width="1090" height="1453" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lodgepole-pine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lodgepole Pine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Lodgepole pine are among the most famous evergreens in Colorado. They are easily recognizable by their straight, narrow trunks, and are a fire-dependent species: their pine cones only open when burned.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3514--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3514.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ponderosa-pine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/USFS_ponderosa_0_0.jpg?itok=s3zoLK_u" width="1090" height="1641" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ponderosa-pine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ponderosa Pine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Ponderosa Pine is a large pine tree growing up to 160 feet tall. Its thick trunk and bark make it especially fire-hardy, and its broad, full branches provide excellent shade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-28T12:18:20-07:00" title="Thursday, January 28, 2021 - 12:18" class="datetime">Thu, 01/28/2021 - 12:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers" data-a2a-title="Conifers"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconifers&amp;title=Conifers"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From the tall, straight lodgepole pines in the high <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rockies</strong></a> to the short, gnarled piñons that guard the state’s canyons and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>grasslands</strong></a>, coniferous trees dominate Colorado’s natural environments and hold together important ecosystems. Commonly referred to as pines or evergreens, coniferous trees are defined by needly leaves, seed-bearing cones, and thick, resinous sap that oozes from their trunks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first glance, many of Colorado’s conifers look similar, but the state’s most common needle-bearers represent several distinct species. These include the lodgepole pine (<em>Pinus contorta</em>), the ponderosa pine (<em>Pinus ponderosa</em>), the piñon pine (<em>Pinus edulis</em>), the limber pine (<em>Pinus flexilis</em>), several types of juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>), the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca</em>), the Engelmann spruce (<em>Picea engelmannii</em>), and the Colorado blue spruce (<em>Picea pungens</em>), the <strong>official state tree</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While all of these trees play important roles in their respective ecosystems, many face a range of natural and human threats today. These include bark beetle infestations, warming temperatures and droughts, fire suppression, and fire itself.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Lodgepole Pine   </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepole pines (<em>Pinus contorta</em>) are easily recognizable by their straight, relatively narrow trunks, which can reach upward of ninety feet. The name for these trees dates to 1859, the year of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, and probably refers to their use by Indigenous people. They live at higher elevations, generally between 6,000 and 11,000 feet, making them part of central Colorado’s breathtaking mountain scenery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepoles have coevolved with human-caused <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a><strong>s</strong>, relying on blazes to open their cones after they drop to the ground. The two-inch cones can remain on the ground for many years waiting for fire; if the seedlings manage to sprout under an existing lodgepole canopy, they usually die, replaced by more shade-tolerant conifers such as spruces or Douglas-fir.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepoles are often presented as the poster trees for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-pine-beetle"><strong>mountain pine beetle</strong></a> epidemic that swept through Colorado’s pine forests in the 2000s. The trees have natural defenses against the beetle called terpenes, but lodgepole forests that are stressed from drought or pollution are less able to defend themselves and are highly susceptible to pine beetle infestations. The most recent outbreak in Colorado affected some 3.3. million acres of lodgepole and other pines.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ponderosa Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Ponderosa pines (<em>Pinus ponderosa</em>) are distinguished by their wide, light-brown trunks and long, soft needle clusters. The name <em>ponderosa</em> comes from early nineteenth-century Scottish naturalist David Douglas, who described the trees as being of “ponderous” (large) size. They are one of the taller pine trees in the state, growing to a maximum height of about 160 feet. Ponderosas are common throughout the state, as they can thrive at any altitude but prefer elevations between 6,300 and 9,500 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ponderosas are experts at wringing nutrients from dry, diminished soils, which is why they are often found in open areas where few other pine species grow. Thick bark and trunks, as well as moisture-laden needle clusters, make them resistant to all but the hottest fires. The ponderosa’s fire hardiness and shade-producing size make the tree a favorite choice for neighborhood landscaping and recreational areas such as picnic spots and campgrounds.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Piñon Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Piñon pines (<em>Pinus edulis</em>) are denizens of the state’s dry, rocky hills, southern prairies, and canyonlands, often alongside one-seed juniper. Shorter than the lodgepole and ponderosa, piñons typically do not exceed fifty feet in height. They have reddish-brown trunks with gnarled limbs that carry short needles and yellow-brown cones that each produce about twenty edible seeds. Their name is the Spanish word for these seeds, also known as piñon nuts or “pine kernels.” In the nineteenth century, piñon nuts were a staple of Indigenous and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> diets; today they are picked and sold throughout the American Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Piñon pines are extremely susceptible to fire on account of their thin bark, dead lower limbs, and oily needle clusters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Limber Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The limber pine (<em>Pinus flexilis</em>) gets its name from its flexible branches and is common across elevations of 5,000 to 12,000 feet. Seldom reaching more than fifty feet tall, limber pines have yellow-brown cones and short, blue-green needles. Their flexibility allows them to cling to rocky outcroppings and windy areas where other trees have difficulty growing; as a result, limber pines often appear in unique, twisted shapes. Like the ponderosa, limber pines thrive in nutrient-deficient soils but are not as fire hardy; mature trees can survive a blaze, but only if it is not especially hot.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Junipers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado is home to three types of junipers: Rocky Mountain juniper (<em>Juniperus scopulorum</em>), one-seed juniper (<em>Juniperus monosperma</em>), and Utah juniper (<em>Juniperus osteosperma</em>). Junipers can be distinguished from other conifers by their short height; reddish-brown bark; overlapping short, triangular needles; and small blue or brown berries. All juniper berries carry seeds that need to pass through the digestive tracts of birds or other animals in order to germinate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Rocky Mountain juniper is common in wet environments at or above 5,000 feet and grows between twenty and fifty feet high. In <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, <strong>Garden of the Gods</strong> offers plenty of Rocky Mountain juniper. The one-seed juniper prefers a lower elevation and drier, rocky areas. It is most often found alongside piñon pine in the southern and southwest parts of Colorado. One-seed junipers rarely exceed fifteen feet in height and have thick trunks that can measure up to three feet wide. Finally, the round-topped Utah juniper is found across Colorado’s dry <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>, from the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-canyon-gunnison"><strong>Black Canyon</strong></a> to the Utah border. It prefers rocky or sandy environments between 5,000 and 9,500 feet of elevation and grows between ten and twenty feet tall. The Utah juniper has the largest berries of the three Colorado species, up to three-quarters of an inch in diameter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All three juniper species are extremely susceptible to fire, owing to their thin, lacy needles and flammable oils.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rocky Mountain Douglas-Fir</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Distinct from its relative on the West Coast, the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca</em>) is common in the nation’s interior alpine regions. The common name for both species comes from David Douglas, the Scottish botanist who described them in the nineteenth century; however, the scientific name, <em>menziesii</em>, comes from another Scottish botanist, Archibald Menzies. The common name is hyphenated because Douglas-firs are technically different from firs and spruces, but they share so many similar characteristics that botanists have squabbled over their categorization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s Douglas-firs are generally found at altitudes of 5,500 to 11,500 feet, often intermixed with Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine. They can grow upward of 100 feet tall with thick trunks (up to thirty inches) and have a very recognizable, Christmas tree–type shape. Douglas-fir needles are blue-green, short, and stiff, and they grow in three-pronged bracts around pinecones measuring two to three inches. Mature Douglas-firs are extremely fire resistant, owing to their thick bark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Engelmann Spruce</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Engelmann spruces (<em>Picea engelmannii</em>) are distinguishable from lodgepoles and other tall pines by their wing-like upper branches and short, stiff needle sets. They grow between 45 and 130 feet tall and are generally found alongside Douglas-firs or lodgepoles at elevations ranging from 8,000 to 11,000 feet. Engelmann spruces are named for American botanist George Engelmann, who offered his first description of the trees in 1884. Their thin bark and shallow roots make them highly susceptible to fire. In the 2010s, more than 350,000 acres of Engelmann spruce forests across the state were affected by an outbreak of the <strong>spruce beetle</strong> (not to be confused with the mountain pine beetle).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Blue Spruce</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Colorado blue spruce (<em>Picea pungens</em>) is the official state tree, designated as such on account of its full, pyramid shape, which makes it a popular Christmas tree. The tree is named for its blue-green needles, which are short and pointy. It is among the tallest conifers, growing between 70 and 150 feet tall and is generally found at altitudes ranging from 6,700 to 11,500 feet. The blue spruce is distinguishable from the Engelmann spruce by its needle color and fullness. Like the Engelmann, its thin bark and shallow roots make it especially vulnerable to fires, and it is also susceptible to spruce beetle outbreaks.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Culture and Management</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the years, various groups of Coloradans have viewed, lived with, and managed pine forests differently. In addition to their historic use in construction, many of Colorado’s conifers hold medicinal, dietary, and spiritual <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-grove"><strong>importance</strong></a> to the Ute people—the earlier denizens of the state’s Rocky Mountains—as well as the <strong>Apache</strong> and <strong>Navajo</strong>, who lived in the southern plains and southwest canyonlands. Indigenous people intentionally set fires to hunt or renew forests, understanding the link between fires and biodiversity long before it was articulated in Western science.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush, Americans cleared entire hillsides of conifers to build mines, sluices, mills, and towns. Largely because of the mining industry, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> saw extensive deforestation into the early twentieth century. While the timber industry did not become as big as it did on the West Coast, Colorado did see the development of a small timber industry, with eighty-four sawmills in the state by 1982. The lodgepole lumber industry peaked in the 1970s. By 2009 the state had around 100 timber-manufacturing businesses, about a 30 percent drop from 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> began managing Colorado’s coniferous forests in the early 1900s, fire transitioned from natural, human-managed process to public enemy because it threatened public and private property, including timber stands. Smokey Bear symbolized the agency’s commitment to stopping fires, which could burn vast reserves of “valuable timber.” Over the years, conservationists and experts in many fields, from <strong>Aldo Leopold</strong> to Stephen Pyne, argued for fire’s role in maintaining healthy ecosystems. US Forest Service policy has since changed to allow more natural burns; however, fire’s threats to property and industry continue to drive forest policy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fire suppression had a profound effect on Colorado’s coniferous forests. Fire-dependent species such as lodgepole declined, while ponderosa and other fire-hardy species proliferated; as fire-dependent trees declined, overall biodiversity decreased because animals that depended on those trees left. As lofty canopies coalesced across the state, shade-tolerant species such as Douglas-fir, as well as a variety of shorter trees and shrubs, proliferated. The removal of fire also disrupted the nutrient cycle of forests, which benefited species like the efficient ponderosa but reduced overall biodiversity and forest health.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Colorado’s coniferous forests face a range of threats, many of which are human derived. The largest threat is climate change, brought on by hundreds of years of fossil-fuel burning. As Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> warms, moisture becomes scarcer, trees become stressed, outbreaks of pests such as bark beetles become more frequent, and fires become larger and more common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, more than a century of fire suppression in Colorado’s forests has led to buildups of stands that under current warming conditions threaten to erupt into massive conflagrations. This was evident in the 2020 fire season, when beetle-killed pines fueled both the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cameron-peak-fire"><strong>Cameron Peak</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/east-troublesome-fire"><strong>East Troublesome</strong></a> Fires, the two largest in state history. Scientists are now finding that some of Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range">Front Range</a> forests have burned so severely that conifers may not entirely return to those areas as they transition to a savanna-type ecosystem.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conifers" hreflang="en">conifers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-conifers" hreflang="en">colorado conifers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/blue-spruce" hreflang="en">blue spruce</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/engelmann-spruce" hreflang="en">engelmann spruce</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lodgepole-pine" hreflang="en">lodgepole pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pinon-pine" hreflang="en">pinon pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pinon-nuts" hreflang="en">pinon nuts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/culturally-modified-trees" hreflang="en">culturally modified trees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/limber-pine" hreflang="en">limber pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ponderosa-pine" hreflang="en">ponderosa pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/douglas-fir" hreflang="en">douglas fir</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/forests" hreflang="en">forests</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/forestry" hreflang="en">forestry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Julie Christensen, “<a href="https://www.weekand.com/home-garden/article/juniper-bushes-fire-dangers-18014304.php">Juniper Bushes and Fire Dangers</a>,” <em>SF Gate</em>, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-trees/colorados-major-tree-species/#1466529071538-b3b221f3-39de">Colorado’s Major Tree Species</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2017/02/CSU_304464_ForestReport-2016-www.pdf">2016 Report on the Health of Colorado’s Forests</a>,” Colorado State University, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State University, “<a href="https://static.colostate.edu/client-files/csfs/pdfs/SFRA09_App-F-Forest-Industry-Profile.pdf">Appendix F—Colorado Statewide Forest Resource Assessment</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/nature/conifers.htm">Conifers</a>,” Rocky Mountain National Park, National Park Service, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Engelmann%20spruce">Engelmann spruce</a>,” Merriam-Webster, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sharon Hood et al., “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/pdfs/other/FireResistRegen.pdf">Fire Resistance and Regeneration Characteristics of Northern Rockies Tree Species</a>,” US Forest Service, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert E. Keane et al., “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/highelevationwhitepines/Threats/pdf/fire_exclusion.pdf">Cascading Effects of Fire Exclusion in Rocky Mountain Ecosystems: A Literature Review</a>,” US Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, May 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Kershner, “<a href="https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2005/nov/06/legend-ponderosa/#:~:text=Here's%20your%20ponderosa%20primer%3A%20A,because%20of%20its%20sheer%20bulk.">The Legend of the Ponderosa</a>,” <em>Spokesman Review </em>(Spokane, WA), November 6, 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lodgepole%20pine">Lodgepole pine</a>,” Merriam-Webster, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David P. Lowery, “<a href="https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/usda/amwood/253lodge.pdf">Lodgepole Pine: An American Wood</a>,” US Forest Service, updated 1984.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kyle C. Rodman, et al., “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.13174">A Changing Climate Is Snuffing Out Post-fire Recovery in Montane Forests</a>,” <em>Global Ecology and Biogeography</em> 29, no. 9 (September 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r2/forest-grasslandhealth/?cid=stelprdb5348787#:~:text=For%20all%20pine%20species%20(lodgepole,389%2C000%20acres%20in%20South%20Dakota.">Aerial Detection Survey: 2011 Results</a> [bark beetle infestations],” Rocky Mountain Region, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>S.K. Wier, “<a href="http://www.westernexplorers.us/ColoradoJunipers.pdf">Junipers of Colorado</a>,” Western Explorers, 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-forests/forest-types/pinon-juniper-woodlands/">Piñon-Juniper Woodlands</a>,” Colorado State University.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Kodas, <em>Megafire: The Race to Extinguish a Deadly Epidemic of Flame </em>(New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire</em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Eastern Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Western Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Jan 2021 19:18:20 +0000 yongli 3508 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Black Forest Fire http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-forest-fire <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Black Forest Fire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3486--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3486.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/aerial-view-black-forest-fire"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/BlackForest_militarypersonnel_720468-Y-LUA57-233_0.jpg?itok=_BPBHB4g" width="547" height="820" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/aerial-view-black-forest-fire" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Aerial View, Black Forest Fire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of burning structure during the Black Forest Fire, June 12, 2013. In addition to burning 486 houses, the fire contaminated some 520 water wells.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3487--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3487.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/black-forest-fire-burn-scar"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/BlackForestBurnScar_0.jpg?itok=rUIutXpn" width="1090" height="653" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/black-forest-fire-burn-scar" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Black Forest Fire Burn Scar</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The burn scar of the Black Forest Fire (2013) can still be seen in Google Maps images of the Black Forest community.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3488--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3488.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/smoke-cloud-black-forest-fire"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/1024px-Black_Forest_Fire_-_June_11%2C_2013_0.jpg?itok=LDTBHHkQ" width="1024" height="765" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/smoke-cloud-black-forest-fire" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Smoke Cloud, Black Forest Fire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photo, shows the smoke plume on the first day of the Black Forest Fire, looking east from Blodgett Peak Open Space north of Colorado Springs. The fire destroyed 486 houses, making it the most destructive in Colorado history.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-25T14:19:04-07:00" title="Monday, January 25, 2021 - 14:19" class="datetime">Mon, 01/25/2021 - 14:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-forest-fire" data-a2a-title="Black Forest Fire"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fblack-forest-fire&amp;title=Black%20Forest%20Fire"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Black Forest Fire occurred in mid-June 2013 in a heavily populated woodland area northeast of <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>. Even though it was fully contained in just nine days, the fire’s proximity to neighborhoods made it the most destructive <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a> in state history: two people died and 486 houses were destroyed, amounting to about $300 million in damage. An investigation by the El Paso County Sheriff’s Office concluded that the fire was human caused but could not discover how it began.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Afterward, the recovery period was plagued by a feud between the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-paso-county"><strong>El Paso County</strong></a> Sheriff and the Black Forest Fire chief, who sparred over the cause and handling of the fire. Frustrated Black Forest residents eventually filed a $60 million civil lawsuit against the fire district, county, and state, claiming the entire situation had been mishandled. Regardless of the controversy that followed it, the Black Forest Fire remains a warning of the dangers of building large communities in fire-prone landscapes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>2013 Fire Season</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After a deadly 2012 fire season that saw June conflagrations near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> and Colorado Springs, Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> braced for more record-breaking heat in the summer of 2013. On June 11, temperatures in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> reached 100 degrees Fahrenheit, setting a record for the earliest arrival of triple-digit temperatures in the Mile High City. Already, dry and windy conditions had led to the ignition of several fires around the state, including one in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/royal-gorge"><strong>Royal Gorge</strong></a> and another in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Black Forest Tinderbox</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>About sixty-five miles south of Denver, the Black Forest is composed of shrub oak and ponderosa pine groves atop the <strong>Palmer Divide</strong>, which separates the drainages of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> and <strong>Arkansas</strong> Rivers. The divide’s high altitude (up to 7,700 feet) attracts moisture that allows for the growth of thick forests in an area otherwise dominated by treeless high <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>. In the nineteenth century, the area was prized as a source of scarce timber for buildings in Denver and other cities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the course of the twentieth century, the Black Forest area came to be appreciated for its unique scenery and proximity to urban centers such as Colorado Springs and <strong>Castle Rock</strong>. Developers recognized its potential for an increasingly wealthy class of Coloradans; by the early 2000s, the Black Forest was more exurb than natural area. Today, large houses are nestled throughout the ponderosas at an average price of about $1 million. Although scenic, the community’s natural setting puts it just a spark away from disaster during extremely hot and dry periods, like the one in June 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Deadly Spark</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Black Forest Fire was reported at about 1 p.m. on June 11, 2013; it was later determined to have started in a wooded area near a subdivision. Driven by high winds and low moisture, the blaze quickly burned about sixty houses and spread over about 8,000 acres. Some 2,500 houses and buildings were immediately evacuated, but a week later authorities found that not everyone had made it out. Fifty-two-year-old Marc Allen Herklotz and his wife, fifty-year-old Robin Lauran Herklotz, died while trying to protect fire crews by removing ammunition and propane tanks from their property. Both were members of the Air Force Space Command.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the time the Herklotzes’ fate was discovered, some 38,000 people had been evacuated—a number that soon reached a total of 41,000—and the Black Forest Fire was about 60 percent contained. On June 15, a fraction of evacuees was allowed to return to home.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Two days later, rain showers helped bring the fire to 75 percent containment, while El Paso County Sheriff Terry Maketa oversaw “an aggressive repopulation” of evacuated areas. Still, 4,100 residents remained in a mandatory evacuation zone, and the fire was burning on 14,280 acres. Intermittent rains allowed crews to achieve full containment by June 20.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As residents slowly returned to the community, many did not know whether their house had survived the blaze. Even if their house was still standing, residents faced other challenges: ash and debris contaminated more than 520 water wells, erosion threatened to degrade natural areas, and blackened limbs and charred trees could drop at any moment, posing additional danger to residents and property.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To help navigate these challenges, community members formed Black Forest Together, a nonprofit committed to recovery. The group offered demolition of blackened trees, reforestation services, and consultation for those affected by the fire. By 2016 volunteers with the group had logged more than 40,000 hours removing burned trees and shoring up erosion-prone areas. The Rocky Mountain Field Institute performed similar work. In 2017 the two groups—in partnership with the El Paso County Sheriff’s Office, Black Forest Fire District, and others—released a community wildfire-protection plan to prepare for future fires.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Controversy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to cleaning up and repairing their neighborhoods, community members were subjected to a strange controversy regarding the investigation of the fire’s origin. First, Black Forest Fire Chief Bob Harvey announced that his investigators had determined the fire was started by arson. El Paso County sheriff Maketa denounced Harvey’s statement, saying his own ongoing investigation suggested the fire was human caused, but accidental.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Maketa also criticized Harvey’s handling of the fire, saying he should have turned control over to the sheriff sooner so that state resources could have been activated. In response, the Black Forest Fire District Board hired independent investigator Dave Fisher to address the controversy. By December 11, when the first Black Forest family moved into their rebuilt house, the investigation still had not concluded.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When Fisher’s report was finally released in March 2014, it defended the fire chief, concluding that “no one could have stopped this fire.” It further alleged that after Harvey turned over control of the fire to Maketa, crews focused on saving the house of a sheriff commander at the expense of other nearby residences. Maketa blasted the report as “slanderous” and said, “it needs to be burned.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though he was cleared by the report, Harvey said he suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and took an eleven-week leave of absence. The Fire District board subsequently announced his resignation in August 2014. The next year, Harvey sued the district as well as sheriff Maketa for $1 million, claiming that the district forced him to resign in retaliation for using benefits such as sick leave and vacation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In September 2014, about sixty Black Forest residents filed a lawsuit alleging negligence on the part of the fire district, El Paso County, and the state. The suit sought $1 million for each plaintiff, but they did not hire an attorney. The case was dismissed in October because some of the plaintiffs decided to drop out of the lawsuit.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later that year, the sheriff’s office finished its own investigation of the fire’s origins. The report concluded that the Black Forest Fire was human caused, but the extreme heat of the ignition area prevented investigators from being able to fully explain the cause. Meanwhile, Maketa resigned at the end of 2014 amid allegations of sexually harassing and emotionally abusing female subordinates.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The location of the Black Forest Fire pointed to growing concerns about housing developments in fire-prone areas—places that experts refer to as the Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI). A 2018 study noted that since 1990, construction of new houses in the WUI across the nation increased by 41 percent, representing “the fastest-growing land use type” in the country. That same year, the Colorado State Forest Service found that 2.9 million Coloradans—almost half the state’s population—lived in the WUI.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, more frequent wildfires are changing some Front Range forests into grassland, which swaps one kind of fuel for another. This is happening in the Black Forest, where in 2017 state forest officials noted that mitigation efforts such as clear-cutting had resulted in the growth of tall grasses that can also dry out and spark a conflagration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The number of people living in fire-prone areas, combined with a warming climate that increases the likelihood of hot, dry weather, means that events like the Black Forest Fire will remain a threat into the future.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-forest-fire" hreflang="en">Black Forest Fire</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-forest" hreflang="en">Black Forest</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildfires-colorado" hreflang="en">wildfires colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/2013" hreflang="en">2013</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-forest-fire-district" hreflang="en">black forest fire district</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ponderosa-pine" hreflang="en">ponderosa pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildland-urban-interface" hreflang="en">wildland-urban interface</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wui" hreflang="en">wui</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/climate-change" hreflang="en">climate change</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/12/11/1st-family-returning-to-black-forest-burn-area/">1st Family Returning to Black Forest Burn Area</a>,”<em> Associated Press </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), December 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>7 News, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/09/05/negligence-cited-in-suit-filed-by-residents-in-black-forest-fire/">Negligence Cited in Suit Filed by Residents in Black Forest Fire</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, September 5, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://dawog.net/BFPP/Cover.htm">Black Forest Preservation Plan Update—History</a>,” El Paso County Land Use Department (Colorado Springs: December 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>DAHL Environmental Services, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2017/01/Black_Forest_09142016_Final.pdf">Black Forest Community Wildfire Protection Plan</a>,” September 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/07/17/dozens-of-water-wells-damaged-by-black-forest-fire/">Dozens of Water Wells Damaged by Black Forest Fire</a>,” <em>Associated Press </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), July 17, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dan Elliott, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/11/26/colorado-residents-wildfire-risk/">2.9 million Coloradans Now Live in Areas at Risk of Wildfire</a>,” <em>Associated Press </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), November 26, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Paso County, Colorado, Sheriff’s Office, “<a href="https://wildfiretoday.com/documents/BFF_Exec_Summary.pdf">Black Forest Fire Investigation Executive Summary</a>,” November 17, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2014/12/19/el-paso-county-sheriff-to-retire-amid-scandal/">El Paso County Sheriff to Retire Amid Scandal</a>,” CPR News, December 19, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2015/10/03/ex-chief-suing-black-forest-district-for-1-million-over-his-departure/">Ex-chief Suing Black Forest District for $1 Million Over His departure</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, October 3, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Liz Forster, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/16/black-forest-fire-five-years-on/">5 years After Black Forest Fire, Danger Looms</a>,” <em>Gazette</em> (Colorado Springs), June 16, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gorski, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/17/black-forest-fire-near-colorado-springs-at-75-containment/">Black Forest Fire Near Colorado Springs at 75% Containment</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 17, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Great Colorado Homes, “<a href="https://greatcoloradohomes.com/black-forest.php">Black Forest, CO, Homes for Sale</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sadie Gurman, Ryan Parker, and Joey Bunch, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/11/colorado-fires-consume-homes-force-evacuations/">Colorado Fires Consume Homes, Force Evacuations</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sadie Gurman, Yesenia Robles, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/18/black-forest-fire-victims-were-members-of-air-force-space-command/">Black Forest Fire Victims Were Members of Air Force Space Command</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 18, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/12/02/independent-investigator-for-black-forest-wildfire/">Independent investigator for Black Forest Wildfire</a>,” <em>Associated Press </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), December 2, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Justia, “<a href="https://dockets.justia.com/docket/colorado/codce/1:2014cv02297/150407">Fortner v. State of Colorado et al</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ally Marotti, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/26/still-no-cause-identified-during-criminal-investigation-of-black-forest-fire/">Still No Cause Identified During Criminal Investigation of Black Forest Fire</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 26, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ally Marotti, Kurtis Lee, and John Ingold, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/15/black-forest-fire-55-contained-some-evacuees-allowed-to-go-home/">Black Forest Fire 55% Contained; Some Evacuees Allowed to Go Home</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 15, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom McGhee, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/11/21/in-salvo-against-black-forest-chief-sheriff-says-fire-was-accidental/">In Salvo Against Black Forest Chief, Sheriff Says Fire Was Accidental</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, November 21, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom McGhee, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/11/18/report-black-forest-fire-was-human-caused-but-not-necessarily-arson/#:~:text=The%20office%20Tuesday%20issued%20an,ruled%20out%2C%20the%20report%20said.">Report: Black Forest Fire Was Human-Caused, but Not Necessarily Arson</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, November 18, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, “<a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/fire/201306">State of the Climate: Wildfires for June 2013</a>,” July 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ryan Parker, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/03/14/black-forest-fire-report-says-crew-diverted-sheriff-calls-it-garbage/">Black Forest Fire: Report Says Crew Diverted, Sheriff Calls It ‘Garbage,’</a>” <em>The Denver Post</em>, March 14, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Volker C. Radeloff, et al., “<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1718850115">Rapid Growth of the US Wildland-Urban Interface Raises Wildfire Risk</a>,” <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em>, March 27, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain Field Institute, “<a href="https://www.rmfi.org/projects/black-forest-burn-scar#:~:text=The%20Black%20Forest%20Fire%20burned,486%20homes%20and%202%20lives.">Black Forest Burn Scar</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kyle C. Rodman, et al., “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.13174">A Changing Climate Is Snuffing out Post-fire Recovery in Montane Forests</a>,” <em>Global Ecology and Biogeography</em> 29, no. 9 (September 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jordan Steffen, Ryan Parker, and Zahira Torres, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/06/13/2-confirmed-dead-in-black-forest-fire-379-homes-destroyed/">2 Confirmed Dead in Black Forest Fire; 379 Homes Destroyed,”</a> <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 13, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2016/12/25/cleanup-work-continues-3-years-after-black-forest-blaze/">Three Years After Black Forest Fire, Cleanup Work Continues in Colorado Springs</a>,” <em>Associated Press </em>(via <em>The Denver Post</em>), December 25, 2016.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://blackforesttogether.org/about-us/">Black Forest Together</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/">Inciweb</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>KKTV, “<a href="https://www.kktv.com/content/news/Unsolved-The-Black-Forest-Fire-5-Years-Later--485149361.html">Unsolved: The Black Forest Fire 5 Years Later</a>,” June 11, 2018</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>Fire: A Brief History</em>, 2nd ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>The Interior West: A Fire Survey </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2018)</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 25 Jan 2021 21:19:04 +0000 yongli 3484 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org