%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Horsetooth Reservoir http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horsetooth-reservoir <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Horsetooth Reservoir</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1677--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1677.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/horsetooth-reservoir"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Colorado%20Big%20Media%202_0.jpg?itok=79cvs3B6" width="850" height="565" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/horsetooth-reservoir" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Horsetooth Reservoir</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of Horsetooth Reservoir looking south. The reservoir was created as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project and supplies water to the city of Fort Collins.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3449--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3449.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/horsetooth-reservoir-and-cameron-peak-fire-plume"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Horsetooth_20201015_0014_0.jpg?itok=cxxyqq2R" width="1090" height="728" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/horsetooth-reservoir-and-cameron-peak-fire-plume" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Horsetooth Reservoir and Cameron Peak Fire Plume</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Strong wind pushed Cameron Peak Fire's plume of smoke overhead of the Horsetooth Reservoir.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-09-14T16:44:11-06:00" title="Monday, September 14, 2020 - 16:44" class="datetime">Mon, 09/14/2020 - 16:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horsetooth-reservoir" data-a2a-title="Horsetooth Reservoir"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fhorsetooth-reservoir&amp;title=Horsetooth%20Reservoir"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Horsetooth Reservoir is located in the foothills just west of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> began construction of the reservoir in 1946 as part of the larger <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado–Big Thompson Project</strong></a>, which provided additional <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> water for the northern <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. Horsetooth Reservoir was completed in 1949 and has since developed into a popular recreation destination.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Environment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The natural environment around Horsetooth Reservoir is a transition area between the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a>. Because of this, the land features plants like grasses and yucca <strong>  </strong>as well as coniferous trees. Animals living in the area include <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, rabbits, ground squirrels, snakes, and a variety of birds.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prehistoric and Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>From prehistoric times to 1946, people lived on the land now under Horsetooth Reservoir’s waters. Archeological sites surrounding the reservoir contain evidence of prehistoric peoples, including flake scatters, arrowheads, and small tools. To the immediate southeast of the reservoir is the Spring Canyon site, which contained artifacts from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> (6500 BC to AD 200) and Early Historic periods (150 BC to AD 1540). Early American Indian people used this site as a residential base camp for hunting and gathering in and around the area that is now Horsetooth Reservoir. The site also contains numerous artifacts from beyond the region, including some from as far as New Mexico and Idaho, suggesting trade and social connections among prehistoric and American Indian peoples across the West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1820s, European Americans came to the region to trap and trade in present-day Colorado. Many of these mountain men trapped and traded along rivers near Horsetooth Reservoir: the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a> to the north and <strong>Big Thompson</strong> <strong>River</strong> to the south. As time went on, more European Americans came to the region, especially during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. In northern Colorado, the Cherokee Trail, which later became part of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a>, ran east of present-day Horsetooth Reservoir at the base of the foothills and included several stagecoach stations. As more European Americans came to the region in the 1860s, the federal government began removing the local <strong>Arapaho</strong> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> peoples to distant reservations.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Quarrying and Stout, Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1870s, European Americans began establishing <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a> in the area that is now Horsetooth Reservoir. In 1871 sheepherder William Bachelder set up a homestead in the western end of Spring Canyon. Bachelder noticed the sandstone lining the walls above his homestead and began quarrying the stone. The sandstone attracted others to the area, and eventually a small town centered around quarrying sprang up. Residents dubbed the town Petra, after the ancient Jordanian city carved from stone. Business picked up as sandstone became a popular material for stylish buildings of the time. The <strong>Union Pacific Railroad</strong> established a line that ran from Fort Collins to Bellvue then south to the quarries, connecting them to <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and the wider United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1882 a Nebraskan named William Stout took over the quarries, established a new post office, and renamed the town Stout. At its peak, Stout boasted a school, saloon, and stores to serve the miners and their families. Architects and builders used sandstone from Stout to construct buildings in Fort Collins, in Denver (including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tabor-grand-opera-house"><strong>Tabor Grand Opera House</strong></a>), in other locations in the state, and even as far away as in Chicago. The quarries experienced a quick boom but underwent a slow decline, with the growing use of concrete in buildings and frequent accidents contributing to Stout’s demise. Today, a small part of Stout exists at the southern end of Horsetooth Reservoir, but the majority of the town’s buildings lie in ruin under the water and peek out only when water levels are extremely low.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Creation of Horsetooth Reservoir</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1930s, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> and <strong>Great Depression</strong> devastated the nation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> implemented wide-ranging public works programs to address the nation’s structural and environmental problems while putting Americans back to work. Hoping to capitalize on these New Deal programs, Colorado leaders lobbied for a massive federal project that would bring water from the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> under the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> to irrigate farms on the Great Plains. In 1938 the US Bureau of Reclamation began construction on the Colorado–Big Thompson Project, which transferred water from the Pacific-bound <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> to the Front Range for use by both farms and the growing urban population. This project greatly increased the water available to the people of northern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Water from the Colorado–Big Thompson Project filled twelve reservoirs. One of the largest was named after the granite formation that towers over Fort Collins: <strong>Horsetooth Mountain</strong>. Construction of Horsetooth Reservoir took place between 1946 and 1949. Snowmelt from the Colorado River Basin was diverted via the Colorado–Big Thompson Project’s infrastructure to Flatiron and Pinewood Reservoirs west of Loveland, where it was channeled through the Hansen Feeder Canal near Masonville to the new reservoir. The reservoir submerged the sparsely populated town of Stout and made travel to Fort Collins difficult for those living in the foothills, but promised benefits to those in Fort Collins and northern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1951 dam operators released the first irrigation flows from Horsetooth Reservoir to the Cache la Poudre River, satisfying decades-old demands from northern Colorado farmers. The water from the reservoir is channeled north through a series of canals, where it is then brought to the Cache la Poudre near Bellvue. The water is then diverted from the river to ditches that water farms across <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld</strong></a> Counties. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recreation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to watering farms, Horsetooth Reservoir changed the way people interacted with the foothills west of Fort Collins. The booming post–<strong>World War II </strong>economy produced increased demand for outdoor recreation. With the affordable automobile, expanding interstate system, and paid time off, a growing number of middle-class families could more easily take vacations and enjoy the outdoors. In the years after its completion, Horsetooth Reservoir and the surrounding land became a popular recreation destination.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The state of Colorado improved Horsetooth’s recreation capacity when it bought a large swath of ranch land west of the reservoir to create Lory State Park in 1967. From the 1960s to the present, recreational opportunities around the reservoir continued to grow. Larimer County and the city of Fort Collins established picnic areas next to the reservoir, as well as trail systems that run alongside the reservoir to the east and up to Horsetooth Mountain to the west. Larimer County built boat-in campgrounds on the shoreline at the southern end of the reservoir, near the old site of Stout.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, the reservoir remains a popular recreation destination. It is common in the summertime to see it filled with boats, its adjacent trails busy with hikers and bikers, and families enjoying the picturesque scenery along its banks.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/maxwell-dillon" hreflang="und">Maxwell, Dillon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsetooth-reservoir" hreflang="en">horsetooth reservoir</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsetooth-mountain" hreflang="en">horsetooth mountain</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsetooth" hreflang="en">horsetooth</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsetooth-rock" hreflang="en">horsetooth rock</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-big-thompson-project" hreflang="en">colorado-big thompson project</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cbt" hreflang="en">cbt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/reservoirs" hreflang="en">reservoirs</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Lucy Burris, <em>People of the Poudre: An Ethnohistory of the Cache La Poudre River Heritage Area </em>(Fort Collins, CO: National Park Service, Friends of the Poudre, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“The Colorado–Big Thompson Project: Historical, Logistical, and Political Aspects of This Pioneering Water-Delivery System” (Berthoud, CO: Northern Water 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kenneth Jessen, <em>Ghost Towns: Colorado Style Vol. 1 </em>(Loveland, CO: J.V. Publications, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Northern Water, “<a href="https://www.northernwater.org/what-we-do/deliver-water/reservoirs-and-lakes/horsetooth-reservoir">Horsetooth Reservoir</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=FCC18811229.2.23&amp;srpos=29&amp;e=-------en-20-FCC%2cFCE%2cFCS%2cRMC-21--txt-txIN-Clift-------0-Larimer">Our Stone Quarries</a>,” <em>Fort Collins Courier</em>, December 29, 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Spencer Pelton, Chris Davis, and Jason LaBelle, “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spencer_Pelton/publication/303699117_THE_SPRING_CANYON_SITE_PREHISTORIC_OCCUPATION_OF_A_HOGBACK_WATER_GAP_IN_THE_FOOTHILLS_OF_LARIMER_COUNTY_COLORADO/links/574e60d008ae061b33038d39/THE-SPRING-CANYON-SITE-PREHISTORIC-OCCUPATION-OF-A-HOGBACK-WATER-GAP-IN-THE-FOOTHILLS-OF-LARIMER-COUNTY-COLORADO.pdf">The Spring Canyon Site: Prehistoric Occupation of a Hogback Water Gap in the Foothills of Larimer County, Colorado</a>,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 82, no. 1 (Spring 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>M. C. Poor, “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/43519952">History of the Denver, Boulder &amp;Western Railroad Co.</a>” <em>Railway and Locomotive Historical Society Bulletin </em>65 (October 1944).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ansel Watrous,<em> History of Larimer County, Colorado </em>(Fort Collins, CO: Old Army Press, 1911).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.larimer.gov/naturalresources/parks/horsetooth-reservoir">Horsetooth Reservoir</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 14 Sep 2020 22:44:11 +0000 yongli 3421 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Constitution http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-constitution <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Constitution</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T16:01:03-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 16:01" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 16:01</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-constitution" data-a2a-title="Colorado Constitution"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-constitution&amp;title=Colorado%20Constitution"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Colorado Constitution establishes the basic framework of the state’s government. Written and ratified in 1876, it has served as the state’s original and only constitution. As in other states, ultimate power rests with the people and is exercised by their representatives in the <strong>executive</strong>, <strong>legislative</strong>, and <strong>judicial</strong> branches of state government. Colorado is distinct in reserving to its citizens the right to initiate laws, to hold referenda on laws enacted by the legislature, and to alter the Constitution, which has seen more than 150 amendments in its history.</p><h2>Writing and Ratification</h2><p>On December 20, 1875, thirty-nine delegates, representing every district in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, gathered in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> for a constitutional convention. For almost three months, they studied constitutions, both of the United States and of other states, and debated the issues. The delegates chose a “rights first” approach to their new constitution, declaring the rights of the citizens before specifying the structure of the government. Like the US Constitution, the Colorado Constitution divided the government into three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—that would check and balance each other’s power. The delegates completed their task on March 14, 1876, with all members signing. The document they created—forty pages of ledger paper as originally handwritten—was, and remains, one of the longest state constitutions.</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>The Constitution was ratified by voters on July 1, 1876, by a vote of 15,443 to 4,062, and a copy was sent to Washington, DC. A month later, on August 1, 1876, President Ulysses S. Grant proclaimed that Colorado was accepted into the Union as the thirty-eighth state.</p><h2>Inclusion and Suffrage</h2><p>In framing a constitution for Colorado, the first problem the delegates confronted was the diversity of its people. Shifting international and internal boundaries meant that people who had been living on the northern frontier of Mexico, Texas, or New Mexico Territory suddenly found themselves in Colorado after the territory’s borders were defined in 1861.</p><p>In the 1870s, nearly one-fifth of the state’s population was Spanish speaking. Territorial legislator <strong>Casimiro Barela</strong>, a delegate from southern Colorado, believed that his constituents would take another generation to acculturate, so he extracted a pledge from the convention that the Constitution and the statutes would be available in Spanish until 1900. German immigrants made up the largest segment of the new state’s foreign-born population, so the Constitution ended up being printed in German as well. The Constitution also promised that “aliens, who are or who may hereafter become bona fide residents of this State,” would enjoy the same property rights “as native born citizens.”</p><p>The Colorado Constitution gave the right to vote to all men over the age of twenty-one. In addition, the Constitution took a stand against racial discrimination, guaranteeing a free education for all. Women were given the right to vote only on questions pertaining to schools. At the urging of delegates <strong>Henry Bromwell</strong> of Denver and <strong>Agapito Vigil</strong> of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas</strong></a> Counties, the Constitution provided for a referendum on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> the following year and at any time thereafter. That first vote, in 1877, failed, and women in Colorado were not granted full suffrage until a referendum in 1893.</p><h2>Water Rights and Conservation</h2><p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>Water</strong></a> rights have been a perennial issue in Colorado. As the constitutional convention sat down to its work at the end of 1875, it had in mind a clear recent example that shaped its approach to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-law"><strong>water law</strong></a>. Just two years earlier, a dispute had erupted between two communities. The Union Colony (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>) had built two ditches to access water from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>. But their water flow dried up in 1874, when colonists in Camp Collins (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>) built their own ditch, which diverted the entire flow of the river to their community. The question facing the convention’s delegates was whether upstream newcomers could intercept water that downstream residents already relied on. The delegates enshrined in the Constitution the concept of prior appropriation, or “first rights,” which prioritized older, more senior rights over more recent rights. In addition, the Constitution, relying on the 1861 act that had established the territory of Colorado, granted right-of-way across both public and private lands to build ditches and flumes.</p><p>Conservation was also important to the framers of Colorado’s Constitution, and they made their document the first state constitution to mention forests. The general assembly was instructed to “enact laws in order to prevent the destruction of, and to keep in good preservation, the forests upon the lands of the state.”</p><h2>Direct Democracy</h2><p>Colorado is one of only twenty states that still has its original constitution. However, since 1876, the Constitution has been amended more than 150 times. Initially, Article XIX specified two ways of amending the Constitution: a constitutional convention or a legislatively referred constitutional amendment, whereby an amendment is referred to the ballot for a vote of the people. Both methods of amending the Constitution—the constitutional convention and the legislatively referred amendments—had to begin with elected representatives.</p><p>The constitutional amendment process changed in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a> of the early 1900s, when reformers such as Persifor M. Cooke, president of the Colorado Direct Legislation League, pushed to make the political system in Colorado more democratic. In 1910 a special legislative session referred a new amendment to the ballot, and voters approved, giving citizens two new powers: the referendum and the initiative. The referendum allowed citizens a direct say on legislation passed by the General Assembly through a process of gathering signatures on a petition to place the legislation on the ballot for voters to approve or reject.</p><p>The second and more significant new power, the initiative, allowed citizens to petition to place measures on the ballot that would enact either new statutes or constitutional amendments. Citizen-initiated statutes, like other laws, could later be changed by the General Assembly in the normal course of legislation. But citizen-initiated constitutional amendments could be changed only by another amendment. In 1912, the first year the initiative option was available, there were thirty-two ballot initiatives. The use of the ballot initiative to amend the state’s Constitution peaked in that decade and was used only sporadically for the next sixty years.</p><h2>1976 Winter Olympics</h2><p>Sixty years later, in the 1970s and 1980s, Colorado’s citizens began to use the Constitution to fight over social issues. The first modern ballot initiative involved taxation and the environment. In 1970, after years of work by the <strong>Chamber of Commerce</strong>, Denver was awarded the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1976-winter-olympics"><strong>1976 Winter Olympics</strong></a>, in a nod to both the 200th anniversary of the United States and the 100th anniversary of the state of Colorado. But Colorado’s citizens did not feel involved in the decision to bring the Olympics to the state. This, combined with concerns about environmental and economic costs, led to a successful 1972 ballot initiative known as the Colorado Winter Olympic Games Funding and Tax Amendment, which prohibited the state from levying taxes or appropriating or loaning funds for the 1976 Olympics. With a major funding source unavailable, Denver had to give up the games, which were instead held in Innsbruck, Austria. No other city has ever rejected the Olympics after being awarded them.</p><h2>Recent Amendments</h2><p>Starting in the late 1980s, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, Denver, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, and other cities in Colorado instituted antidiscrimination ordinances that protected citizens on the basis of sexual orientation in addition to race, sex, and disability. In response, religious-rights organizations, spearheaded by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a> group <strong>Colorado for Family Values</strong>, successfully pushed a 1992 initiative, known as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/amendment-2"><strong>Amendment 2</strong></a>, that rescinded these protections and prohibited the state of Colorado from creating laws to protect anyone on the basis of sexual orientation. The Supreme Court later declared Amendment 2 unconstitutional because it violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause.</p><p>The three recent amendments that have most affected the state legislature all deal with taxes and funding. The <strong>Gallagher Amendment</strong>, named for state legislator <strong>Dennis Gallagher</strong> and approved through legislative referral in 1982, was intended to keep a consistent ratio between the revenue from property taxes on residential and business properties. The effect over time has been a decline in revenues collected from property taxes. The <strong>Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR)</strong>, passed by ballot initiative in 1992, gave citizens the right to vote on taxes, provided limitations on the growth of government spending, and prohibited the state from engaging in multiyear transactions. Finally, Amendment 23, passed in 2000, mandated that the state annually increase K–12 per-pupil funding by the rate of inflation. Together, these three amendments often work at cross-purposes, creating a budgetary knot that constrains the legislature. Attempts to either strengthen or eliminate these provisions continue to be contentious.</p><p>Recently, the most socially and culturally significant constitutional amendments have involved <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>cannabis</strong></a> (marijuana). In 2000 voters approved Amendment 20, which allowed the use of medical marijuana. Twelve years later, voters decided to allow recreational marijuana use under Amendment 64.</p><h2>Future of the Constitution</h2><p>Colorado’s Constitution provides ways for citizens to initiate both statutes and constitutional amendments. Since the initiative process was established in 1910, most ballot initiatives have been for constitutional amendments, which are difficult to change, rather than statutes, which are relatively easy to change. Especially in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, the ease of amending Colorado’s constitution made it an attractive testing ground for both national movements and special interests. As different amendments piled up, one problem has been that there exists no easy mechanism to reconcile conflicting amendments. &nbsp;</p><p>To make the Colorado Constitution harder to amend, voters in 2016 approved <strong>Amendment 71</strong>, known as the “Raise the Bar” initiative. Previously, the requirements for citizen-initiated statutes and for citizen-initiated constitutional amendments had been the same. Amendment 71 changed that by raising the number of signatures required to get an initiated amendment onto the ballot from 5 percent of the number of people who voted for the <strong>Colorado secretary of state</strong> in the previous general election to 2 percent of registered voters in each of the state’s thirty-five Senate districts. The oil and gas industry underwrote the amendment campaign to ensure that new amendments could not rely solely on votes from Front Range population centers, which often vote for industry regulation.</p><p>Amendment 71 also made the amendment process harder by requiring new amendments to garner 55 percent of the vote in order to go into effect. In a 2018 ruling, US district judge William Martinez upheld that part of Amendment 71, but ruled that the requirement to get votes from each of the state’s Senate districts was unconstitutional. Amendment 71 continues to be litigated.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wroble-susan" hreflang="und">Wroble, Susan</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-state-constitution" hreflang="en">Colorado State Constitution</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/statehood" hreflang="en">statehood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/suffrage" hreflang="en">Suffrage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/casimiro-barela" hreflang="en">casimiro barela</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/henry-bromwell" hreflang="en">henry bromwell</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/agipito-vigil" hreflang="en">agipito vigil</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s Suffrage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-conservation" hreflang="en">colorado conservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1976-winter-olympics" hreflang="en">1976 winter olympics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gallagher-amendment" hreflang="en">gallagher amendment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amendment-2" hreflang="en">amendment 2</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tabor" hreflang="en">TABOR</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/taxpayer-bill-rights" hreflang="en">Taxpayer Bill of Rights</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amendment-23" hreflang="en">amendment 23</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amendment-20" hreflang="en">amendment 20</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amendment-64" hreflang="en">amendment 64</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amendment-71" hreflang="en">amendment 71</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Imposition_of_Distribution_and_Supermajority_Requirements_for_Citizen-Initiated_Constitutional_Amendments,_Amendment_71_(2016)">Colorado Imposition of Distribution and Supermajority Requirements for Citizen-Initiated Constitutional Amendments, Amendment 71 (2016)</a>,” Ballotpedia.</p><p><a href="https://advance.lexis.com/container/?pdmfid=1000516&amp;crid=42826d1a-6c94-42d3-9035-815ea71ba546&amp;func=LN.Advance.ContentView.getFullToc&amp;nodeid=AAB&amp;typeofentry=Breadcrumb&amp;config=0155JAAyMzg2MTYzZi1jMWNlLTRlOTQtODVjZS0xZTU0MDg1YmQ0OTUKAFBvZENhdGFsb2eEcVf2aFZwpM1qua3EYcVa&amp;action=publictoc&amp;pddocfullpath=%2Fshared%2Fdocument%2Fstatutes-legislation%2Furn%3AcontentItem%3A5WX1-GDD0-004D-108V-00008-00&amp;pdtocfullpath=%2Fshared%2Ftableofcontents%2Furn%3AcontentItem%3A7XPT-W0Y0-Y96J-1000-00008-00&amp;ecomp=9s-fkkk&amp;prid=01f16955-5858-4ccb-9e8f-76826d6c175a">Constitution of the State of Colorado</a>.</p><p>Wilma R. Davidson, <em>A Force for Change: The League of Women Voters of Colorado, 1928–1995</em> (Denver: League of Women Voters of Colorado, 1995).</p><p>Grace Hood, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2016/09/30/is-amendment-71-now-a-proxy-battleground-for-colorados-oil-gas-differences/">Is Amendment 71 Now a Proxy Battleground for Colorado’s Oil and Gas Differences?</a>,” CPR News, September 30, 2016.</p><p>Mary Mullarkey, “<a href="https://www.courts.state.co.us/Courts/Education/Constitution.cfm">Message From Former Chief Justice Mary Mullarkey</a>,” Colorado Constitution Day Resources, Colorado Judicial Branch<em>,</em> updated January 2013.</p><p>Gale Norton, “<a href="https://www.jrmc2.com/PDF/ColoradoConstitution.pdf">Introduction to the Constitution of the State of Colorado</a>,” n.d.</p><p>Julie Pelegrin, “<a href="https://legisource.net/2012/08/23/the-power-of-the-people-reservation-of-the-initiative-and-referendum-powers/">The Power of the People: Reservation of the Initiative and Referendum Powers</a>,” Colorado LegiSource, August 23, 2012.</p><p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/colorado-experience-colorado-constitution/">Colorado Constitution</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, May 9, 2013.</p><p>Judy G. Russell, “<a href="https://www.legalgenealogist.com/2012/08/02/state-constitutions-colorado/">State Constitutions: Colorado</a>,” <em>Legal Genealogist</em>, August 2, 2012.</p><p>“<a href="https://grossmanattorneys.com/defense-base-act-questions/">West to the 32nd Meridian: The Colorado Constitution</a>,” <em>Docket</em>, March 27, 2014.</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>The Colorado Constitution creates the framework of the state’s government. It was written and ratified in 1876. It is the state’s original and only constitution.</p><p>Like the US Constitution, the Colorado Constitution divided the government into three branches. The <strong>executive</strong>, <strong>legislative,</strong> and <strong>judicial</strong> would check and balance each other’s power.</p><h2>Writing and Ratification</h2><p>On December 20, 1875, thirty-nine delegates gathered in Denver for a constitutional convention. For almost three months, they studied and debated the issues.</p><p>The delegates completed their task on March 14, 1876. All members signed. The document they created was forty handwritten pages. It is one of the longest state constitutions.</p><p>The Constitution was ratified by voters on July 1, 1876. A copy was sent to Washington, DC. A month later, President Ulysses S. Grant accepted Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth state.</p><h2>Inclusion and Suffrage</h2><p>In the 1870s, nearly one-fifth of the state’s population was Spanish speaking. The convention pledged the Constitution would be available in Spanish until 1900. German immigrants made up the largest part of the foreign-born population. So, the Constitution was printed in German as well.</p><p>The Colorado Constitution gave the right to vote to all men over twenty-one. The Constitution also guaranteed a free education for all. Women could only vote on questions about schools. However, the Constitution allowed for voting on <strong>women’s suffrage</strong>. The first vote in 1877 failed. Women in Colorado did not get the right to vote until 1893.</p><h2>Water Rights and Conservation</h2><p><strong>Water</strong> rights have always been an issue in Colorado. The convention had an example that shaped its approach to <strong>water law</strong>. The Union Colony (now <strong>Greeley</strong>) had built two ditches to access water. Their water flow dried up in 1874, when colonists in Camp Collins (now <strong>Fort Collins</strong>) built their own ditch. The ditch diverted all the water to Camp Collins. The question was whether upstream newcomers could take water that downstream residents already relied on. The delegates went with the concept of “first rights." First rights prioritized older water rights over newer rights.</p><p>Conservation was also important to the framers. They made the document the first state constitution to mention forests.</p><h2>Direct Democracy</h2><p>Colorado is one of only twenty states that still has its original constitution. However, since 1876, the Constitution has been changed more than 150 times.</p><p>At first, there were two ways to change the Constitution. There could be a constitutional convention or a legislatively referred amendment. Amendments were put on the ballot for a vote of the people.</p><p>The amendment process changed in the early 1900s. In 1910, a special legislative session referred a new amendment to the ballot. The voters approved. This gave citizens two new powers: the referendum and the initiative.</p><p>The referendum gave citizens a direct say on laws. The initiative allowed citizens to put measures on the ballot. The measures would create new statutes or amendments. Citizen-initiated statutes could later be changed by the state legislature. Citizen-initiated amendments could only be changed by another amendment.</p><p>1912 was the first year the initiative option was available. There were thirty-two ballot initiatives that year. The use of the ballot initiative peaked in that decade. It wasn't used much for the next sixty years.</p><h2>1976 Winter Olympics</h2><p>In 1970, Denver was awarded the <strong>1976 Winter Olympics</strong>. Colorado’s citizens did not feel involved in the decision. There were also concerns about costs. This led to the passage of the Colorado Winter Olympic Games Funding and Tax Amendment in 1972. The amendment stopped the state from raising taxes or loaning money for the 1976 Olympics. With a major funding source gone, Denver had to give up the games. No other city has rejected the Olympics after being awarded them.</p><h2>Recent Amendments</h2><p>The <strong>Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR)</strong> was passed by ballot initiative in 1992. TABOR gave citizens the right to vote on taxes. It created limits on the growth of government spending.</p><h2>Future of the Constitution</h2><p>Since 1910, most ballot initiatives have been for amendments. Amendments are difficult to change. Statutes are relatively easy to change. The ease of changing the constitution has made Colorado an attractive testing ground for national movements and special interests.</p><p>Voters approved <strong>Amendment 71</strong> in 2016. It makes the Colorado Constitution harder to change. However, parts of Amendment 71 are still being fought in court.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The Colorado Constitution creates the framework of the state’s government. It was written and ratified in 1876. It is the state’s original and only constitution.</p><p>Citizens have the right to initiate laws. They can hold referenda on laws passed by the legislature. Citizens can also change the Constitution. The document has seen more than 150 amendments in its history.</p><h2>Writing and Ratification</h2><p>On December 20, 1875, thirty-nine delegates gathered in Denver for a constitutional convention. For almost three months, they studied and debated the issues.</p><p>Like the US Constitution, the Colorado Constitution divided the government into three branches. The <strong>executive</strong>, <strong>legislative</strong>, and <strong>judicial </strong>would check and balance each other’s power.</p><p>The delegates completed their task on March 14, 1876, with all members signing. The document they created was forty handwritten pages. It is one of the longest state constitutions.</p><p>The Constitution was ratified by voters on July 1, 1876, by a vote of 15,443 to 4,062. A copy was sent to Washington, DC. A month later, on August 1, 1876, President Ulysses S. Grant accepted Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth state.</p><h2>Inclusion and Suffrage</h2><p>In the 1870s, nearly one-fifth of the state’s population was Spanish speaking. The convention pledged the Constitution would be available in Spanish until 1900. German immigrants made up the largest part of the foreign-born population. So, the Constitution was printed in German as well.</p><p>The Colorado Constitution gave the right to vote to all men over twenty-one. In addition, the Constitution guaranteed a free education for all. Women were given the right to vote only on questions pertaining to schools. However, the Constitution allowed for voting on <strong>women’s suffrage</strong>. The first vote in 1877 failed. Women in Colorado were not granted full suffrage until 1893.</p><h2>Water Rights and Conservation</h2><p><strong>Water</strong> rights have always been an issue in Colorado. The convention had an example that shaped its approach to <strong>water law</strong>. The Union Colony (now <strong>Greeley</strong>) had built two ditches to access water. Their water flow dried up in 1874, when colonists in Camp Collins (now <strong>Fort Collins</strong>) built their own ditch. The ditch diverted all the water to Camp Collins. The question was whether upstream newcomers could take water that downstream residents already relied on. The delegates enshrined the concept of “first rights." First rights prioritized older water rights over newer rights.</p><p>Conservation was also important to the framers. They made the document the first state constitution to mention forests.</p><h2>Direct Democracy</h2><p>Colorado is one of only twenty states that still has its original constitution. However, since 1876, the Constitution has been amended more than 150 times. Initially, Article XIX had two ways of changing the Constitution. There could be a constitutional convention or a legislatively referred amendment. Amendments are placed on the ballot for a vote of the people.</p><p>The amendment process changed in the early 1900s. In 1910, a special legislative session referred a new amendment to the ballot. The voters approved. This gave citizens two new powers: the referendum and the initiative. The referendum gave citizens a direct say on laws.</p><p>The initiative allowed citizens to place measures on the ballot. The measures would enact either new statutes or amendments. Citizen-initiated statutes could later be changed by the state legislature. Citizen-initiated amendments could only be changed by another amendment.</p><p>In 1912, the first year the initiative option was available, there were thirty-two ballot initiatives. The use of the ballot initiative to amend the state’s Constitution peaked in that decade. It wasn't used much for the next sixty years.</p><h2>1976 Winter Olympics</h2><p>In 1970, Denver was awarded the <strong>1976 Winter Olympics</strong>. Colorado’s citizens did not feel involved in the decision. There were also concerns about costs. This led to the passage of the Colorado Winter Olympic Games Funding and Tax Amendment in 1972. The amendment stopped the state from raising taxes or loaning money for the 1976 Olympics. With a major funding source gone, Denver had to give up the games. No other city has rejected the Olympics after being awarded them.</p><h2>Recent Amendments</h2><p>Starting in the late 1980s, cities in Colorado passed laws protecting citizens based on sexual orientation. In response, religious-rights groups helped pass <strong>Amendment 2</strong> in 1992. Amendment 2 took away these protections. It stopped the state from creating laws to protect people based on sexual orientation. The Supreme Court later declared Amendment 2 unconstitutional.</p><p>The <strong>Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR)</strong> was passed by ballot initiative in 1992. TABOR gave citizens the right to vote on taxes. It created limits on the growth of government spending.</p><p>Recently, amendments have involved <strong>cannabis</strong> (marijuana). In 2000 voters approved Amendment 20, which allowed the use of medical marijuana. Twelve years later, voters decided to allow recreational marijuana under Amendment 64.</p><h2>Future of the Constitution</h2><p>Since 1910, most ballot initiatives have been for amendments. Amendments are difficult to change. Statutes are relatively easy to change. The ease of changing the constitution has made Colorado an attractive testing ground for special interests.</p><p>To make the Colorado Constitution harder to change, voters approved <strong>Amendment 71</strong> in 2016. Before, the requirements for citizen-initiated statutes and for citizen-initiated amendments were the same. Amendment 71 changed that. It raised the number of signatures required to get an initiated amendment on the ballot.</p><p>Amendment 71 also required new amendments to get 55 percent of the vote to go into effect. In a 2018, US district judge William Martinez upheld that part of Amendment 71. However, Amendment 71 is still being fought in court.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The Colorado Constitution creates the basic framework of the state’s government. Written and ratified in 1876, it is the state’s original and only constitution. As in other states, ultimate power rests with the people. Power is exercised by representatives in the <strong>executive</strong>, <strong>legislative</strong>, and <strong>judicial</strong> branches. Citizens have the right to initiate laws, to hold referenda on laws enacted by the legislature, and to change the Constitution. The document has seen more than 150 amendments in its history.</p><h2>Writing and Ratification</h2><p>On December 20, 1875, thirty-nine delegates gathered in <strong>Denver</strong> for a constitutional convention. For almost three months, they studied and debated the issues. The delegates chose a “rights first” approach to their new constitution. They declared the rights of the citizens before specifying the structure of the government. Like the US Constitution, the Colorado Constitution divided the government into three branches. The executive, legislative, and judicial would check and balance each other’s power. The delegates completed their task on March 14, 1876, with all members signing. The document they created was forty handwritten pages. It is one of the longest state constitutions.</p><p>The Constitution was ratified by voters on July 1, 1876, by a vote of 15,443 to 4,062. A copy was sent to Washington, DC. A month later, on August 1, 1876, President Ulysses S. Grant accepted Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth state.</p><h2>Inclusion and Suffrage</h2><p>The first problem the delegates confronted was the diversity of its people. Shifting boundaries meant people who had been living on the northern frontier of Mexico, Texas, or New Mexico Territory found themselves in Colorado after the territory’s borders were defined in 1861.</p><p>In the 1870s, nearly one-fifth of the state’s population was Spanish speaking. <strong>Casimiro Barela</strong>, a delegate from southern Colorado, had the convention pledge that the Constitution would be available in Spanish until 1900. German immigrants made up the largest segment of the new state’s foreign-born population, so the Constitution was printed in German as well.</p><p>The Colorado Constitution gave the right to vote to all men over the age of twenty-one. In addition, the Constitution took a stand against racial discrimination. It guaranteed a free education for all. Women were given the right to vote only on questions pertaining to schools. At the urging of two delegates, the Constitution provided for a referendum on <strong>women’s suffrage</strong> the following year and any time thereafter. The first vote in 1877 failed. Women in Colorado were not granted full suffrage until 1893.</p><h2>Water Rights and Conservation</h2><p><strong>Water</strong> rights have always been an issue in Colorado. The constitutional convention had a recent example that shaped its approach to <strong>water law</strong>. Two years earlier, there was a dispute between two communities. The Union Colony (now <strong>Greeley</strong>) had built two ditches to access water from the <strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong>. Their water flow dried up in 1874, when colonists in Camp Collins (now <strong>Fort Collins</strong>) built their own ditch. The ditch diverted the entire flow of the river to Camp Collins. The question was whether upstream newcomers could take water that downstream residents already relied on. The delegates enshrined in the Constitution the concept of “first rights." First rights prioritized older, more senior rights over more recent rights. In addition, the Constitution granted right-of-way across both public and private lands to build ditches.</p><p>Conservation was also important to the framers of Colorado’s Constitution. They made their document the first state constitution to mention forests.</p><h2>Direct Democracy</h2><p>Colorado is one of only twenty states that still has its original constitution. However, since 1876, the Constitution has been amended more than 150 times. Initially, Article XIX specified two ways of amending the Constitution. There could be a constitutional convention or a legislatively referred constitutional amendment. Amendments are placed on the ballot for a vote of the people. Both methods of amending the Constitution begin with elected representatives.</p><p>The amendment process changed in the <strong>Progressive Era</strong> of the early 1900s. Reformers pushed to make Colorado's political system more democratic. In 1910 a special legislative session referred a new amendment to the ballot. The voters approved, giving citizens two new powers: the referendum and the initiative. The referendum allowed citizens a direct say on legislation passed by the General Assembly through a process of gathering signatures on a petition to place the legislation on the ballot. Voters could approve or reject.</p><p>The second new power, the initiative, allowed citizens to petition to place measures on the ballot. The measures would enact either new statutes or constitutional amendments. Citizen-initiated statutes, like other laws, could later be changed by the General Assembly. But citizen-initiated constitutional amendments could be changed only by another amendment. In 1912, the first year the initiative option was available, there were thirty-two ballot initiatives. The use of the ballot initiative to amend the state’s Constitution peaked in that decade. It wasn't used much for the next sixty years.</p><h2>1976 Winter Olympics</h2><p>In the 1970s and 1980s, citizens began to use the Constitution to fight over social issues. In 1970, Denver was awarded the <strong>1976 Winter Olympics</strong>. Colorado’s citizens did not feel involved in the decision to bring the Olympics to the state. This, combined with concerns about costs, led to a successful 1972 ballot initiative known as the Colorado Winter Olympic Games Funding and Tax Amendment. The amendment stopped the state from raising taxes or loaning money for the 1976 Olympics. With a major funding source gone, Denver had to give up the games. No other city has ever rejected the Olympics after being awarded them.</p><h2>Recent Amendments</h2><p>Starting in the late 1980s, <strong>Boulder</strong>, Denver, <strong>Aspen</strong>, and other cities in Colorado passed ordinances that protected citizens based on sexual orientation. In response, religious-rights groups helped pass a 1992 initiative known as <strong>Amendment 2</strong>. Amendment 2 took away these protections. It stopped the state from creating laws to protect anyone on the basis of sexual orientation. The Supreme Court later declared Amendment 2 unconstitutional. It violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause.</p><p>The three recent amendments that have most affected the state legislature all deal with taxes and funding. The <strong>Gallagher Amendment</strong> was named for state legislator <strong>Dennis Gallagher</strong>. It was approved through a legislative referral in 1982. The amendment was intended to keep a consistent ratio between the revenue from property taxes on residential and business properties. The effect has been a decline in revenues collected from property taxes over time.</p><p>The <strong>Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR)</strong> was passed by ballot initiative in 1992. TABOR gave citizens the right to vote on taxes. It provided limitations on the growth of government spending.</p><p>Amendment 23 was passed in 2000. It mandated that the state increase K–12 per-pupil funding by the rate of inflation every year.</p><p>Together, these three amendments often work at cross-purposes. Attempts to either strengthen or eliminate these provisions continue to be contentious.</p><p>Recently, the most socially and culturally significant constitutional amendments have involved <strong>cannabis</strong> (marijuana). In 2000 voters approved Amendment 20, which allowed the use of medical marijuana. Twelve years later, voters decided to allow recreational marijuana use under Amendment 64.</p><h2>Future of the Constitution</h2><p>Colorado’s Constitution provides ways for citizens to initiate both statutes and constitutional amendments. Since 1910, most ballot initiatives have been for constitutional amendments, which are difficult to change, rather than statutes, which are relatively easy to change. The ease of amending Colorado’s constitution has made it an attractive testing ground for national movements and special interests.</p><p>To make the Colorado Constitution harder to amend, voters approved <strong>Amendment 71 </strong>in 2016. Previously, the requirements for citizen-initiated statutes and for citizen-initiated constitutional amendments had been the same. Amendment 71 changed that by raising the number of signatures required to get an initiated amendment onto the ballot.</p><p>Amendment 71 also made the amendment process harder by requiring new amendments to get 55 percent of the vote in order to go into effect. In a 2018 ruling, US district judge William Martinez upheld that part of Amendment 71. However, Amendment 71 continues to be litigated.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 22:01:03 +0000 yongli 3184 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lake County War http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county-war <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lake County War</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T15:28:16-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 15:28" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county-war" data-a2a-title="Lake County War"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flake-county-war&amp;title=Lake%20County%20War"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Lake County War of 1874–75 grew out of a personal dispute over land and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> rights in an area where increasing settlement was making both resources relatively scarce. The conflict ultimately turned into a test of law, justice, and state legitimacy in a frontier community.</p> <p>After Elijah Gibbs was acquitted of the June 1874 murder of George Harrington, established ranchers in the upper <strong>Arkansas Valley</strong> formed an extralegal Committee of Safety that harassed and drove away residents sympathetic to Gibbs. This culminated in the vigilantes’ murder of Judge Elias Dyer in his courtroom in <strong>Granite</strong> on July 2, 1875. The violence in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county"><strong>Lake County</strong></a> provoked debate throughout <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, with some worrying that the lawlessness threatened Colorado’s chances of attaining <strong>statehood</strong>.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The Lake County War began on June 16, 1874, near Centerville, a town north of present-day <strong>Salida</strong>, which was still part of Lake County at the time. That day, rancher Elijah Gibbs and his hired hand, Stewart McClish, got into a disagreement with neighboring rancher George Harrington over fencing and water rights along a branch of Gas Creek. The disagreement escalated into a fight, with Gibbs brandishing a gun, but all three men walked away without serious injury. That night, however, someone set fire to an outbuilding on Harrington’s property, and when Harrington went outside to douse the flames, he was shot dead. Because of their earlier altercation with Harrington, Gibbs and McClish were arrested as suspects.</p> <p>The murder and subsequent arrests acted as a catalyst in a community riven by conflict. Gibbs was a newcomer to the region but had already become associated with the Regulators, a group allegedly formed earlier that spring to enrich its members through violence and robbery. Some locals wanted him lynched for the Harrington murder, but cooler heads prevailed, keeping Gibbs and McClish safely in custody as they awaited trial in Granite, the county seat. Nevertheless, emotions remained at such a feverish pitch that the trial was relocated to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> in an attempt to secure an impartial jury. After the trial that October, the lack of convincing evidence against Gibbs and McClish led the jury to acquit. McClish left the region, but Gibbs returned to his ranch.</p> <h2>Vigilante Justice</h2> <p>After Gibbs’s acquittal and return to Centerville in October 1874, Lake County appeared placid for the next few months. Beneath the surface, however, tensions between residents remained. They broke into the open on January 22, 1875, when a group of about fifteen locals secured a warrant for Gibbs’s arrest. Because Gibbs had already been cleared of the Harrington murder on June 17, the vigilantes charged him with intending to kill Harrington during their confrontation the previous day.</p> <p>The men armed themselves and went to Gibbs’s cabin late on January 22, supposedly to serve the warrant. When Gibbs refused to come out, the men set fire to his cabin. During the ensuing shoot-out, Gibbs and his family escaped while three vigilantes were killed—two by Gibbs, one by friendly fire. Gibbs turned himself in for the deaths but was quickly released because he was found to have acted in self-defense. He then fled to Denver.</p> <p>After Gibbs left Lake County, a group calling itself the Committee of Safety formed at the end of January. Composed of some of the most prominent men in the county, including merchant and rancher <strong>Charles Nachtrieb</strong>, the group seems to have represented early ranchers who feared and resented newcomers competing with them for water and other resources. It functioned as an extralegal judicial body opposed to Gibbs, the Regulators, and their supposed hold over the county’s normal channels of justice. Acting without any authority, the Committee of Safety questioned everyone passing through the area, detained anyone suspected of supporting Gibbs, threatened them with violence, and ordered those who refused to change their views to leave.</p> <p>The case of probate judge Elias Dyer, son of the well-known itinerant preacher <strong>John Lewis Dyer</strong>, was typical. On his way to hold court in Granite, Dyer was stopped by members of the committee and held for questioning at the Chalk Creek schoolhouse that served as the group’s headquarters. When he professed his belief in Gibbs’s innocence, he received a clear order: “You are hereby notified to resign your office as probate judge, and leave this county within thirty days, by order of the Committee of Safety.”</p> <p>Dyer complied with the order, heading straight to Denver to try to convince territorial officials to take action. But the territorial government did very little, in part because the territory had an interim governor while it awaited the arrival of <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-l-routt">John L. Routt</a></strong>. The acting governor, John W. Jenkins, issued a proclamation calling on “bodies of armed and lawless men” in Lake County to stop disturbing the peace. Jenkins also sent the head of the Colorado militia, David Cook, to investigate the situation. Cook’s report, published in the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> on February 18, declared that he had “found no disturbance or lawless elements among the citizens, but on the contrary peace and order restored.”</p> <p>Yet the charges and countercharges flowing out of the county and being published in Denver newspapers throughout February suggested that Cook’s investigation had been incomplete. The Committee of Safety did disband, as it had assured Cook it would, but the murder of supposed Gibbs supporter Charles Harding, found shot to death along with his dog on April 1 near what is now Salida, confirmed that authority in Lake County remained contested.</p> <h2>The Assassination of Elias Dyer</h2> <p>In May 1875, more than three months after the Committee of Safety forced him to leave Lake County, Elias Dyer returned to Granite to resume his role in the regularly constituted judicial system. He traveled the county to figure out who had been involved with the Committee of Safety’s reign of terror, and by the end of May he was ready to issue warrants. The judge held off, however, because he feared retaliation. In June he resolved to proceed with the warrants, deputizing a local man to round up the suspects.</p> <p>As news of the first few arrests spread, Lake County sheriff John Weldon, who had been allied with the Committee of Safety, gathered about thirty committee members, including most of the people named in Dyer’s warrants, and came to Granite on July 2. Backed by this armed posse, Weldon demanded that Dyer hold a hearing that night. Dyer reluctantly called court into session, but immediately declared a recess until the morning because no witnesses were willing to testify against the Committee of Safety.</p> <p>Guarded by Committee of Safety members overnight to ensure that he would not leave town, Dyer suspected that the next morning’s court session would go poorly. He was right. Again, no one proved willing to testify against the Committee of Safety, so Dyer had to dismiss the charges within minutes because of a lack of evidence. As the courthouse emptied around 8:30 am, five men went up an external stairway to the second-floor courtroom, where they shot Dyer—presumably for having the temerity to pursue justice—and then mingled into the crowd outside. The identity of the murderers seems to have been an open secret, but by this point everyone had learned not to risk the wrath of the Committee of Safety by leveling charges. The coroner could conclude only that “Elias Dyer Came to his death From a rifle or pistol Shot in the hand or hands of Some person or persons unknown.”</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>After Dyer’s assassination, accounts of the violence in Lake County once again dominated the territory’s newspapers. Some editors blamed Dyer for needlessly provoking people with his warrants, while others worried about how Colorado might be perceived in the rest of the country. “There are very few people,” the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> observed, “who will care to come to a country where probate judges are murdered by committees of safety headed by the sheriff of the county.” Members of Congress, too, might cast a skeptical eye on Colorado’s bid for statehood if it seemed that the territory had not yet attained basic standards of civilization.</p> <p>New governor John Routt, who had assumed his post in Denver, attempted to assert some semblance of authority despite having no organized militia and no money to raise one. On July 6, he issued a proclamation offering $200 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the murderers, but it yielded no results. Routt also made a confidential request to US army commander William T. Sherman for a cavalry company to enforce the law in Lake County, but Sherman declined to send troops. Eventually, all Routt could do was ask the next legislative session to form a militia.</p> <p>Yet even without a trial for Dyer’s killers or soldiers to support local courts, the turmoil in Lake County quickly subsided after a new probate judge and a new justice of the peace with ties to the Committee of Safety were appointed, effectively instituting the former vigilantes as the county’s legally constituted authorities. However, some of those vigilantes ultimately faced retribution, with several Committee of Safety members, including Charles Nachtrieb, coming to violent deaths over the next few years. No clear evidence tied those deaths back to the events of 1874–75, but many locals believed otherwise.</p> <p>Newspapers at the time called the conflict the Lake County War, a term that subsequent journalists and historians have adopted even though it was really an instance of domestic terrorism. No matter the name, the violence revealed clear divisions within the Upper Arkansas Valley, and its consequences reverberated for years. Above all, it showed the need for a stronger judicial system and central authority in Colorado as a growing number of residents came into conflict over scarce resources.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lake-county-war" hreflang="en">Lake County War</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/charles-nachtrieb" hreflang="en">Charles Nachtrieb</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/upper-arkansas-valley" hreflang="en">Upper Arkansas Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elias-dyer" hreflang="en">Elias Dyer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/committee-safety" hreflang="en">Committee of Safety</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Don L. Griswold and Jean Harvey Griswold, <em>History of Leadville and Lake County, Colorado: From Mountain Solitude to Metropolis</em>, 2 vols. (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1996).</p> <p>John Ophus, “The Lake County War, 1874–75,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 47, no. 2 (Spring 1970).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Upper Arkansas: A Mountain River Valley</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1990).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Eugene H. Berwanger, <em>The Rise of the Centennial State: Colorado Territory, 1861–76</em> (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007).</p> <p>Mark Fiester, <em>Look for Me in Heaven: The Life of John Lewis Dyer</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1980).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 21:28:16 +0000 yongli 3182 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Yampa River http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yampa-river <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yampa River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2308--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2308.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/early-yampa-river"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Yampa-River-1_0.jpg?itok=_bNyeRO5" width="1000" height="676" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/early-yampa-river" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Early Yampa River </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>“Panoramic view of frame and log houses, churches and commercial buildings on Lincoln Avenue in Steamboat Springs (Routt County), Colorado. Shows the Yampa River in a valley and snow on mountains in the distance.”</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-02T16:41:52-07:00" title="Thursday, February 2, 2017 - 16:41" class="datetime">Thu, 02/02/2017 - 16:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yampa-river" data-a2a-title="Yampa River"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fyampa-river&amp;title=Yampa%20River"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Yampa River snakes 250 miles across northwestern Colorado, primarily in <strong><a href="/article/routt-county">Routt</a> </strong>and <a href="/article/moffat-county"><strong>Moffat</strong></a> Counties. Its watershed encompasses approximately 8,000 square miles in Colorado and Wyoming; in Colorado, the river flows through <strong>Craig</strong>, <strong>Hayden</strong>, <strong>Milner</strong>, and <strong>Steamboat Springs</strong>, among other communities. The explorer <a href="/article/john-c-fr%C3%A9mont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> coined the name Yampa in 1844, after Snake Indians in the region provided him yampah root, or <em>Perideridia gairdneri</em>, for food.</p> <p>The Yampa is regionally important for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a>, recreation, and sustaining adjacent ecosystems. It is home to rare and endangered fish species. Compared to many other rivers in the American West, much of the Yampa River’s natural ecosystem remains relatively undisturbed, both biologically and hydrologically. Flow alterations and human modification of the environment along its banks has nonetheless resulted in some degradation. Protection of the river’s biodiversity and ecosystems will help ensure that the Yampa remains a healthy aquatic resource for future generations.</p> <h2>Features</h2> <p>The Yampa River starts high in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness"><strong>Flat Tops</strong></a> and the <strong>Gore Range</strong> of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, with its headwater streams originating at roughly 11,000 feet. At 7,833 feet, the Bear River and Phillips Creek join near the town of Yampa to form the Yampa River. Running north through Steamboat Springs, the Yampa then turns west and rolls down to Craig in Moffat County. Its major tributaries include the Elk River, the Williams Fork, and its largest branch stream, the Little Snake River. The mouth of the Yampa opens in <a href="/article/echo-park-dam-controversy"><strong>Echo Park</strong></a> in <a href="/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a>, where it joins the <strong>Green River</strong>, a tributary of the <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>.</p> <p>The Yampa’s flow shifts seasonally, depending on precipitation and the previous winter’s <a href="/article/snow"><strong>snowpack</strong></a>. Snowmelt fills its channels in the spring, typically peaking in May. Water levels drop through the summer and into the fall, reaching annual lows between August and October. Streamflow in May 2015 beat the previous record held in 1920; under the Fifth Street Bridge in Steamboat Springs, the stream ran at 2,970 cubic feet per second (CFS). The Yampa is the only stream of its size in the Upper Colorado River Basin whose seasonal flow levels so closely resemble those of its predevelopment period. With upward of 80 percent of the state’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> coming from snowmelt, warmer weather and drought may potentially impact the water supply.</p> <h2>Riverine Ecosystem</h2> <p>The Yampa’s natural movement shapes its riverine ecosystems, which support a variety of aquatic and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian</strong></a> plant communities and wildlife, including the Colorado pikeminnow (<em>Ptychocheilus lucius</em>), the humpback chub (<em>Gila cypha</em>), the bonytail chub (<em>Gila elegans</em>), and the razorback sucker (<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em>), all of which are listed as endangered species. The Colorado River cutthroat trout (<em>Oncorhynchus clarki pleuriticus</em>), a possible addition to the federally endangered species list, also swims the Yampa’s waters.</p> <p>Even though <a href="/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian areas</strong></a> occupy only a small portion of the Colorado landscape, they sustain a large portion of the state’s wildlife. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>Pine and fir</strong></a> forests line the upper reaches of the Yampa, while <strong>cottonwoods</strong> and willow trees dot its lower reaches. Migratory sandhill cranes, nesting blue herons, bald eagles, and other birds are found near the river, as well as <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <strong>deer</strong>, antelope, and other big game species. <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>Beaver</strong></a> colonize many parts of the watershed as well.</p> <h2>Water Source</h2> <p>The Yampa River has historically provided water to Native Americans as well as farmers and ranchers. The Snake people—which includes the Bannock and Shoshone tribes—and the White River <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>, comprised of Parianuche and Yampa (Yamparika, Yampatika) Utes, drank from the river, hunted in the Yampa valley, and gathered food and raw materials for shelter. In the early nineteenth century, fur trappers significantly reduced the area’s <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> populations. The first white settlers in the watershed were the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteaders</strong></a> and ranchers who founded Steamboat Springs in 1874. Ranching flourished over the next half-century, soon joined by coal mining and tourism. Today, ranching, tourism, and coal mining are still major enterprises in the valley, along with agriculture (beans, beets, corn, lettuce, onions, peppers, potatoes, pumpkins, and tomatoes).</p> <p>Commercial use of the river includes tubing, rafting, canoeing, fishing, stand up paddle boarding, and kayaking. While these activities bring in a significant amount of tourism revenue, they are often accompanied by littering, air pollution from vehicles, the introduction of exotic species or sport fishes, and habitat destruction. Agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, as well as pollution from industrial activities such coal mining and oil and gas development also threaten the river’s health. As the Yampa is the lifeblood of the regional economy, federal, state, and local organizations have overseen many conservation measures since the mid-twentieth century.</p> <h2>Conservation Efforts</h2> <p>In the early 1950s, the <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> proposed two dams within Dinosaur National Monument, one of which would have been constructed immediately downstream at the confluence of the Green and Yampa Rivers in Echo Park. The <a href="/article/echo-park-dam-controversy"><strong>Echo Park Dam Controversy</strong></a> pitted those who wanted the river canyons of Dinosaur preserved as wilderness and for whitewater recreation against those who wanted to develop hydropower on the rivers of the American West. The proposed dam was defeated by a coalition of conservation groups—most notably the Sierra Club—along with local river runners and concerned citizens across the country, and has been widely recognized as a major milestone in the development of the modern environmental movement.</p> <p>In 1966 the Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District was created to undertake water conservation projects to ensure that the river provides enough water to farmers and ranchers. The district built two major water storage facilities: Yamcolo Reservoir and Stagecoach Reservoir. Yamcolo Reservoir was completed in 1980 and stands 109 feet high; the <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> manages its recreation area. Stagecoach Reservoir, completed in 1988 and standing 145 feet high, generates 800 kilowatts of power; <a href="/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks &amp; Wildlife</strong></a> manages Stagecoach State Park. The water serves irrigation, municipal, ranching, and industrial uses downstream. These water projects store runoff from winter snows, discharging the water into the stream to augment the Yampa’s low late-season flows. These water projects don’t necessarily alter the overall annual average flow of the river, but they even it out so that there is rarely too little or too much water in the river for agricultural purposes. The riparian ecosystems that depend on seasonal <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a>, however, are damaged by the absence of seasonally high water.</p> <p>On a floodplain seventeen miles west of Steamboat Springs, <strong>The Nature Conservancy</strong>’s Yampa River Preserve protects 8,800 acres of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>wetlands</strong></a> along a ten-mile stretch of the river. Under natural conditions, floods erode the riverbanks and deposit new sediments, causing the Yampa to shift to new channels. Channel shifting distributes soil, nutrients, and water to broad swaths of wetlands along the banks and provides food and habitat to plants and animals. The preserve ensures that this historic flood process will continue, thereby protecting the adjacent riparian ecosystem, which depends on these floods. The long-term goal of the Conservancy is to provide conservation-based alternatives to traditional land management practices. It pursues this through conservation easements, assistance with management plans, and cooperative stewardship groups such as <strong>Friends of the Yampa</strong>.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Though the river remains undammed, the Yampa’s water continues to be a desirable resource for thirsty communities on Colorado’s Eastern Slope. The Yampa Pumpback project, a proposal developed by the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District, would store 2,000 cubic feet of the Yampa’s annual flow near Maybell. This water would then be pumped 250 miles to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> and other cities to support agriculture and the growing population along Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. Environmentalists oppose the authorization of the Yampa Pumpback project because it would negatively affect the free-flowing character of the Yampa, as well as wildlife habitat and recreation. Residents of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> also oppose the project; they would prefer to keep the Yampa’s water for further economic development west of the Divide, making the Yampa a site of continuing political controversy in the twenty-first century.</p> <p>As the debate over the pumpback project illustrates, the great number of purposes the Yampa serves jeopardizes its ability to serve any one of them. The river’s many users must work together to ensure that people and the environment continue to benefit from a river so vital to northwest Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/moore-molly" hreflang="und">Moore, Molly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/porterfield-sara" hreflang="und">Porterfield, Sara</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/yampa-river" hreflang="en">Yampa River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northwest-colorado" hreflang="en">northwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/routt-county" hreflang="en">routt county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moffat-county" hreflang="en">Moffat County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/craig" hreflang="en">Craig</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/echo-park" hreflang="en">echo park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dinosaur-national-monument" hreflang="en">Dinosaur National Monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/steamboat-springs" hreflang="en">Steamboat Springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rafting" hreflang="en">rafting</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water-storage" hreflang="en">water storage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stewart W. Breck, Kenneth R. Wilson, and Douglas C. Anderson, “Beaver Herbivory of Willow Under Two Flow Regimes: A Comparative Study on the Green and Yampa Rivers,” <em>Western North American Naturalist</em> 63, no. 4 (2003).</p> <p>Susan Bruce, “<a href="https://coloradowatertrust.org/newsroom/colorados-water-demands-conflict-with-efforts-to-preserve-the-yampa-river">Colorado Water Demands Conflict with Efforts to Preserve the Yampa River</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 1, 2013.</p> <p>Colorado Parks &amp; Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/placestogo/parks/YampaRiver">Yampa River</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Colorado State University Extension: Routt County, “Vegetables,” 2007.</p> <p>Kurt Culbertson, Derri Turner, and Judy Kolberg, “Toward a Definition of Sustainable Development in the Yampa Valley of Colorado,” <em>Mountain Research Development </em>13, no. 4 (1993).</p> <p>John Charles Frémont, <em>Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842, And to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843–44</em> (Washington, DC: Blair and Rives, 1845).</p> <p>Friends of the Yampa, “<a href="http://friendsoftheyampa.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Yampa-River-Watershed-Planning-Concept-Paper_08_12_11.pdf">Watershed Planning on the Yampa River</a>,” August 12, 2011.</p> <p>Friends of the Yampa, “<a href="https://friendsoftheyampa.com/item/yampa-river-pumpback/">Yampa River Pumpback</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Mark Harvey, <em>A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Environmental Movement</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994).</p> <p>The Nature Conservancy, “<a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/places-we-protect/yampa-river-preserve/?redirect=https-301">Colorado: Yampa River Preserve</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Brian D. Richter and Holly E. Richter, “Prescribing Flood Regimes to Sustain Riparian Ecosystems along Meandering Rivers,” <em>Society for Conservation Biology</em> 14, no. 5 (2000).</p> <p>G. W. Roehm, “<a href="https://coloradoriverrecovery.org/documents-publications/technical-reports/isf/yampa/YampaPlan.pdf">Management Plan for Endangered Fishes in the Yampa River Basin and Environmental Assessment</a>” (Denver: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Mountain-Prairie Region, 2004).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=CEC19300702-01.2.35">General Fremont’s Trip Thru Routt and Moffat Counties</a>,” <em>Craig Empire Courier</em> (Craig, CO), July 2, 1930.</p> <p>Randall S. Rosenberger and Richard G. Walsh, “Non-Market Value of Western Valley Ranchland Using Contingent Valuation,” <em>Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics </em>22, no. 2 (1997).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.lenntech.com/rivers-pollution-quality.htm">River Water Quality and Pollution</a>,” Lenntech BV, last modified 2016.</p> <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” 2016.</p> <p>Upper Colorado River Endangered Fish Recovery Program, “<a href="https://coloradoriverrecovery.org/events-news/news/NNF-Q&amp;amp;amp;A-CO-2012.pdf">Nonnative Fish Management</a>,” 2012.</p> <p>Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District, “<a href="https://www.upperyampawater.com/about-us/">About the Upper Yampa Water Conservancy District</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Geological Survey, “<a href="https://waterdata.usgs.gov/co/nwis/uv?site_no=09239500">USGS 09239500 Yampa River at Steamboat Springs, CO</a>,” last modified 2016.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>American Whitewater, “<a href="https://www.americanwhitewater.org/content/River/search/state/rgWT/level/run/atleast/I/atmost/V%252B/sr/1/">What’s Running?</a>”</p> <p>John Fielder and Patrick Tierney, <em>Colorado’s Yampa River: Free Flowing and Wild from the Flat Tops to the Green </em>(N.L: John Fielder Publishing, 2015).</p> <p>Sam T. Finney, “Colorado Pikeminnow (<em>Ptychocheilus lucius</em>) Upstream of Critical Habitat in the Yampa River, Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Association of Naturalists</em> 51, no. 2 (2006).</p> <p>Scott Franz, “<a href="https://www.steamboatpilot.com/explore-steamboat/after-success-of-2013-summer-season-on-the-yampa-river-some-wonder-how-much-usage-is-too-much/">After Success of 2013 Summer Season on the Yampa River, Some Wonder How Much Usage is Too Much</a>,” <em>Steamboat Today</em>, March 13, 2014.</p> <p>Dunbar Hardy, <em>Paddling Colorado: A Guide to the State’s Best Paddling Routes </em>(Guilford, CT: Falcon Guides, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 02 Feb 2017 23:41:52 +0000 yongli 2307 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Flooding in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Flooding in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1695--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1695.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/damaging-deluge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=sLDDh68y" width="1000" height="775" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/damaging-deluge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Damaging Deluge </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Floodwaters and accumulated debris on the South Platte River undercut a bridge.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1697--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1697.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/flash-flood-big-thompson-river"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=jxlegcLr" width="1000" height="1481" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/flash-flood-big-thompson-river" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Flash Flood, Big Thompson River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The 1976 Big Thompson Flood overran inhabitants and infrastructure within the Big Thompson Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1699--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1699.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lawn-lake-dam-failure-1982"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=S3R1upbp" width="1000" height="685" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lawn-lake-dam-failure-1982" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lawn Lake Dam Failure, 1982.</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The breached Lawn Lake Dam after the 1982 Fall River Flood.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T16:19:54-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 16:19" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 16:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado" data-a2a-title="Flooding in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fflooding-colorado&amp;title=Flooding%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Coloradans have maintained a complex relationship with the natural process of flooding. On one hand, inhabitants of the arid West—from early indigenous communities to current metropolitan populations—have been attracted to the many resources floodplains provide. On the other hand, periodic inundations have taken significant tolls on both human lives and property. Examining Colorado floods over time reveals the complicated linkages between people and <a href="/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rivers as Lifeways</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When the rivers of Colorado overflow their banks, settlement patterns and density have often determined the extent of human risk. As enormous, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a>-melt floods molded the foothills of the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> during the end of the last Ice Age, the first <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> groups arrived in what would become Colorado. Thereafter, Native Americans used various river floodplains for seasonal sustenance. For example, the <strong>Cheyenne </strong>and <strong>Arapaho</strong> foraged and hunted game and, perhaps of equal importance, grazed horses near the river bottoms of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river">Arkansas</a> </strong>Rivers in the winter. Frequent inundations delivered nutrient-rich alluvial soils to support a wide array of flora and fauna, which in turn nourished members of Native American societies. The nomadic existence of the Indigenous nations on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> meant that they were not particularly vulnerable to flooding.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Anglo-Americans were also attracted to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian areas</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush (1858–59)</strong></a> resulted in white settlement along Colorado’s rivers: first, as prospectors in search of gold nuggets; second, as farmers to support the burgeoning mining population. They encountered floods as well. These inundations typically arrived as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a>melt in the late spring or early summer. In June 1864, for instance, the Sprague family (which included a young <strong>Abner Sprague</strong>, who would later develop early tourism in <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>) moved from Illinois to obtain a squatter’s claim and grow crops near the <strong>Big Thompson River</strong>. Upon arrival, neighbors remarked that the stream had flooded a month earlier and wiped out numerous homesteads in the valley. Since then, the Big Thompson River has produced thirteen large floods—including deluges in 1894, 1919, 1938, 1951, 1976, and 2013—and many other smaller floods. These torrents became more hazardous to humans with the permanent occupation of floodplains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Taming the Rivers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s population swelled over the turn of the century—from nearly 195,000 in 1880 to over 935,000 by 1920—it became more vulnerable to catastrophic floods. Storm clouds regularly formed precisely where most Coloradans had settled: at the eastern base of the Rockies. These moisture-laden weather cells frequently ruptured into heavy downpours when pushed over the mountains, a phenomenon known as a cloudburst. In early June 1921, for example, cloudburst conditions developed near the foothills of Cañon City, eventually dumping rain over tributaries of the Arkansas River. The waters quickly surged far above usual levels once they hit the primary channel, producing the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood"><strong>1921 Arkansas River flood</strong></a> that ravaged the city of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>. With more than 43,000 residents, the industrial boomtown featured one of the state’s largest urban populations at the time of the flood. After floodwaters receded, the torrent had killed 78 people, wiped out 510 dwellings, and caused $19 million in property losses (or .25 billion in 2015 dollars). Moreover, the railroad depots of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande</strong> and the Missouri Pacific suffered the biggest financial setbacks, as more than 2,000 railcars were damaged in the deluge. For the “Pittsburgh of the West,” more human infrastructure on the river floodplain led to increased vulnerability.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the twentieth century, Coloradans increasingly relied on dams and channel modifications for flood protection and water storage. As <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> grew, municipal planners lobbied for measures to shield the burgeoning metropolis from inundations. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, for instance, the Works Progress Administration funded the construction of <strong>Englewood Dam</strong> on Dry Creek, a tributary of the South Platte River. Apart from this <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> project, the US Army Corps of Engineers erected <strong>Cherry Creek Dam</strong> between 1948 and 1950 for flood prevention. The reservoir served as a catchment basin for excess water—up to 13,960 acre-feet—to be stored near the confluence of Cherry and Cottonwood creeks in <strong>Aurora</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these engineering schemes, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>1965 South Platte River flood</strong></a> overwhelmed the Denver metropolitan area. From June 14 to June 20, a series of weather systems hit the Front Range. The South Platte and Arkansas river basins flooded from <a href="/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> to Pueblo. While the downpour inundated many areas, Denver suffered the worst damage because more than 60 percent of the city lay within the flood zone. In all, the Mile High City accrued $378 million in property losses (the equivalent of almost $3 billion in 2015), making it the most damaging torrent in Colorado’s history. In response, the Corps of Engineers built two more structures for flood control: the <strong>Chatfield Dam </strong>on Plum Creek, from 1967 to 1975, and the <strong>Bear Creek Dam </strong>at the convergence of Bear and Turkey creeks, from 1968 to 1982.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rivers Strike Back</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Often, human actions contributed to the devastating effects of flooding. The <strong>1976 Big Thompson River flood</strong> offers an example. In the 1930s, the Colorado State Highway Department used New Deal money to construct a modern highway in Big Thompson Canyon. The road infrastructure, while easing automobile travel to <strong>Estes Park</strong> and Rocky Mountain National Park, required realigning and channeling the river in numerous places, thus amplifying the river’s hydraulic power. After World War II, promotional materials capitalized on the explosion in postwar vacationing by highlighting the natural wonders—and downplaying the natural hazards—of Big Thompson Canyon. These idealized places, in turn, led to an upsurge in riverine population as more permanent residents and seasonal tourists occupied the floodplain. On the evening of July 31, 1976—at the peak of vacation season—a thunderstorm dropped between eight and fourteen inches of water in an area of seventy square miles between Estes Park and Drake. The downpour almost matched the region’s yearly average in total rainfall. In addition to destroying homes, roads, and businesses, 144 people died, making the 1976 flash flood the most lethal deluge in Colorado history.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In other instances, human actions contributed to the flood itself. The <strong>1982 Fall River (Lawn Lake) flood</strong> offers a pertinent example. Lawn Lake was a body of water located in the high mountains of what would eventually become Rocky Mountain National Park. In 1903, and again in 1931, the Farmer’s Irrigation Ditch &amp; Reservoir Company built retaining walls around the lake to augment its water storage in order to support irrigated agriculture near <strong>Loveland</strong>. Over time, though, water suppliers ignored the dam. Maintenance required a six-mile hike to the site, and no automobiles or heavy equipment could reach the area. After years of neglect, a leaky outlet pipe destabilized the earthen structure, and on the morning of July 15, 1982, the Lawn Lake Dam collapsed. The water churned down the Roaring River, then roiled along the Fall River, destroying campgrounds and killing two people in the park before it reached the Big Thompson River. The booming river then swamped the resort town of Estes Park, which incurred most of the property damages, until the <strong>Olympus Dam </strong>finally contained the floodwaters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Resiliency and Vulnerability</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the transition to the twenty-first century, Coloradans have in some ways adapted to floods while also exposing themselves to new challenges. Like most cities along the Front Range’s urban corridor, Fort Collins experienced a population boom over the second half of the twentieth century, surpassing 100,000 people by 1995. With rising density, the amount of impervious surfaces associated with development—from rooftops to roadways—covered many areas that previously absorbed storm runoff. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, emergency planners counteracted this trend by deciding on more flexible approaches to flooding. The city of Fort Collins purchased commercial and residential properties within the floodplain and established green space to supplant these formerly developed areas. The <a href="/article/spring-creek-flood-1997"><strong>Spring Creek flood</strong></a> struck on July 28, 1997, when about twelve inches of rain fell over Fort Collins. Although a devastating event—most notably, at the campus of <strong>Colorado State University</strong>—flood mitigation efforts saved an estimated ninety-eight lives and prevented approximately $5 million in property damage. In the aftermath of the 1997 flood, the city developed more of its storm-water detection and management systems, which turned out to be a sound choice sixteen years later.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For a week in September 2013, heavy showers pounded the parched landscape of northern Colorado—nearly seventeen total inches in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, nine in Estes Park, six in Loveland, and six in Fort Collins. Most streams of the South Platte River watershed swelled in their channels, overtopped their banks, and inundated surrounding areas. In seventeen counties, the floods washed out roadways, demolished bridges, damaged some 26,000 dwellings, razed more than 2,000 homes, and caused an estimated $2 billion in property losses. Eight people were killed, with thousands more endangered and dispossessed. Scientific evidence for human-induced climate change suggests that extreme events like the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods"><strong>2013 northern Colorado floods</strong></a> have become more frequent and more intense since about 1950. Heavy rainfall events, while varying from region to region, have generally increased in severity and number because a warmer atmosphere possesses the overall potential to carry more moisture and—it follows—dump more water. As a result, Coloradans may expect larger and more numerous floods into the foreseeable future. Although Coloradans have acted to improve resiliency, they remain vulnerable to flooding.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wright-will" hreflang="und">Wright, Will</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/floods" hreflang="en">floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-floods" hreflang="en">colorado floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-flood-history" hreflang="en">colorado flood history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spring-creek-flood" hreflang="en">spring creek flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-flood-1894" hreflang="en">Boulder Flood of 1894</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride-flood-1914" hreflang="en">Telluride Flood 1914</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dam" hreflang="en">dam</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range-floods-2013" hreflang="en">front range floods 2013</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cloudburst" hreflang="en">cloudburst</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/big-thompson-river" hreflang="en">big thompson river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/estes-park" hreflang="en">Estes Park</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ruth M. Alexander, “2013 Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Project: Final Report” (Fort Collins: Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Collection, Water Resources Archive, Colorado State University Libraries, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War </em>(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tim P. Barnett et al. “Human-Induced Changes in the Hydrology of the Western United States,” <em>Science </em>319 (February 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>City of Fort Collins, “<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/finder/gustav">Gustav Swanson Natural Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terri Cook, “<a href="https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/disaster-strikes-along-colorados-front-range">Disaster strikes along Colorado’s Front Range</a>,” <em>EARTH Magazine</em>, January 20, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Edward E. Jones, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0487/report.pdf"><em>The Arkansas River Flood of June 3–5, 1921</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 487 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Leon R. Sawyer, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0997/report.pdf"><em>Floods in Colorado</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 997 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1948).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.assessment.ucar.edu/flood/flood_summaries/07_28_1997.html">Fort Collins—July 28, 1997</a>,” Weather and Climate Impact Assessment Science Program, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P. Frich et al., “Observed coherent changes in climatic extremes during the second half of the twentieth century,” <em>Climate Research </em>19 (January 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neil S. Grigg et al., “Fort Collins Flood 1997: Comprehensive View of an Extreme Event,” <em>Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management</em> 125 (September/October 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/finder/gustav">Gustav Swanson Natural Area</a>,” City of Fort Collins, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Hines, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/science-application-integration/docs/science-you-can-use/2014-03.pdf">Our Relationship with a Dynamic Landscape: Understanding the 2013 Northern Colorado Flood</a>,” <em>Science You Can Use Bulletin</em> (March/April 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert D. Jarrett and John E. Costa, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1369/report.pdf"><em>Hydrology, Geomorphology, and Dam-Break Modeling of the July 15, 1982 Lawn Lake Dame and Cascade Lake Dam Failures, Larimer County, Colorado</em>,</a> US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1369 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kenneth Jessen, “<a href="https://www.reporterherald.com/2015/03/12/lawn-lake-dam-break-inundated-estes-park/">Lawn Lake dam break inundated Estes Park</a>,” <em>Loveland Reporter-Herald</em>, March 14, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Knox, “Large increase in flood magnitude in response to modest changes in climate,” <em>Nature </em>361 (February 1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Knox, “Sensitivity of modern and Holocene floods to climate change,” <em>Quaternary Science Reviews </em>19, no. 1 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>H. F. Matthai, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1850b/report.pdf"><em>Floods of June 1965 in South Platte River Basin, Colorado</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1850-B (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1969).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David G. McComb, <em>Big Thompson: Profile of a Natural Disaster</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gerald A. Meehl et al., “Understanding future patterns of increased precipitation intensity in climate model simulations,” <em>Geophysical Research Letters </em>32 (September 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P.C.D. Milly et al., “Increasing risk of great floods in a changing climate,” <em>Nature </em>415 (January 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Seung-Ki Min et al., “Human contribution to more-intense precipitation extremes,” <em>Nature </em>470 (February 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> “<a href="http://www.assessment.ucar.edu/flood/flood_summaries/06_14_1965.html">South Platte &amp; Arkansas Basins: June 14–20, 1965</a>,” Weather and Climate Impact Assessment Science Program, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “My First Visit to Estes Park,” Manuscript Collection 597, Stephen H. Hart Library and Research Center, History Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “Pioneering on the Big Thompson and in Estes Park,” <em>Colorado Magazine </em>12 (May 1935).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “Transportation,” Manuscript Collection 597, Stephen H. Hart Library and Research Collection, History Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Abner E. Sprague, <em>My Pioneer Life: The Memoirs of Abner E. Sprague</em> (Estes Park, CO: Rocky Mountain Nature Association, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Claudia Tebaldi et al., “Going to the Extremes: An Intercomparison of Model-Simulated Historical and Future Change in Extreme Events,” <em>Climatic Change</em> 79 (2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin E. Trenberth et al., “Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change,” in <em>Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis</em>, Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S.D. Solomon et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corp of Engineers, <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a368527.pdf"><em>Report on the Floods of June 1965—South Platte River Basin, Colorado and Nebraska</em></a> (Omaha: US Army Engineer District, 1967).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Bear-Creek-Dam/">Bear Creek Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Chatfield-Dam/">Chatfield Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Cherry-Creek-Dam/">Cherry Creek Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Census Bureau, “<a href="https://www.census.gov/dmd/www/resapport/states/colorado.pdf">Colorado – Resident Population and Apportionment of US Representatives</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Maarten K. Van Aalst, “The impacts of climate change on the risk of natural disasters,” <em>Disasters 30</em>, no. 1 (2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Will Wright, “Accelerating Waters: An Anthropocene History of Colorado’s 1976 Big Thompson Flood,” (Master’s thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Karen M. O’Neill, <em>Rivers by Design: State Power and the Origins of US Flood Control</em> (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jared Orsi, <em>Hazardous Metropolis: Flooding and Urban Ecology in Los</em> Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Steinberg, <em>Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Will Wright, "Geophysical Agency in the Anthropocene: Engineering a Road and River to Rocky Mountain National Park," <em>Environmental History </em>22, no. 4 (October 2017).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 22:19:54 +0000 yongli 1694 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Wetlands and Riparian Areas http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wetlands and Riparian Areas</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1664--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1664.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/photographs-different-wetland-types-around-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Wetlands-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=op8eHXDQ" width="1090" height="1025" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/photographs-different-wetland-types-around-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Photographs of different wetland types around Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Photographs of different wetland types around Colorado: (1) riparian area, Moffat County; (2) riparian area along stream in Larimer County;&nbsp; (3) riparian area, Hinsdale County; Fen, Grand County; (4) salt flat, Alamosa County; (5) marsh and wet meadow, Washington County;&nbsp; (6) fen, Park County; (7) wet meadow, Boulder County; (8) sloping fen (foreground) and riparian area, Grand County (photo credits: All photos by D. Cooper, except photos 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8 by E. Gage).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1668--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1668.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/wetland-area-colorado-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Wetlands-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=m63aXrBh" width="1000" height="857" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/wetland-area-colorado-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wetland area by Colorado county</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Proportion of total county area mapped as wetlands by the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI). Emergent wetlands are dominated by herbaceous plant species, shrub/scrub wetlands are dominated by shrubs, often willow (Salix spp.) species, while forested wetlands support trees.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1669--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1669.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/wetland-area-elevation-class"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Wetlands-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=V-HRuNcr" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/wetland-area-elevation-class" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wetland area by elevation class</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Wetland areas in Colorado across different elevation ranges, as mapped by the NWI program .</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-12T16:25:04-06:00" title="Friday, August 12, 2016 - 16:25" class="datetime">Fri, 08/12/2016 - 16:25</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas" data-a2a-title="Wetlands and Riparian Areas"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwetlands-and-riparian-areas&amp;title=Wetlands%20and%20Riparian%20Areas"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Wetlands are ecosystems that are at least periodically saturated or inundated by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a>, creating unique habitats that support a wide variety of plant and animal species. Colorado wetlands include a diverse range of ecosystem types, each with distinctive plants and animals, hydrologic regimes, and ecological functions. In addition to providing habitat for wildlife and supporting biodiversity in other ecosystems, wetlands help filter water by trapping pollutants and offer a buffer zone for extreme events such as<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong> flooding</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Types of Wetlands</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Wetlands in Colorado can be divided into five types: fens, marshes, wet meadows, riparian wetlands, and salt flats.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fens have peat (undecomposed organic matter) soils and stable, groundwater-driven hydrologic regimes that limit the decomposition of organic matter. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous plants such as sedges (<em>Carex </em>spp.), but mosses, shrubs, and trees can also grow. Fens commonly occur as part of wetland complexes that include riparian wetlands or wet meadows. Fens occur throughout Colorado in mountain valleys with higher precipitation and perennial inflow of groundwater from local aquifers. An especially significant site is High Creek Fen in South Park, now protected by the Nature Conservancy. The well-studied Big Meadows in <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a> is also a good example.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wet meadows have mineral soils and are typically dominated by herbaceous plants. They are the most widespread wetland type in Colorado, occurring from the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> to the alpine. Wet meadows have seasonally saturated soils but lack the perennial high water tables of fens or the large water-level fluctuations of marshes. Some wet meadows are managed for hay production and frequently develop downslope of unlined <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> canals in agricultural areas. They may also form as marshes or beaver ponds fill with sediment. Wet meadows commonly occur in intermediate landscape positions between fens or marshes and uplands. Wet meadows can be found throughout Colorado, but a good example is Moraine Park in Rocky Mountain National Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marshes have mineral soils and highly variable hydrological regimes with deep standing water occurring for extended periods. This limits plants to species tolerant of inundation, and vegetation often exhibits distinct patterns related to differences in individual species’ tolerance of flooding. Water depth and salinity are key factors determining the species composition, both within and among marshes and from wet to dry years. Water chemistry is highly variable, and marshes formed in basins where water is lost primarily through evapotranspiration can be highly saline. Marshes are critical habitat for a variety of wildlife, and waterfowl groups have actively promoted their conservation and creation. Marshes occur from the plains to the alpine and include such diverse wetland types as the playa wetlands in southeast Colorado and the numerous marshes that fringe lakes and form in abandoned <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> ponds in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Salt flats are common at low elevations in intermountain basins, valleys, and on the plains. They can form in closed basins where water evaporates, leaving salts behind, often in sites with clay-rich soils. Plant cover and productivity is low, and communities are dominated by salt-tolerant species (halophytes). Notable salt flats occur in the southern part of South Park near Antero Reservoir—originally called “Valle Salado,” the salty bayou—as well as in the Blanca Wetlands of <a href="/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa County</strong></a>, but examples occur throughout the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Riparian ecosystems range from narrow communities along headwater streams in the mountains to broad alluvial rivers on the plains and western valleys. Riparian areas are influenced by unidirectional, flowing water capable of eroding and transporting sediment and are strongly shaped by the frequency, magnitude, and energy of floods. Differences in watershed size, topography, and climatic regime create varying flood regimes. Dominant riparian species include trees such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> (<em>Populus</em> spp.) and <strong>willows</strong> (<em>Salix</em> spp.). Major riparian areas in Colorado include the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>, <a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>, and <strong>Arkansas Rivers</strong>, but riparian communities occur along the state’s innumerable smaller streams as well.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecosystem Services</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Wetlands occupy about 2 percent of Colorado’s land area, but they are key landscape elements because they provide critical ecosystem services. Wetlands filter water and trap pollutants, and because of their importance to water quality, most wetlands are regulated by the federal government under section 404 of the Clean Water Act. In agricultural and urban settings, wetlands can remove excess fertilizers that degrade water quality. Riparian areas may act to buffer hydrologic extremes such as floods and drought, provide habitat for wildlife, and contribute to local biodiversity by supporting the health of adjacent aquatic and upland ecosystems.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Physical Geography</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/article/colorado-climate"><strong>Climate</strong></a>, geology, and hydrologic regime are key factors influencing the formation of wetlands and riparian ecosystems. The abundance and geographic distribution of wetlands varies among Colorado’s physiographic regions and along the state’s broad elevation gradients. Because mountains receive more precipitation and are cooler than basins and lowlands, there is more water to support wetland development. Wetlands increase in abundance with elevation up to the subalpine zone but are less abundant in the alpine zone. The distribution of individual wetland types is variable. For example, fens are rare at low elevations but relatively abundant at higher elevations, while the reverse is true for salt flats.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecological Drivers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Hydrologic processes control many wetland and riparian functions. For example, the establishment of many riparian plants is linked to the frequency and magnitude of flooding. In marshes, the depth and duration of inundation is a key control on species composition, while seasonal water table dynamics control carbon accumulation rates in fens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A wetland’s hydrologic regime affects nutrient cycling, plant productivity, decomposition, and the composition of <strong>plant communities</strong>. On a small scale the hydrologic regime operates as a driver of ecological structure and function, while on a broader scale it shapes patterns of wetland abundance and distribution. Wetlands can occur in basins or on slopes where there are seeps or springs capable of saturating soils, and different types of wetlands commonly co-occur as wetland complexes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The distribution and ecology of wetlands differs between the tectonically active mountains and the inactive plains. For instance, many mountain wetlands occur in landforms produced by retreating Pleistocene <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glaciers</strong></a>. Floodplain ecosystems are dynamic, as demonstrated by the September 2013 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods"><strong>Front Range</strong></a><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods"> </a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods">floods</a>,</strong> which both destroyed riparian vegetation and created conditions for new riparian plant establishment.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wetlands and riparian areas support a variety of plant species and community types found nowhere else in Colorado. They can be dominated by only a few clonal species or be species-rich. The critical role of wetlands for biodiversity stems in part from the functional diversity of wetlands. Colorado wetlands support numerous animal species, from obligate species such as beaver (<em>Castor canadensis</em>) to the numerous seasonal or occasional visitors such as migratory birds and amphibians that rely on wetlands for some portion of their life cycle.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Past, Present, and Future</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since the arrival of Euro-American settlers, nearly half of Colorado wetlands have been lost due to factors such as drainage for agriculture, construction of dams, removal of beaver, the introduction of non-native species, and extensive livestock grazing. Altered <a href="/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>fire</strong></a> regimes resulting from land use changes and fire suppression have also indirectly impacted wetlands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Water storage, water diversion from streams, and riparian forest clearing have affected many riparian areas, especially along large rivers, and groundwater pumping for irrigation purposes has also affected wetlands. Other impacts stem from the alteration of stream channels and fluctuations in sediment production or transport. In addition, altered flood regimes, such as those produced by dams, can reduce opportunities for the establishment of native species and favor the spread of non-natives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early Euro-Americans grazed sheep in many <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>high mountain ranges</strong></a>, impacts from which are still evident in some areas. Overgrazing by livestock or native ungulates such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose"><strong>moose</strong></a> can negatively impact wetlands and riparian areas, wildlife and fish habitat, and the regeneration of native plants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Non-native species</strong> are a significant threat to many areas. For example, woody species like salt cedar (<em>Tamarix</em> <em>spp.</em>) and Russian-olive (<em>Elaeagnus angustifolia</em>) were introduced to North America from Europe and Asia and are highly invasive in riparian areas at lower elevations. Many non-native species respond positively to disturbance and are associated with roads and other disturbed environments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Placer mining affected many mountain streams, such as those near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a> and <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>, while wetlands along rivers at lower elevations have been impacted by sand and gravel mining. Hard rock mining has produced runoff contaminated with metals. Oil, natural gas, and coal extraction can alter wetlands through hydrological changes associated with roads and well pads.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Roads are commonly built along valley bottoms, and many streams have been channeled and the wetlands filled. Hydrologic function can also be impaired by culverts and ditches, which alter drainage patterns.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wetlands and riparian areas are likely to experience significant changes in the future from climate change and human population growth. Shifts in the timing of precipitation, the proportion of precipitation occurring as rain versus <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a>, and changes in broad-scale weather phenomena like the Southwest monsoon will be especially important. Scientists continue to advance our understanding of how Colorado wetlands function and the factors influencing their condition. While federal regulations provide some protection for wetlands, wetlands remain vulnerable to human impacts. Efforts by wetland scientists and conservationists are underway to identify and preserve ecologically important wetlands and to develop improved techniques for restoring degraded ecosystems and the critical ecosystem services they provide.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/gage-edward" hreflang="und">Gage, Edward</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/cooper-david" hreflang="und">Cooper, David</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wetlands" hreflang="en">wetlands</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wetlands" hreflang="en">colorado wetlands</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecosystems" hreflang="en">ecosystems</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beaver" hreflang="en">beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fens" hreflang="en">fens</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/marshes" hreflang="en">marshes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wet-meadows" hreflang="en">wet meadows</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/riparian" hreflang="en">riparian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salt-flats" hreflang="en">salt flats</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/floods" hreflang="en">floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/blanca-wetlands" hreflang="en">blanca wetlands</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-park" hreflang="en">South Park</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>R. A. Chimner, J. M. Lemly, and David J. Cooper, “Mountain Fen Distribution, Types and Restoration Priorities, San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA,” <em>Wetlands </em>30, no. 4 (2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Cooper, “Ecology of Wetlands in Big Meadows, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado” (Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Cooper, “Water and Soil Chemistry, Floristics, and Phytosociology of the Extreme Rich High Creek Fen, in South Park, Colorado, USA,” <em>Canadian Journal of Botany</em> 74, no. 11 (1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Cooper, D. C. Andersen, and R. A. Chimner, “Multiple Pathways for Woody Plant Establishment on Floodplains at Local to Regional Scales,” <em>Journal of Ecology </em>91 (2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Cooper, R. A. Chimner, and D. M. Merritt, “Western Mountain Wetlands," in <em>Wetland Habitats of North America Ecology and Conservation Concerns</em>, eds. Darold P. Batzer and Andrew H. Baldwin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas E. Dahl, “Wetlands Losses in the United States, 1780s to 1980s” (Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. A. Gage and David J. Cooper, “Historical Range of Variation Assessment for Wetland and Riparian Ecosystems, US Forest Service Rocky Mountain Region” (Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>G. L. Katz, J. M. Friedman, and S. W. Beatty, “Delayed Effects of Flood Control on a Flood-Dependent Riparian Forest,” <em>Ecological Applications</em> 15, no. 3 (2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. J. Mitsch and J. G. Gosselink, <em>Wetlands</em> (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2006-september/the-source-of-bayou-salado">The Source of Bayou Salado</a>,” letter, <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, September 1, 2006.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeremy P. Sueltenfuss, David J. Cooper, Richard L. Knight, and Reagan M. Waskom, “The Creation and Maintenance of Wetland Ecosystems from Irrigation Canal and Reservoir Seepage in a Semi-Arid Landscape,” <em>Wetlands</em> 33, no. 5 (2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>T. C. Winter, “The Concept of Hydrologic Landscapes,” <em>Journal of the American Water Resources Association</em> 37 (2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://cnhp.colostate.edu/cwic/">Colorado Wetland Information Center</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Fish and Wildlife Service, <a href="http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/NWI/Index.html">National Wetlands Inventory</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 12 Aug 2016 22:25:04 +0000 yongli 1661 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Early Irrigation in Denver http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-irrigation-denver <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Early Irrigation in Denver </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1650--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1650.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/high-line-canal-platte-water-co-platte-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Early-Irrigation-in-Denver-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=sPdKrk9J" width="1000" height="792" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/high-line-canal-platte-water-co-platte-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">High Line Canal, Platte Water Co., Platte Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the High Line Canal and a wood frame aqueduct in Platte Canyon on the South Platte River in Douglas County. Trees grow beside the aqueduct and grass on the hills.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-11T15:16:30-06:00" title="Thursday, August 11, 2016 - 15:16" class="datetime">Thu, 08/11/2016 - 15:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-irrigation-denver" data-a2a-title="Early Irrigation in Denver "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fearly-irrigation-denver&amp;title=Early%20Irrigation%20in%20Denver%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Like most places in the arid American West, <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> could not possibly sustain itself without <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> systems. While easy to overlook, disputes over water rights began with the onset of irrigation and persist to the present day. Today, though most of Denver’s original canals have been covered or removed, some of the features remain—most notably the <strong>High Line Canal</strong>—and continue to provide aesthetic and recreational draws for the city.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Denver’s First Ditches</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Water is not abundant in much of Colorado and the West. Early Denver, for instance, was a dusty, arid hamlet, fairly devoid of greenery except for brush and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwoods</strong></a> scattered along <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>, and other natural waterways. To sustain the new community, water had to be brought in from the mountains and foothills via a series of ditches. The essential difference between a ditch and natural drainage is that a ditch generally follows contour lines and drops very gradually in elevation. The average “fall” of a ditch is five feet per mile. If the fall is any steeper, the water erodes embankments; if the fall is any shallower, the water will not move. A canal is sometimes regarded as a big ditch, though the terms are frequently used interchangeably.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early arrivals such as <strong>Walter Cheesman</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/david-h-moffat"><strong>David Moffat</strong></a>, and James Archer led efforts to bring reliable and safe water service to Denver, which was emerging as Colorado’s principal community. Constructing extensive ditch systems was a noteworthy engineering accomplishment in the nineteenth century. Initially, men with shovels, picks, and scraping tools carved out ditches; then came oxen pulling plows, scrapers, and huge, heave, oak-and-iron wagons. A “Rotary Canal Builder and Railroad Excavator” powered by ten yoke of oxen scooped out the City Ditch and could do the work of 100 men. Ditch maintenance was also an enormous undertaking. Constant freezing and thawing caused ongoing damage, particularly to wooden flumes, and there was always bank erosion to deal with.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver’s earliest ditches were utilitarian and were not considered as aesthetic or recreational attractions, although hints of these uses were evident. Children sailed toy boats in the ditches, and people of all ages appreciated splashing about on a hot day. But with the benefits of artificial waterways came trouble. Open ditches resulted in occasional drownings, and water scarcities caused friction between ditch users, especially during dry years. It was believed that ditches were a breeding ground for water-borne diseases, such as the typhoid epidemic that broke out during the summer of 1879. The ditches also attracted wandering domestic animals and livestock. As a preview of today’s multitude of legal battles over water rights, city officials finally had to intervene to prevent fighting between rural/agricultural and urban/domestic water users.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver’s first water works was built in 1871 where F Street (today’s Fifteenth) met the Platte River. Two Holly Pumps—an engineering marvel in its day—drew water from a large well sunk in the gravel beds of the river. This new pumping plant, dubbed the “Holly Water Works,” had the capacity to provide the thirsty town with 2.5 million gallons of water daily (a moderate-sized pond’s worth; the Denver Water Department in 1998 supplied a million people with 100 million to 450 million gallons of water daily). Denver had an abundance of water—far more than could be delivered through hand-made wooden flumes and oxen-dug ditches. The remaining ditches now delivered water solely for agricultural purposes instead of domestic use.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some of the city’s early ditches survive to the present and continue to serve useful purposes. The best known among these in Denver is the High Line Canal, sporting picturesque trails lined with cottonwoods and willows. It is among Colorado’s “historic ditches”—those more than fifty years old, as designated under the National Historic Preservation Act.       </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Expansion and Upgrades</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A great advancement was the development of underground water conduits—first made of wood staves using the techniques of barrel-making, followed by sheet-iron pipes. In 1870 Denver became directly linked to Kansas and Wyoming by rail, which allowed the city to bring in wood staves and sheet-iron pipes. With this new technology, men proceeded to bury ditches, only occasionally following the course of the ditch itself. Although they were more convenient, the new pipes brought new problems. They easily clogged with dirt and debris and had to be dug up and cleaned out or replaced entirely—tasks that had been easily addressed before the ditches were buried. Moreover, Denver began a period of rapid growth in the early 1880s—a populace swelled by discovery of rich mineral deposits in the mountains to the west. Denver now found itself outgrowing the delivery capacity of its ditches and pipes. It needed a reservoir up the Platte, more water lines, and sewer lines, while the streets were already dug up. As these improvements were made to accommodate city residents, the old open ditches and their laterals continued to serve agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Water Police</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1874 Denver instituted “water police,” officers responsible for patrolling ditches, intervening in water disputes, stopping water diversion, and generally maintaining peace around the ditches. By 1882 there were thirty water police under the leadership of water commissioner Sidney Roberts. These guardians patrolled nearly 1,000 miles of street ditches, and their clashes with residents reflected the high level of emotion surrounding water issues. For instance, during the summer of 1875 water in City Ditch periodically failed to reach the city due to upstream farmers and homeowners diverting water onto their own land. On August 13, 1875, <em>The</em> <em>Denver Times</em> reported that when water police arrived at the headgates to determine the problem, housewives attempted to “drive them away with clubs, brooms, mops, and second-hand umbrellas.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1902 water police began locking City Ditch headgates, allowing water to flow into Denver. On one occasion farmers retaliated by smashing open the gates with axes and standing guard with shotguns, daring anyone to stop them from watering their fields. An arrest warrant was issued for a supposed leader of the water thieves, Julius Breeze, but he was never apprehended and a battle never ensued. The city then threatened to cancel the annual water contract of any farmer who resorted to such tactics. In some instances dealing with angry, drought-crazed farmers and settlers fell to the ditch riders and ditch companies rather than an organized force of water police.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Covering Ditches</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In Denver the absence of the old open ditches was greeted with a “good riddance” attitude for more than a decade. But when the <a href="/article/city-beautiful-movement-denver"><strong>City Beautiful Movement</strong></a> caught on in Denver around the turn of the century, ditches were once again viewed with favor. Along with creeks and parkways, they became part of the interconnected landscape envisioned by progressive builders of the new urban environment. For the first time, ditches were appreciated for their own inherent beauty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver’s Mayor <a href="/article/robert-w-speer"><strong>Robert W. Speer</strong></a> is remembered for his energetic promotion of many City Beautiful projects—financed in large part by his prodigious, bribery-fueled political machine—such as Denver’s Marion Street Parkway beautification project, through which the old City Ditch was still flowing. Open ditches continued to be aesthetic as well as practical factors in the urban and suburban landscape into the 1920s, but during the <strong>Great Depression</strong> these waterways ceased to be appreciated. The general attitude seemed to say, “fill them in and get them underground,” and the Works Progress Administration subsequently covered many of the city’s open ditches during the 1930s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Kate Lee Kienast, “Oasis in the <a href="/article/%E2%80%9Cgreat-american-desert%E2%80%9D">Great American Desert</a>: Early Irrigation Ditch Systems in the Denver Area,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 18, no. 2 (1998).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/early-irrigation" hreflang="en">Early Irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation-history" hreflang="en">irrigation history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water-history" hreflang="en">water history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-line-canal" hreflang="en">high line canal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-ditch-cherry-creek" hreflang="en">city ditch cherry creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water-police" hreflang="en">water police</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/walter-cheesman" hreflang="en">Walter Cheesman</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/david-moffat" hreflang="en">david moffat</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Louisa Ward Arps, <em>Denver in Slices</em> (Denver: Sage Books, 1959).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Patricia Nelson Limerick with Jason Hanson, <em>A Ditch in Time: The City, the West and Water</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marc Reisner, <em>Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water</em> (New York: Viking, 1986).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 11 Aug 2016 21:16:30 +0000 yongli 1649 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant (Glenwood Center for the Arts) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glenwood-springs-hydroelectric-plant-glenwood-center-arts <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant (Glenwood Center for the Arts)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--647--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--647.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/glenwood-springs-hydroelectric-plant"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/800px-Glenwood_Springs_Hydroelectric_Plant_0.jpg?itok=oeV_iyCw" width="800" height="498" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/glenwood-springs-hydroelectric-plant" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The restored hydroelectric plant in Glenwood Springs now serves as the Glenwood Center for the Arts.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * 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field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-09-11T16:01:43-06:00" title="Friday, September 11, 2015 - 16:01" class="datetime">Fri, 09/11/2015 - 16:01</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glenwood-springs-hydroelectric-plant-glenwood-center-arts" data-a2a-title="Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant (Glenwood Center for the Arts)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fglenwood-springs-hydroelectric-plant-glenwood-center-arts&amp;title=Glenwood%20Springs%20Hydroelectric%20Plant%20%28Glenwood%20Center%20for%20the%20Arts%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Built in 1888, the Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant building is one of the earliest hydroelectric plants still standing in Colorado. The plant made <strong>Glenwood Springs</strong> one of the first cities in the United States to be lit by hydroelectric power, and the plant continued to supply some of the city’s electricity for more than sixty years. After seeing a variety of uses in the late twentieth century, the building was renovated and restored around 2000 and now serves as the home of the Glenwood Center for the Arts.</p> <h2>Lighting Glenwood Springs</h2> <p>The Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant building on the north side of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> was actually the city’s second power plant. The first—a coal-fired, steam-driven plant located just to the west—was built in 1886 by the former <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> mining engineer <strong>Walter B. Devereux</strong>, who was starting to develop the Glenwood hot springs into a resort and pool. The following year, the city of Glenwood Springs, which had just incorporated in 1885, signed a twenty-year franchise with Devereux’s Glenwood Light and Water Company to provide electricity for the whole city. With this development, Glenwood Springs became one of the first cities in Colorado to make electricity available to all its residents.</p> <p>In 1888 Devereux and the Glenwood Light and Water Company replaced their two-year-old steam-driven plant with a new hydroelectric plant powered by water-driven dynamos. Designed by architect Theodore von Rosenberg, who was also responsible for the hot springs pool and bathhouse around the same time, the hydroelectric plant was meant to blend in with the nearby resort buildings. Though it was built of brick instead of the stone used for the resort, the plant resembles a late nineteenth-century house or railroad depot rather than an industrial building.</p> <p>While the plant was under construction, new wires strung throughout the city helped connect more houses and businesses to the expanding electric grid. The new hydroelectric plant began operations in November 1888. It supplied electricity to the whole city, making Glenwood Springs one of the first US cities to use hydroelectric power to light its streets and houses.</p> <p>When it first opened, the hydroelectric plant used four water-powered dynamos. It soon added a fifth. By the middle of the 1890s, those dynamos were powering 30 arc lamps on the city’s streets and about 1,750 incandescent bulbs in its houses and businesses. The continually growing demand for electricity caused the plant to expand its capacity, regularly adding or upgrading its dynamos and generators during its first twenty-five years in operation. By 1912 the plant used one 200-kilowatt generator, one 22-kilowatt generator, and one dynamo to supply the city’s power.</p> <h2>Approaching Capacity</h2> <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>Water</strong></a> for the hydroelectric plant came from No Name Creek. As demand for electricity grew, the creek proved insufficient. Its low levels meant the plant could not always generate enough electricity from its water-powered dynamos and sometimes had to fall back on steam power, especially in fall and winter. A new tunnel to Grizzly Creek was built in 1904 to ensure that the plant had access to a strong supply of water throughout the year.</p> <p>In 1906, Glenwood Light and Water’s initial twenty-year franchise to supply the city’s power was near its end. Instead of renewing the franchise, the city offered to buy the company for $60,000 and turn it into a municipal utility. The company refused the city’s offer. The result was nearly a decade of expensive litigation that changed nothing. Glenwood Light and Water continued to supply the city’s power using its hydroelectric plant along the Colorado River.</p> <p>What did change over these years was the company’s ownership. Walter Devereux had moved to New York in the 1890s, leaving management of Glenwood Light and Power to his local partners, F.H.A. Lyle and Clifford C. Parks. By the early 1910s, the company was being managed by Elmer E. Lucas. In 1914 Lucas, along with Charles McCarthy and Charles E. Hughes, bought Glenwood Light and Power and the hot springs resort, making himself both owner and manager. Business at the resort was not booming in these years, and steady income from Glenwood Light and Power helped keep Lucas in the black.</p> <p>The hydroelectric plant continued struggling to meet the city’s growing electricity needs. The aging infrastructure for transporting water to the plant led to low pressure by the time the water reached the dynamos. By the 1920s the problem was particularly acute during the summer months, when a greater amount of water was diverted for agriculture and other uses. A new tunnel connecting the plant to No Name Creek in 1924 helped some, but not enough. The city and Glenwood Light and Water had to make up for the deficit during shortfalls by buying extra electricity from the Colorado Power Company’s much larger <strong>Shoshone Plant</strong>. That plant, located several miles east in Glenwood Canyon, was completed in 1909 and acquired by the Public Service Company in 1924.</p> <p>Glenwood Light and Water owner Elmer Lucas died in 1927. His widow, Katherine, maintained control of the company—and the hydroelectric plant—until her death in 1945.</p> <h2>After the Power Plant</h2> <p>Katherine Lucas placed a provision in her will allowing for the city to buy the hydroelectric plant, which it did for $225,000 in 1947. Glenwood Springs operated the plant as a municipal utility, but it remained unable to meet the city’s power needs. In 1961 the city decommissioned the hydroelectric plant and arranged to buy its power from the Shoshone Plant in Glenwood Canyon.</p> <p>The hydroelectric plant’s interior was altered significantly after it was decommissioned and the generators were removed. The building served the city as a shop facility and an ambulance garage. The plant’s 200-kilowatt generator was housed for a time at the Electric Museum at Rocky Reach Powerhouse in Wenatchee, Washington, and is now at the Western Museum of Mining and Industry in Colorado Springs. The smaller 22.5-kilowatt generator is on display in Glenwood Springs at the Frontier Historical Museum.</p> <p>In 1989, when the old hydroelectric plant was vacant and scheduled to be demolished, the Glenwood Arts Council began to lease it for ten dollars per year. The Glenwood Center for the Arts opened in the building and began an extensive long-term renovation effort. Using grants from the City of Glenwood Springs, the Colorado Historical Society, and the Gates and Boettcher Foundations, as well as its own fundraising, the arts center completed the renovations and held a grand reopening ceremony in 2006. The arts center has converted the building’s large central open space into a gallery and uses other rooms for art classes, studios, and offices.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/glenwood-springs" hreflang="en">Glenwood Springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hydroelectric-power" hreflang="en">hydroelectric power</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/electricity" hreflang="en">electricity</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>April E. Clark, “<a href="https://www.postindependent.com/news/5015904-113/center-arts-glenwood-mortell">Center for the Arts Will Celebrate a Grand Reopening</a>,” <em>Glenwood Springs Post Independent</em>, October 6, 2006.</p> <p>Colorado Historical Society, “Glenwood Electric Co. Hydroelectric Plant,” Historic Building Inventory.</p> <p>Niki Delson, “<a href="https://www.postindependent.com/news/the-transformative-power-of-art/">The Transformative Power of Art</a>,” <em>Glenwood Springs Post Independent</em>, May 19, 2011.</p> <p>Ron Sladek and Willa Soncarty, “Glenwood Springs Hydroelectric Plant,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form, May 29, 1998.</p> <p>Lena M. Urquhart, <em>Glenwood Springs: Spa in the Mountains</em> (Boulder: Pruett Publishing, 1970).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Jim Nelson, <em>Glenwood Springs: The History of a Rocky Mountain Resort</em> (Ouray, CO: Western Reflections, 1999).</p> <p>Angela K. Parkison with Donald H. Parkison, <em>Hope and Hot Water: Glenwood Springs from 1878 to 1891</em> (Glenwood Springs, CO: Glenwood Springs Legacy Publishing, 2000).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 11 Sep 2015 22:01:43 +0000 yongli 620 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Alva B. Adams Tunnel http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Alva B. Adams Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--456--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--456.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/construction-adams-tunnel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CBT%20History_0.jpg?itok=ybd1q9Ri" width="220" height="320" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/construction-adams-tunnel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Construction of Adams Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Workers used railed carts like the one shown here to excavate the 13.1-mile Alva B. Adams Tunnel. Construction of the tunnel, which would become the largest water diversion project in the state, lasted between 1940 and 1944.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1821--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1821.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado-big-thompson-project-east-wing"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Will_Rempel-CBT_System_EastWest%28AdamsTunnel%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=Psq8S45D" width="1090" height="462" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado-big-thompson-project-east-wing" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado-Big Thompson Project, East Wing</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Alva B. Adams Tunnel was the linchpin of the controversial Colorado-Big Thompson Project, a massive feat of engineering that redirected millions of gallons of Colorado River water from the Western Slope to farms and subdivisions along the Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-06-12T15:35:42-06:00" title="Friday, June 12, 2015 - 15:35" class="datetime">Fri, 06/12/2015 - 15:35</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel" data-a2a-title="Alva B. Adams Tunnel"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Falva-b-adams-tunnel&amp;title=Alva%20B.%20Adams%20Tunnel"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Beneath the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a>-carved peaks and valleys of <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>, below the alpine lakes and rushing streams, a concrete-lined tunnel belies the illusion of a pristine wilderness. In 1944, the two ends of the Alva B. Adams Tunnel were connected with a blast of dynamite, creating the largest <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> diversion project in the state of Colorado. This monumental engineering feat re-directed the<strong> </strong><a href="/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> and several other rivers and streams and reshaped the state’s political landscape. From statewide debates that preceded its construction to current disagreements over how much of the Colorado River headwaters should be sent from the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> to the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>, the Adams Tunnel has served as a conduit for not only water but also controversy and collaboration.</p> <h2>Colorado–Big Thompson Project</h2> <p>The Adams Tunnel is the linchpin of the <strong><a href="/article/colorado–big-thompson-project">Colorado–Big Thompson</a></strong><a href="/article/colorado–big-thompson-project"><strong> Project</strong></a> (C-BT), which spans 250 miles from water collection on the Western Slope of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> to water delivery on the Eastern Slope. Runoff from the Rocky Mountains at the headwaters of the Colorado River is captured in <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, a natural body of water, and in three reservoirs – Shadow Mountain Reservoir, <strong>Lake Granby</strong>, and Willow Creek Reservoir. The diverted water flows by gravity through the Adams Tunnel beneath Rocky Mountain National Park for 13.1 miles, the length of a half marathon.</p> <p>After exiting the tunnel’s East Portal, the water merges with the <strong>Big Thompson River</strong> and cascades nearly 2,900 vertical feet down the slopes of the Front Range, passing through a series of six power plants to generate hydroelectricity. On the plains below, the water is stored in three Eastern Slope reservoirs in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> basin – <strong>Horsetooth Reservoir</strong>, Carter Lake, and <strong>Boulder Reservoir</strong>. Canals and pipelines distribute water from these reservoirs to more than 640,000 acres of farmland and ranchland, to industries, and to approximately 860,000 people in portions of eight counties (<a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a>, <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a>, <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan</strong></a>, <a href="/article/morgan-county"><strong>Morgan</strong></a>, <strong>Sedgwick</strong>, <a href="/article/washington-county"><strong>Washington</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld</strong></a>) and cities such as <strong>Fort Collins</strong>, <strong>Boulder</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>. Each year on average the Colorado–Big Thompson Project delivers more than 200,000 acre-feet of water (1 acre-foot of water is considered enough to meet the needs of two families for one year).</p> <p>During the late nineteenth century, as agriculture expanded in Colorado, the northeastern plains provided farmers with fertile soil and abundant sunshine. But in drought-stricken summers their <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches ran dry. For relief they looked to the Western Slope, where approximately 70 percent of the state’s water flows. In the 1890s, construction began on Grand Ditch. Carved with hand tools into rugged mountainsides of the Never Summer Range on the Western Slope, Grand Ditch allowed Colorado River water to cross the Continental Divide by way of La Poudre Pass into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>. The ditch was expanded several times until 1936. During the <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> and the <strong>Great Depression</strong> of the 1930s, local leaders in northeastern Colorado conceived of a trans-mountain diversion much more massive than Grand Ditch that would send liquid relief to their parched fields. Unable to fund the mega-project themselves, they turned to the federal government.</p> <p>The US <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a>, guided by President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> policies to develop public works projects, was eager to build water infrastructure in the West. But before the bureau could showcase its engineering prowess by building this project and the fields of northeastern Colorado could receive a steady flow of irrigation water through the Adams Tunnel, water wrangling between political factions on opposite sides of the Continental Divide had to be settled. Congress was reluctant to authorize the project if Colorado’s leaders were not unified in wanting it built. But tension between residents on the Eastern Slope, who demanded more water, and those on the Western Slope, who wanted to keep their water resources local, is a theme that runs throughout Colorado’s history.</p> <p>Politicians on both sides of the Continental Divide agreed that water from the Colorado River should be put to use in the state of Colorado instead of escaping downstream to be used by California and Arizona, both of which were growing rapidly. Unified by the threat of losing water to downstream states and by a shared interest in securing federal water development funds for Colorado, representatives from the Western Slope and the Eastern Slope managed to bridge the divide. They agreed that the Western Slope would get a water storage project of its own – <strong>Green Mountain Reservoir</strong> on the <strong>Blue River</strong> near its confluence with the Colorado River – to help compensate for water transferred to the Eastern Slope. This agreement, along with other provisions to protect the Western Slope’s water rights and future water needs, was formalized in a federal document approved by Congress in 1937, and it cleared the way for the C-BT project to proceed. Also in 1937, the <strong>Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</strong> was established as a public agency in the state of Colorado to contract with the federal government to build the C-BT and distribute water from the project to counties on the Eastern Slope. Construction began in 1938.</p> <p>Progress slowed during World War II, and inflation and design changes sent the final cost of the project spiraling to almost four times the original estimate. Nonetheless, when the C-BT was finally completed in 1957, water diverted through the Adams Tunnel increased agricultural productivity in northeastern Colorado. But as population swelled on the northern Front Range, sugar beets were supplanted by suburban housing, and potato fields gave way to office parks. Much of the water to support this urban development was converted from agricultural water delivered by the C-BT. Congress had authorized the project primarily for the purpose of providing supplemental irrigation water, but in response to population growth, water originally intended for farms made its way to subdivisions.</p> <h2>Windy Gap Project</h2> <p>In 1967, cities of the northern Front Range, concerned about running short of water, started pursuing another project on the Western Slope to increase the amount of Colorado River water delivered through the Adams Tunnel. The Western Slope opposed the project, as expected, and there was also staunch resistance from the environmental movement, which was gaining momentum across the nation. Opponents of the proposed Windy Gap Project used federal environmental laws passed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as the National Environmental Policy Act and the Endangered Species Act, to slow the proposed project to a crawl. Proponents of Windy Gap finally managed to navigate the legal labyrinth and secure the necessary permits. The project was completed in 1985, but because of a lack of storage capacity and a lack of water in dry years, the Windy Gap Project could not send a reliable supply of water to the Eastern Slope.</p> <h2>Windy Gap Firming Project</h2> <p>In December 2014 the Bureau of Reclamation approved the Windy Gap Firming Project, which will create a new reservoir on the Eastern Slope to "firm up" - make more reliable - the supply of water diverted from Windy Gap through the Adams Tunnel. Opponents of the project cite studies by state biologists that have identified extensive damage to the upper Colorado River caused by the Windy Gap Reservoir and by water being diverted out of the river basin. They argue that protecting the health of the state’s namesake river, which serves as the lifeblood of the Western Slope’s economy, is paramount.</p> <p>Proponents of the project point out that a gap between water supply and water demand is widening as the population of Colorado’s Front Range continues to grow. They insist that to fill this gap, more water must be diverted from the Colorado River to the Eastern Slope. All parties involved agree that the state’s economy and environment will be significantly impacted in coming years by the management of water diversions sent through the Adams Tunnel. They are working toward a collaborative agreement to increase the amount of water diverted while also protecting the river's health.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/grace-stephen" hreflang="und">Grace, Stephen</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/adams-tunnel" hreflang="en">adams tunnel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alva-b-adams" hreflang="en">alva b. adams</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-river" hreflang="en">colorado river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-big-thompson-project" hreflang="en">colorado-big thompson project</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/big-thompson" hreflang="en">big thompson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Autobee, “The Colorado–Big Thompson Project,” Bureau of Reclamation (1996).</p> <p>Barry R. Nehring, Brian Heinold, and Justin Pomeranz, “Colorado River Aquatic Resources Investigations – Federal Aid Project F-237R-18,” Colorado Division of Wildlife (June 2011).</p> <p><a href="http://www.northernwater.org/sf/home">Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</a></p> <p>Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District, "<a href="http://www.northernwater.org/docs/WindyGapFirming/FactSheetWGFP.pdf">Windy Gap Firming Project</a>," 2016.</p> <p>Gregory M. Silkensen, “Technical Report no. 61: Windy Gap: Transmountain Water Diversion and the Environmental Movement” (Fort Collins: Colorado Water Resources Research Institute, Colorado State University, August 1994).</p> <p>Daniel Tyler, <em>The Last Water Hole in the West: The Colorado–Big Thompson Project and the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1992).</p> <p>United States Congress, Senate Document 80, “Synopsis of Report on Colorado–Big Thompson Project, Plan&nbsp;of Development and Cost Estimate Prepared by Bureau of Reclamation, Department of&nbsp;Interior,” 75th Congress, 1st session (June 15, 1937).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Colorado-Big+Thompson+Project">Colorado–Big Thompson Project</a>, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.</p> <p>Norris Hundley Jr., <em>Water and the West: The Colorado River Compact and the Politics of Water in the American West</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).</p> <p><a href="http://www.usbr.gov/gp/ecao/wgfp_feis/index.html">Windy Gap Firming Project, Final Environmental Impact Statement</a>, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 12 Jun 2015 21:35:42 +0000 yongli 458 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org