%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Barger Gulch Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Barger Gulch Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:28:06-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:28" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site" data-a2a-title="Barger Gulch Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbarger-gulch-site&amp;title=Barger%20Gulch%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>There are few places in western North America richer in <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> archaeology than <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a>, the valley that forms the headwaters of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> in <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand County</strong></a>. Within Middle Park, the Barger Gulch area preserves an impressive amount of evidence from early humans, with sites dating from roughly 12,900 to 10,000 years ago. Barger Gulch is a small, spring-fed tributary of the Colorado River, flowing south to north, draining an area east of Junction Butte, and joining the Colorado River about four miles east of <strong>Kremmling</strong>. In all, eleven Paleo-Indian localities have been documented along this drainage. Artifacts in the Barger Gulch area span the Paleo-Indian period with one exception— no <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> archaeology has yet been found in Middle Park, though <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a>, the period that follows Clovis, is abundant.</p> <h2>Natural History</h2> <p>If you were to visit the Barger Gulch area today, you would find it to be a nondescript and fairly uninviting area. The high, flat surface that begins on the margins of the Colorado River Valley and slowly slopes upward to the south is covered with a sea of <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> and grass with an occasional isolated <a href="/article/conifers"><strong>juniper or Douglas fir</strong></a> on north-facing slopes. It is one of the driest parts of Middle Park. Barger Gulch has a modest flow and has cut deeply through Miocene Troublesome Formation bedrock. As inhospitable as the place appears today, the archaeology suggests that it was a good place to live more than 10,000 years ago because people in that period returned to the area time and again. One of the attractions comes straight from the bedrock—Troublesome Formation chert, used to make stone tools.</p> <p>During the Miocene, approximately 20 to 5 million years ago, the valley of Middle Park was filling with sediments, and one major source of sedimentation was volcanism. Some of the ashy sediments that filled the basin later were transformed into a fine-grained silicate rock called chert, ideal for the manufacture of stone tools. Large amounts of Troublesome Formation chert, also known as Kremmling Chert, can be found in the Barger Gulch area, and all of the nearby archaeological localities are dominated by this material. Chert was one clear attraction.</p> <h2>Ancient Camp</h2> <p>The most intensively studied part of the Barger Gulch site is called Locality B, a large Folsom campsite dating to around 12,760 years ago. Locality B is remarkable for its large numbers of chipped stone artifacts, with an assemblage totaling more than 75,000 pieces. The types of nonlocal lithic raw materials recovered show that people moved into Barger Gulch from areas east and west of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <p>Paleo-Indian peoples are renowned for the distances they moved in their seasonal rounds, but occasionally, and likely seasonally, they settled down in one spot for an extended duration of time. Barger Gulch is one of a handful of sites that show this less mobile side of early Paleo-Indian life. In the winter, large mammals are snowed out of high-elevation regions, and their density in winter grazing areas in valley bottoms increases dramatically. Current evidence suggests that the Barger Gulch site represents one or multiple cold-season occupations by Folsom hunter-gatherers, who probably camped in the valley bottom for several weeks to take advantage of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds wintering in Middle Park. During the winter, Folsom hunter-gatherers camping in the Barger Gulch area would have had easy access to water, stone, wood, and large game.</p> <h2>Research Findings</h2> <p>Because the Barger Gulch site has a relatively high density of artifacts and well-preserved spatial patterning, archaeologists have used it to examine several poorly studied aspects of human lifeways at the end of the last Ice Age in the Rocky Mountains. The site preserves at least four hearth features, three of which sat within households. This allows for studies of the differences in the use of interior and exterior space. For example, it was found that early-stage flintknapping—the removal of large flakes from the outer portions of chert nodules—mostly took place in exterior spaces. Later-stage knapping, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluting of projectile points</strong></a> and resharpening of tools, occurred inside. There is also evidence for artifacts produced by novice flintknappers at the site, most likely children.</p> <p>The Barger Gulch site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/surovell-todd" hreflang="und">Surovell, Todd A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-folsom-sites" hreflang="en">colorado folsom sites</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-county" hreflang="en">Grand County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/troublesome-formation" hreflang="en">Troublesome formation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Folsom Hearth-Centered Use of Space at Barger Gulch, Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2007).</p> <p>Nicole M. Waguespack and Todd A. Surovell, “A Simple Method for Identifying Households Using Lithic Assemblages: A Case Study From a Folsom Campsite in Middle Park, Colorado,” in <em>Lithics in the West: Using Lithic Analysis to Solve Archaeological Problems in Western North America</em>, ed. Douglas H. MacDonald, William Andrefsky Jr., and Pei-Lia Yu (Missoula: University of Montana Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, “<a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">Colorado Stratigraphy: Main Strat Chart</a>,” updated October 30, 2018.</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell, <em>Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology</em>: <em>Cases From Paleoindian Archaeology</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:28:06 +0000 yongli 3122 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Trout Creek Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trout Creek Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:13:05-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:13" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Trout Creek Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftrout-creek-archaeological-site&amp;title=Trout%20Creek%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Trout Creek in east <a href="/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee County</strong></a> is an extensive archaeological site exhibiting natural outcrops of colorful jaspers that were used for thousands of years as raw material for toolmaking by many different groups of Native Americans. It is one of the best-known toolstone sources not only in central Colorado but in the whole of the Southern <strong>Rocky Mountains</strong>. Archaeologists have surveyed and documented rock outcrops, quarry pits, and workshop debris spread over more than 1,000 acres south of Trout Creek Pass on both private and public lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geologic Context</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Outcrops at Trout Creek are mostly yellow brown to dusky red chert, often with black, green, or red inclusions. The rock can be described as a dendritic jasper—an iron-rich chert—because of the common presence of green to black lines in intricately branching patterns. Some Trout Creek materials have inclusions that are not dendritic forms, while others are solid colors lacking any patterning. Recent geologic mapping found that the material occurs in blocks of late Eocene or Oligocene age (23 to 38 million years old), whose movement slid sections of much more ancient rock northward down toward Trout Creek. A preliminary study in the 1980s identified the host rock as the Manitou formation, which is Early Ordovician (470–85 million years old) limestone and dolomite. More recent fieldwork suggests that some of the jasper also may occur in the Fremont dolomite of Middle and Late Ordovician age (443–70 million years old).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prehistoric Activities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Artifacts found in the workshop areas and in the surrounding region show that people used Trout Creek jasper throughout the prehistoric era, beginning in the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> at least 10,000 years ago. Because jaspers and other cherts are quite durable and fracture into sharp-edged fragments, flintknappers were able to make many different kinds of tools, including spear points and arrowheads, knives, scrapers, drills, and choppers. Other artifacts not made from the local jasper were brought to the site to meet other needs, such as seed-milling tools and a few ceramic containers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no evidence of ancient houses has been found at Trout Creek, smaller prehistoric features have been documented. These include several campfire pits and one somewhat different burned pit interpreted as a “heat-treatment” feature. When certain rock types, such as chert and jasper, are buried in shallow pits and then baked for several hours, the result is rock that is more brittle but fractures with even sharper edges than unheated rock. In effect, toolmakers were sacrificing the durability of the rock to create material that was easier to shape and provided sharper cutting edges.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Trout Creek Source Zone</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After decades of research, archaeologists now know that many other jaspers occur in the same general region as the Trout Creek source, especially to the south in the Arkansas Hills, and eastward into <strong>South Park</strong>. At last count, twenty-seven separate sources of jasper have been documented beyond Trout Creek, even though less than 10 percent of this area has been inventoried. Some of these materials have dendritic inclusions visually similar to Trout Creek, and artifacts made from them may be erroneously assumed to be from Trout Creek. There are other such “source zones” known to archaeologists in the American West, such as in western North Dakota and the Texas Panhandle, but these are the exception rather than the rule. Clearly, there is much more to be learned about this part of Colorado that was so heavily frequented by Native Americans. It is quite likely, however, that the Trout Creek site is the largest and most intensively utilized source in the region.<br />&#13;  </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaffee-county" hreflang="en">chaffee county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jasper" hreflang="en">jasper</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “Progress and Prospects Geoarchaeological Research on Chert Sources in Central Colorado,” in “Rocky Mountain Archaeology: A Tribute to James Benedict,” ed. Kenneth P. Cannon, Judson Byrd Finley, and Molly Boeka Cannon, <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 60, Memoir 43 (2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Collette Chambellan et al., “A Cultural Resource Evaluation of Site 5CF84, Salida Ranger District, Pike and San Isabel National Forests, Colorado,” unpublished ms. on file at History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver (Boulder, CO: Western Cultural Resource Management, 1984).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John W. Keller, James P. McCalpin, and Benjamin W. Lowry, <em>Geologic Map of the Buena Vista East Quadrangle, Chaffee County, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 04-4 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>C. A. Wallace and John W. Keller, <em>Geologic Map of the Castle Rock Gulch Quadrangle, Chaffee and Park Counties, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 01–1 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2003).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/2017/paac_antelopegulch_final.pdf">Archaeological Survey of a Portion of the Antelope Gulch Locality, Fremont County, Colorado</a>,” History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (Denver: Office of the State Archaeologist of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.minerals.net/gemstone/jasper_gemstone.aspx">The Gemstone Jasper</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>T. G. Lovering, <em>Jasperoid in the United States—Its Characteristics, Origin, and Economic Significance</em>, Professional Paper 710 (Washington, DC: US Geological Survey, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:13:05 +0000 yongli 3091 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Clovis http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2820--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2820.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/PitbladoFig-1-Clovis-Folsom-pts_0.jpg?itok=KcsTjws6" width="1000" height="1194" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis and Folsom projectile points</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Clovis (left) and Folsom (right) fluted projectile points from the Dent and Lindenmeier sites, northern Colorado Plains.&nbsp; The “flute” on each is the large flake scar that begins at the bottom of the spear point and travels up toward the tip.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2821--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2821.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pitblado-Fig-3-CO-Clovis-FINAL_0.jpg?itok=Kt-vJf9A" width="1000" height="833" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado Clovis site locations</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map includes Clovis isolated finds and lithic scatters as coded in the the Colorado COMPASS prehistoric site database, together with Colorado Clovis sites mentioned by name in the text but not entered into COMPASS.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-06T13:59:20-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 6, 2017 - 13:59" class="datetime">Wed, 12/06/2017 - 13:59</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis" data-a2a-title="Clovis"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fclovis&amp;title=Clovis"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The term <em>Clovis</em> refers to the earliest widespread archaeological culture to have occupied North and Central America, ca. 13,250–12,800 years ago. Since the discovery of the first Clovis artifacts in the 1930s, debate has raged over such fundamental issues as whether people who left behind Clovis materials were, in fact, the first Americans; where in the Old World Clovis ancestors originated; and whether Clovis people disproportionately killed megafauna (such as mammoths and mastodons) and avoided smaller game. From the time the term <em>Clovis</em> emerged to describe first Americans, Colorado’s Clovis record has played a central role in these discussions.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>In 1932 <strong>Regis College</strong> geology professor Father Conrad Bilgery began excavating the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> located just south of <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley">Greeley</a>,</strong> recovering numerous mammoth bones and a large fluted projectile point. The following year, Colorado Museum of Natural History (today’s <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature &amp; Science</strong></a>) paleontology curator Jesse Figgins agreed to continue Bilgery’s work. About five years before, Figgins had overseen paradigm-shifting field research at the ancient <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> site in northeastern New Mexico, where he discovered small, thin, <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a> amidst the bones of now extinct giant <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. This work resolved a debate that had flummoxed archaeologists and the public since the mid-1800s: whether humans had lived in the Americas during the Ice Age. They clearly had, and they hunted mammals.</p> <p>The Dent spearpoints reminded Figgins of Folsom projectiles writ large. He therefore referred to them as “Folsomoid” and surmised that they were simply hefty Folsom points, engineered to better penetrate thick-skinned mammoths. This interpretation changed some years later, however, after excavations at the Blackwater Draw site in east-central New Mexico exposed mammoth bones and Dent-like spearpoints below Ice Age bison bones and Folsom points. This indicated that the more robust fluted points were older than finely flaked Folsom and should be distinguished as such with distinct terminology. Because Blackwater Draw is located near the town of Clovis, New Mexico, an archaeological culture by that name—long thought to be North America’s oldest—was born.</p> <p>Had Figgins recovered evidence for the greater antiquity of the large spearpoints observed at Dent, he would doubtless have named the new artifact type accordingly, and what have been known for eight decades as Clovis points would have been named for their Colorado site instead. But Clovis it was, and the debates raged on. As of this writing, most archaeologists agree that humans occupied at least parts of the Americas no less than a thousand years or so before Clovis time; Clovis ancestors occupied northeast Asia prior to immigrating to the New World; Clovis technology developed in the New World (rather than having been transported from the Old World); and Clovis people ate more than just mammoths.</p> <h2>Clovis Tool Kit</h2> <p>Although the distinctive Clovis projectile point is the most commonly recovered and best-known component of the Clovis tool kit, Clovis hunter-gatherers manufactured a wide variety of implements. These include other chipped stone artifacts, such as massive bifaces and other more specialized stone tools (e.g., scrapers, blades and blade cores, perforators, and gravers). Clovis sites have also yielded occasional bone and ivory cylindrical rods—often interpreted as the parts of composite spear-throwing devices, or atlatls, to which Clovis hunters affixed Clovis points—and in one case, an ivory shaft straightener.</p> <p>Although it is virtually impossible not to appreciate the functionality and sheer beauty of the Clovis tools, it is crucial to keep in mind that after 13,000 years of exposure to the ravages of geologic and geochemical processes, the vast majority of objects they made have disintegrated. All known hunter-gatherers manufacture a wide array of perishable items (e.g., clothing, blankets, and baskets), but the more time passes, the less likely such materials will survive.</p> <p>The disproportionate preservation of material culture has also prompted many archaeologists to interpret Clovis people as specialized big-game hunters. Today we find almost exclusively stone, bone, and ivory hunting tools dating to Clovis time; therefore, it follows that Clovis people must have emphasized hunting at the expense of other pursuits. That is not necessarily or even likely true, although this perspective persists in some archaeological literature and many museum exhibits.</p> <h2>Clovis Sites</h2> <p>Clovis-era sites include kill sites, camps, caches, a human burial, and many isolated occurrences of Clovis projectile points. The sites occur across North America and as far south as parts of Central America, although it remains unclear whether the thousands of isolated projectile points recovered all date to precisely the same time frame; those found in the eastern United States may be a little younger than those found west of the Mississippi River. Archaeologists also debate where Clovis projectile point technology arose and whether the technology spread from north to south, east to west, or along some other trajectory.</p> <p>Unequivocal Clovis kill sites occur principally in the western United States, though a few occur elsewhere. Archaeologists identify Clovis kills by an indisputable association between Clovis projectile points and the bones of now extinct megafauna, principally mammoths and mastodons. Blackwater Draw and the Dent site are examples of only fourteen or so widely accepted Clovis kill localities in North America. Campsites are even rarer than kill sites and are identified by a wider array of artifact types and more diverse subsistence remains than single-species kills.</p> <p>Like kill sites, caches occur more frequently in western North America than elsewhere. They consist of intentionally buried collections of Clovis bifaces, projectile points, blades, flakes, and other artifacts. Roughly two dozen caches have been documented in the United States—four of them in Colorado, including the well-known <strong>Drake Cache</strong>. Drake included thirteen complete Clovis projectile points made of exquisite stone from the Alibates chert quarries in the Texas Panhandle. Archaeologists consider the Anzick site in Montana to be a cache as well because it yielded eighty-six Clovis artifacts. However, that cache, unlike the others, accompanied the burial of a one- to two-year-old child with a genome similar to that of ancient Siberians and fifty-two contemporary Native American populations.</p> <h2>Clovis in Colorado</h2> <p>Colorado is physically and historically at the heart of Clovis archaeology. The Dent mammoth kill was the first professionally excavated Clovis site, which is located at roughly the geographic center of all widely known North American Clovis kills, camps, and caches. As noted, four of the twenty-three published Clovis caches on the continent—17 percent—are located within Colorado’s borders. Although the density of isolated occurrences of Clovis points and Clovis points accompanied by scatters of chipped stone debitage (lithic scatters, or when artifact diversity is high, open camps) is lower in Colorado than in some regions, the state’s site database shows that nearly two dozen such localities have been documented to date.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pitblado-bonnie" hreflang="und">Pitblado, Bonnie</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fluted-points" hreflang="en">fluted points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David G. Anderson, D. Shane Miller, Stephen J. Yerka, J. Christopher Gillam, Erik N. Johanson, Derek T. Anderson, Albert C. Goodyear, and Ashley M. Smallwood, “PIDBA (Paleoindian Database of the Americas) 2010: Current Status and Findings,” <em>Archaeology of Eastern North America</em> 38 (2010).</p> <p>Bruce B. Huckell and J. David Kilby, <em>Clovis Caches: Recent Discoveries and New Research</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “How Many Elephant Kills Are 14? Clovis Mammoth and Mastodon Kills in Context,” <em>Quaternary International</em> 191 (2008).</p> <p>Kenneth B. Tankersley, “The Concept of Clovis and the Peopling of North America,” in <em>The Settlement of the American Continents, A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography</em>, ed. C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2004).</p> <p>Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., “Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>Science</em> 315 (2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James Adovasio, with Jake Page, <em>The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology’s Greatest Mystery</em> (New York: Modern Library Paperbacks, 2003).</p> <p>Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters, eds., <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> <p>Gary Haynes, <em>The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era</em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” University of Tennessee, Knoxville, last modified October 4, 2015.</p> <p>Ashley M. Smallwood and Thomas A. Jennings, eds., <em>Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 06 Dec 2017 20:59:20 +0000 yongli 2819 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Chaco Canyon http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3759--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3759.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_0.jpg?itok=VdTFEA0D" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pueblo Bonito was planned and constructed in stages between AD 850 to AD 1150 by ancestral Puebloan peoples. This&nbsp;was the center of the Chacoan world.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3760--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3760.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chetro-ketl"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_20211122_02_0.jpg?itok=vIkvS010" width="1090" height="448" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chetro-ketl" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chetro Ketl</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chetro Ketl is the second largest Chacoan great house. It covers more than 3 acres, and contains a great kiva and elevated kivas.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1671--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1671.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fig.-2-Chaco-roads_0.jpg?itok=hasHyQWO" width="1000" height="1009" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Roads and Great Houses</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chaco’s region: prehistoric roads and great houses.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1673--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1673.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo1%5B2%5D_0.jpg?itok=ld6L2yv8" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Kiva at Lowry Pueblo, Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Great Kiva, Lowry Pueblo, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T13:02:36-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 13:02" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 13:02</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon" data-a2a-title="Chaco Canyon"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fchaco-canyon&amp;title=Chaco%20Canyon"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the eleventh century, Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico was the center of a Native American cultural region about the size of the state of Indiana. It encompassed most of southwestern Colorado, from <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> on the east to <strong>Far View House</strong> at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong> on the west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon was made a National Park and a World Heritage Site because of its remarkable <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a>: monumental stone masonry buildings much larger and far more formal than any other architecture in the ancient Southwest. At its height, about AD 1100, Chaco was the largest and most complex <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> site.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The heart of Chaco Canyon is a seven and one-half-mile long stretch with the intermittent Chaco Wash running from east-southeast to west-northwest toward the San Juan River. The north side of the canyon has towering sandstone cliffs topped by wide, slickrock terraces; the south side is less dramatic. The largest great houses were concentrated in a “downtown” zone a little more than a mile wide at the center of Chaco Canyon. The scale of Chaco’s world was even larger, however, extending over much of the Four Corners region, as far away as 155 miles from Chaco Canyon. Extrapolating from demographic data for the northern third of the Chaco region and from ranges of outlier community sizes, the Chaco region comprised perhaps 30,000 to 40,000 people, of whom only a few thousand at most resided in great houses. Chaco itself was a capital city, the seat of political power.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon’s environment was harsh. Summers are blisteringly hot and very dry, and winters are wretchedly cold. The growing season is short, and rainfall is uncertain. Water for basic domestic needs was—and remains—a concern. The canyon contained little wood for building or burning, and no outstanding local resources besides sandstone and petrified wood, which was useful for tools. Because the canyon was a poor place to farm, inhabitants imported much or most of their staple foods—maize, beans, and squash, as well as meat from large game animals—from better-watered areas around the edge of Chaco’s region. How and why did Chaco’s spectacular great houses flourish in this desert canyon, when well-watered valleys lay all but empty to the north and south, closer to mountains and forests? The answers to those questions must be sought outside the canyon itself, in the larger region of which Chaco was the center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The archaeology of Chaco Canyon centers on a dozen remarkable buildings called <em>great houses</em>. Great houses at Chaco began in the late ninth century AD as monumentally upscaled versions of regular domestic structures, unit pueblos—the small, single-family home or, more prosaically, “small sites.” Early great houses were unquestionably residences, and they continued to be used as residences, even if that basic function was obscured by the addition of warehouses and other non-domestic functions over the next three centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Chaco region there were scores of unit pueblos for every great house. An entire unit pueblo, compressed to its floor area, would fit in a large room at a great house. Unit pueblos and great houses constitute one of the clearest examples of stratified housing in archaeology, and a clear indication of a class society. In Mesoamerican terms, great houses were the palaces of noble families; unit pueblos were the farmsteads of commoners.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Great Houses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Shortly after AD 1000, great houses became monuments in addition to elite residences. The traditional curved plans of earlier great houses were replaced by precise, formal geometries. Great house plans are typically described by letters: “D”-shaped, “E”-shaped, and so forth. Vast blocks of storage rooms, disproportionate to the small numbers of great house residents, were added, as were monumental public and official spaces. Most of Chaco’s great houses were built along the north side of the canyon in little over a century, from AD 1020 to about AD 1125; but each great house has a unique construction history, and several started much earlier. Pueblo Bonito was one of the earliest great houses and is typical—perhaps archetypical—of Chaco Canyon great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito took almost three centuries (AD 850 to AD 1125) to build. Like other great houses, Pueblo Bonito was expensive and laborious to build; the labor-per-unit measure of floor area or roofed volume far exceeded that for unit pueblos, which were built and maintained by their resident families. Every stage of construction was monumental, meant to be seen and appreciated. Beginning about CE 1020, the architects of Pueblo Bonito started a series of six major additions, each of which was enormously larger than anything previously built in the Pueblo world. At the culmination, about CE 1125, almost 700 rooms, massed up to four and perhaps five stories tall, covered an area of about two acres. Along the front of the enclosed plaza, two dozen <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (round rooms with both domestic and ritual functions) were built above and below grade. Only a score of families actually lived in this huge building. They were important families who controlled, or at least had access to, vast blocks of storage and non-domestic rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Great houses served the dead as well as the living. The earliest part of Pueblo Bonito, the cluster of earliest rooms at the center of the building, became a mausoleum for elite burials. Two high-status middle-aged men—perhaps the building’s founders—were buried in AD 850 with great wealth in wooden crypts beneath the building’s floor. These honored dead defined one aspect of the great house’s monumentality. Later construction preserved the early core with its burials, enveloping the older masonry in better-built blocks of rooms. Many more elite deceased were later richly interred in the oldest parts of the building.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In contrast, burials at unit pueblos were typically in middens fronting the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a>, accompanied by a ceramic pot or two. Scores of unit pueblos and aggregates of such units—commoner homes—lined the south side of the canyon. These homes were identical to farmsteads throughout Chaco’s region and in regions beyond Chaco’s reach: single (extended) family homes, largely self-sufficient, clustered into scattered communities of a few dozen unit pueblos and with a central great kiva, with a total population of a few hundred people. That was the social scale of ancient settlements, before Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito was only one of a half-dozen major great houses at Chaco. There were many smaller great houses, mostly built on the north side of the canyon. Great houses were part of a large, complex settlement; in effect, a city (described below). “Downtown” Chaco as a built environment or cityscape encompassed many other elements, such as roads, mounds, great kivas, waterworks, and hundreds of unit pueblos on the south side of the canyon, each consisting of five or six rooms and a pit house.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Roads and Waterworks</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Chacoan roads were carefully engineered earthen features, typically long, straight, and about twenty-seven-feet wide. They linked Chaco Canyon to other Chacoan sites and to important natural features, extending outward like spokes on a wheel. Some led to distant great houses; others lead to important natural features. Roads are evident at two of Colorado’s two dozen Chacoan outliers: <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> and Far View House. An elaborate and extensive line-of-sight communication system, with signal fire stations atop high points, paralleled the road system, allowing information to pass to and from Chaco to the edges of its region relatively quickly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The north side of Chaco Canyon was lined with small-scale waterworks, capturing rare rainfall in bedrock reservoirs atop the cliffs and channeling it to small fields. These systems have been interpreted as subsistence infrastructure, but given the poor agricultural prospects and the clear monumentality of Chaco Canyon, it seems possible that water was an element of landscape architecture, irrigating gardens between great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco Region</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Chaco’s roads and imported food suggest, its sphere of influence extended far beyond the confines of Chaco Canyon. It was the center of a large regional system of about 30,000 square miles, defined by about 150 smaller “outlier” great houses, road networks, and line-of-sight signaling systems.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Small outlier great houses used the same techniques and design principles as Chaco Canyon great houses, but the outliers were typically about one-twentieth the size of buildings such as Pueblo Bonito, as if a portion of those buildings had been cut away and transplanted over great distances. Lowry Pueblo is one of these outliers, located almost 125 miles from Chaco Canyon. Almost always, the great house sat amid (usually above) a scattered community of a score or more unit pueblos. Outlier great houses might represent direct imposition of Chacoan forms and presumably people, or they could represent local copies or emulations of Chacoan styles. In either case, great house residents were identified with Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>What was Chaco?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeological interpretations of Chaco Canyon range from a valley with a half-dozen farming villages (“pueblos”), to a ceremonial pilgrimage center, to the capital of a small city-state. The people of Chaco Canyon were ancestors of modern Pueblo Indian tribes, who today live in about forty traditional farming villages in New Mexico and Arizona. Pueblo Indian traditions reference Chaco and its history, as a place where various clans resided in the migrations that eventually led to Pueblos such as Hopi, Zuni, and Acoma (among others). Many archaeologists interpret Chaco as if its great houses were like modern Pueblos: egalitarian, communal, independent farming villages. Other archaeologists recognize that historic and modern Pueblos do not have a single regional center; each Pueblo is independent. While certainly a place and event in Pueblo history, Chaco was probably more than a cluster of farming villages—it was likely an episode of political centralization at odds with modern Pueblo ways of life; modern Pueblo societies developed partly in reaction to and rejection of Chaco.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lekson-stephen-h" hreflang="und">Lekson, Stephen H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-colorado" hreflang="en">mesa verde colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stephen H. Lekson, ed., <em>The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Chaco Meridian: One Thousand Years of Political and Religious Power in the Ancient Southwest</em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “Chaco Canyon and the US Southwest,” in <em>A World with States, Empires, and Networks: Cambridge History of the World</em>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed., ed. Craig Benjamin (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/escalante_pueblo.html">Escalante Pueblo</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kendrick Frazier, <em>People of Chaco: A Canyon and its Culture</em> (New York: W.W. Norton, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>In Search of Chaco: New Approaches to an Archaeological Enigma</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/lowry_pueblo.html">Lowry Pueblo</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 19:02:36 +0000 yongli 1670 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Earth Lodge http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1494--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1494.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=CQhEGBM_" width="1000" height="580" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Drawings of Hidatsa Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cross-section (upper) and elevation (lower) drawings of an Hidatsa earth lodge, recorded by anthropologist Gilbert L. Wilson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1495--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1495.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=RAEcri-h" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Modern Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Replica Mandan earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-23T16:33:19-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 16:33" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 16:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge" data-a2a-title="Earth Lodge"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fearth-lodge&amp;title=Earth%20Lodge"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>An earth lodge is a distinctive type of timber-frame house built from the early 1400s to the late 1800s by a dozen different Indigenous nations on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. These massive circular structures, often encompassing 1,500 square feet or more, featured four large support posts arranged around a central fireplace. The walls were formed by a ring of shorter posts and rafters were laid between the center posts and the wall posts. The resulting wooden shell or framework was then covered with successive layers of willow branches, a matting of prairie grass, and finally sod or earth. The entryway consisted of a projecting passage six to fifteen feet in length.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p> <p>The <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong></a> culture, which occupied northeast Colorado, western Nebraska, northern Kansas, and southeast Wyoming from 1100 to 1300 built early versions of these dwellings. However, the best-known earth lodges were built in the 1700s and 1800s by the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras, all of whom were <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>-hunting farmers living on the Missouri River. The first detailed description of an earth lodge was written in 1804 by Patrick Gass, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In the early 1830s, well-known artist Karl Bodmer made detailed drawings of Mandan earth lodges, including an interior scene that shows how it was used.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges such as those built by the Missouri River farmers have not been discovered in Colorado. However, cultural groups of the Central Plains Tradition, including the Upper Republican culture, built timber-frame houses that most archaeologists regard as precursors to historic-era earth lodges. While Central Plains lodges have not yet been documented in Colorado, Upper Republic groups regularly visited the state and may have lived in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> Valley for extended periods of time. The Buick Campsite, located near present-day Limon, features a temporary structure built by Upper Republican people. The Buick site, along with others such as the <a href="/article/donovan-archaeological-site"><strong>Donovan site</strong></a> located in northern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, demonstrate repeated seasonal Upper Republican use of Colorado’s High Plains landscape.</p> <p>Like classic Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara earth lodges, Central Plains Tradition culture lodges featured four central support posts around a central fire place as well as an extended entryway. The walls of Central Plains lodges were made from clay, known as daub, plastered over a framework of small branches covered with grass. The roofs were also made from branches, grass, and daub. However, in contrast to historic-era earth lodges, Central Plains lodges were square or rectangular in plan, and most were about half as large.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges and Central Plains Tradition culture lodges share a number of similarities with the pithouses built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who lived in southwest Colorado. Like the Plains houses, Puebloan pithouses of the Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III periods were earth- or daub-covered timber-frame buildings. However, Puebloan houses were built in pits that were two to three feet deep, while earth lodges were mostly built on the surface or in shallow pits no more than one foot deep. Many lodges of the Central Plains tradition were built on the surface, although some were built in pits up to four feet deep. Some Puebloan pithouses also incorporated vertical rock slab foundations, which were not used in the construction of Plains houses.</p> <p>The people who built the classic earth lodges, as well as earlier Central Plains tradition culture lodges, were farmers who also hunted bison and other animals. Because they grew corn (maize), beans, squash, <a href="/article/sunflowers"><strong>sunflowers</strong></a>, and other crops, their houses were built close to river and stream floodplains, where cultivation was easier and groundwater was more abundant than on the nearby upland prairies. Because they lived in one location for most of the year, their lodges contained numerous underground storage pits, where they kept surplus food, tools, and other items.</p> <p>The cosmological principles and cultural values embodied in earth lodge architecture remain important to native peoples today. Earth lodges continue to be built on the Fort Berthold Reservation (Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation) in western North Dakota. In addition, the National Park Service built a replica earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site near Stanton, North Dakota, and several replica lodges are located at Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park south of Mandan, North Dakota. The Dancing Leaf Earthlodge, a replica Central Plains tradition house, is located in Wellfleet, Nebraska, twenty miles south of North Platte.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mitchell-mark-d" hreflang="und">Mitchell, Mark D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/architecture" hreflang="en">architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/central-plains-tradition" hreflang="en">Central Plains tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-village-tradition" hreflang="en">Plains Village tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pawnee" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pawnee</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pawnee-nation" hreflang="en">Pawnee Nation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historical-archaeology" hreflang="en">historical archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/upper-republican-culture" hreflang="en">Upper Republican culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/itskari-culture" hreflang="en">Itskari culture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin P. Gilmore, “Late Prehistoric Stage (A.D. 150–1540),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Platt River Basin</em>, ed. Kevin P. Gilmore, Marcia Tate, Mark L. Chenault, Bonnie Clark, Terri McBride, and Margaret Wood (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resource Series No. 19 (Lakewood, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper, “100° W Longitude: Exploring Cultural Dynamics at the Western Edge of the Central Plains,” <em>Central Plains Archaeology</em> 11, no. 1 (2009).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper and Elizabeth P. Pauls, <em>Plains Earthlodges</em> (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005).</p> <p>Laura L. Scheiber, “Intersecting Landscapes in Northeastern Colorado,” in <em>Archaeological Landscapes on the High Plains</em>, ed. Laura L. Scheiber and Bonnie Clark (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, “Plains Village Tradition,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 13: <em>Plains</em>, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>Gilbert L. Wilson, <em>The Hidatsa Earthlodge</em>, ed. Bella Weitzner (New York: The American Museum of Natural History, 1934).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1997).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/knri/index.htm">Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, North Dakota</a>,” updated December 16, 2015.</p> <p>New World Encyclopedia, “<a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Earth_lodge">Earth Lodge</a>,” updated July 22, 2014.</p> <p>North Dakota State University, “<a href="http://onaslant.ndsu.edu/">On-A-Slant Virtual Village</a>.”</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 22:33:19 +0000 yongli 1493 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Great House http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-house <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great House</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1486--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1486.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chimney-rock"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great-Houses-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=LIr9Jaos" width="1000" height="679" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chimney-rock" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chimney Rock</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The namesake twin spires above the Chimney Rock Great House are distinctive landmarks.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1487--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1487.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chimney-rock-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great%20Houses%20Media%203_0.jpg?itok=BmGx7zzn" width="370" height="479" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chimney-rock-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chimney Rock Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view showing the layout of the Chimney Rock Great House at Chimney Rock National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1488--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1488.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/escalante-pueblo-montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great-Houses-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=F1-sVn4d" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/escalante-pueblo-montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Escalante Pueblo, Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Like the Chimney Rock Great House, Escalante Pueblo tops a hill near Dolores with a commanding view of the surrounding landscape.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-23T11:22:46-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 11:22" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 11:22</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-house" data-a2a-title="Great House"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgreat-house&amp;title=Great%20House"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>“Great House” refers to a class of ancient <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> structures from the ninth through thirteenth century. Great Houses were monumental, geometrically formal constructions, with thick stone masonry walls made with careful craftsmanship. While inspired by the regional center in <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>, New Mexico, almost twenty Great Houses are known from southwestern Colorado, including <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> near <a href="/article/pagosa-springs-0"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>, <strong>Far View House</strong> at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/lowry-site"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> in <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong> near <strong>Cortez</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While most people of that era lived in modest but serviceable “unit pueblos<del cite="mailto:S" datetime="2016-05-03T11:24">”—</del><ins cite="mailto:S" datetime="2016-05-03T11:24">,” </ins>five or six rooms and a <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a> (a below-grade pit structure with both domestic and ritual functions)<ins cite="mailto:S" datetime="2016-05-03T11:24">, </ins><del cite="mailto:S" datetime="2016-05-03T11:24">—</del>Great Houses were distinguished by their larger size and more substantial construction. Great Houses were typically several stories tall at a time when most construction was of short, single-story buildings. Great House ground plans are rigidly geometric and formal compared to the looser plans of unit pueblos. These may seem arbitrary distinctions, but in the field it is relatively easy to differentiate Great Houses from the far more numerous unit pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest Great Houses were at Chaco Canyon; “outlier” Great Houses such as <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock </strong></a>and Far View House were perhaps one-twentieth the size of Pueblo Bonito, transported hundreds of miles away from Chaco and dropped amid a community of local people living in unit pueblos of the local architectural style. Great Houses were typically built atop a hill or rise visually dominating a surrounding community of several dozen unit pueblos. Chimney Rock provides a spectacular example of this placement.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon’s Great Houses were mostly built from 850 to 1130. After construction ceased at Chaco Canyon, large Great Houses continued to be built at Aztec Ruins National Monument in New Mexico and throughout southwestern Colorado until the region was finally depopulated around 1280.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lekson-stephen-h" hreflang="und">Lekson, Stephen H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwestern-prehistory" hreflang="en">Southwestern prehistory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/masonry-architecture" hreflang="en">masonry architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-period" hreflang="en">Formative Period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaco-canyon" hreflang="en">chaco canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chacoan-colorado" hreflang="en">chacoan colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chimney-rock-archaeological-area" hreflang="en">chimney rock archaeological area</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stephen H. Lekson, ed., <em>The Architecture of Chaco Canyon</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Stephen H. Lekson, William B. Gillespie, and Thomas C. Windes, <a href="http://www.chacoarchive.org/media/pdf/002135.pdf"><em>Great Pueblo Architecture of Chaco Canyon</em></a>, Publications in Archeology 18 B, Chaco Canyon Studies (Albuquerque, NM: National Park Service, 1984).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>In Search of Chaco: New Approaches to an Archaeological Enigma</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis R. Holloway, “<a href="http://www.dennisrhollowayarchitect.com/PreContact.html">Pre-Contact Native American Architecture and Places</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 17:22:46 +0000 yongli 1485 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Far View Sites http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/far-view-sites <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Far View Sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1483--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1483.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/far-view-sites"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Far-View-Group-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=qJOg1qYJ" width="1000" height="633" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/far-view-sites" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Far View Sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Far View House and Pipe Shrine House at Mesa Verde National Park.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1484--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1484.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/far-view-reservoir"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Far-View-Group-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=2a4vuWKz" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/far-view-reservoir" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Far View Reservoir</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Far View Reservoir, near Far View House at Mesa Verde National Park.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-23T10:50:37-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 10:50" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 10:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/far-view-sites" data-a2a-title="Far View Sites"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffar-view-sites&amp;title=Far%20View%20Sites"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Far View group at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> consists of more than twenty sites, five of which have been excavated. Far View House began as an eleventh-century <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House</strong></a> and part of the region centered on <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>. Many of the surrounding sites in the Far View Group were first built in the eleventh century, and—like Far View House—continued to be used and modified through the thirteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Far View Great House and several nearby smaller sites were excavated from 1916 to 1922, without detailed archaeological recording. Far View House was clearly a Chaco-era Great House with a rectangular ground plan, beginning perhaps as early as 1018. Thirty to forty large rectangular rooms (up to three stories tall) surrounded a single large Chaco-style <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a> (a round room with both domestic and ritual functions). Later modifications included the insertion of three more small kivas. Nearby Pipe Shrine House was a much smaller structure, begun in the eleventh century and later modified and enlarged through the thirteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later excavations by the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> (CU) in the 1960s and ’70s are better documented. At Coyote Village, near Far View House, five family houses associated with the Great House group were aggregated into a single structure. A large circular feature, ninety feet in diameter and adjacent to the Great House, was explored first in the 1920s, again by CU in 1969, and by the Wright Paleohydrological Institute in 1998–99. This feature, currently called Far View Reservoir, has been interpreted as either a reservoir or an unroofed Great Kiva (a community house seen at many Chaco Great Houses), with either a feeder canal or a Chacoan “road” (linear monuments seen at Chaco Canyon and its region). While the feature undoubtedly held water from time to time, it could not function efficiently as a reservoir, leading one researcher to conclude that if it was a reservoir, it would have been an insufficient water source for early inhabitants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Far View group has been developed for visitation at Mesa Verde. It provides a unique perspective on Mesa Verde in the century before the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>, when it was part of the Chaco region. The collapse of the Chacoan regional system led, in part, to the movement of villages into defensive cliff alcoves.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lekson-stephen-h" hreflang="und">Lekson, Stephen H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/masonry-architecture" hreflang="en">masonry architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chacoan-colorado" hreflang="en">chacoan colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>L. V. Benson, E. R. Griffin, J. R. Stein, R. A. Friedman, and S. W. Andrae, “Mummy Lake: An Unroofed Ceremonial Structure Within a Large-scale Ritual Landscape,” <em>Journal of Archaeological Science</em> 44 (April 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kenneth R. Wright, <em>The Water Mysteries of the Mesa Verde</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/historyculture/mt_far_view_sites.htm">Far View Sites</a>,” updated November 27, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Arthur H. Rohn and William M. Ferguson, <em>Puebloan Ruins of the Southwest</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 16:50:37 +0000 yongli 1481 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Folsom People http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Folsom People</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1477--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1477.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/original-folsom-point"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Folsom_0.jpg?itok=B9f1fGJf" width="1000" height="1282" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/original-folsom-point" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Original Folsom point</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Preserved original discovery of the Folsom point near Folsom, New Mexico. The removed matrix with bison bone and point are at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1479--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1479.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fluted-point-2"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/barger2FolsomArnold%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=YTfFYEI0" width="1000" height="1023" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fluted-point-2" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fluted point 2</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Clovis points from the Drake Cache site, Logan County, Colorado</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" 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field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-22T14:59:07-06:00" title="Wednesday, June 22, 2016 - 14:59" class="datetime">Wed, 06/22/2016 - 14:59</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people" data-a2a-title="Folsom People"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffolsom-people&amp;title=Folsom%20People"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Folsom groups, also called Folsom peoples or<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong> Folsom culture</strong></a>, occupied all of Colorado between about 13,000 and 12,000 years ago. They were not the first people in these areas, although they might have been the first in some newly unglaciated portions of the high Rockies. Nevertheless, Folsom peoples were widespread throughout Colorado and beyond, and in some places they were apparently quite numerous.</p> <h2>Discovery</h2> <p>The Folsom culture was first discovered near Folsom, New Mexico, in 1926, just over Colorado’s southern border. The discovery is a fascinating story of a former slave, a self-educated naturalist, and his quest for knowledge. The Denver Museum of Natural History (now <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>) played a significant role in the Folsom investigations and still holds the first documented association of humans and Pleistocene fauna in its collections, which are usually on display. The investigation marks a major change in the understanding of American prehistory: the realization that the ancestors of Native Americans have been on the continent since the <strong>Pleistocene</strong> (Ice Ages).</p> <p>The discovery of other Folsom sites followed throughout Colorado, but with the exception of the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a> site in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, few finds were accompanied by major excavations. Notable investigations at several places in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> expanded the geographic range of Folsom groups into the mountains, but the sites remained underinvestigated until the later part of the twentieth century, when their true value was realized. A major expansion of the Folsom database in Colorado occurred at the end of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first. This showed the extensive use of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> by one of the earliest inhabitants of North America. On the continental scale these studies changed perceptions of Folsom people from plains <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunters to perhaps much more broad-based foragers—people who subsisted on a wide variety of plants and animals—occupying various niches of the continent.</p> <h2>Points</h2> <p>Folsom sites are identified by Folsom projectile points, which include the following:</p> <p><strong>Projectile point preforms.</strong> This is a stage in the manufacturing sequence of most projectile points.</p> <p><strong>Channel flakes or flutes. </strong>A flute is the groove created when a thin piece of stone is removed from the point longitudinally; the thin piece is the channel flake.</p> <p><strong>Ultrathin bifaces. </strong>A biface is a chipped stone tool worked on both faces; when that work involves thinning the center of the face more than the edges, the biface is termed an ultrathin.</p> <p>The manufacturing of Folsom projectile points has fascinated archaeologists, the public, and flint knappers—replicators of ancient stone tool technologies—since the earliest days of their discovery.</p> <p>The finished Folsom projectile point is characterized by two longitudinal flakes (flutes) removed from each face of the point, followed by finishing flakes between the point edge and the flute ridge. Both the flutes and in many instances the finishing flakes constitute much of the fascination—the flutes because they often result in breakage of the point and cause high failure rates, and the finishing flaking because it is occasionally so fine and regular that it appears to be machine-made.</p> <p>Of course, machines did not exist until recently, so how did Folsom people perform such <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="craftsmanship" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lgw2qmx9bxoj9b9ef" data-wsc-lang="en_US">craftsmanship</span>? This has yet to be answered. Folsom ultrathin bifaces or knives are also distinct in that the manufacturing process results in extremely thin forms that archaeologists argue were specialized tools for preparing dry meat.</p> <h2>Mountain People</h2> <p>The fascinating new data from the Colorado high country suggest that the Rocky Mountains may have had an especially heavy human occupation during Folsom times. Site density estimates for <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a> are comparable to or even higher than other high-density Folsom sites in the Central Rio Grande Valley and Llano Estacado (the so-called staked plains of west Texas). This is even more stunning considering that the Colorado parks with heavy Folsom occupations are high-altitude, montane environments where human physiology is affected by lower oxygen levels.</p> <p>At least some of the cultural responses to these conditions seem to be intensification of resource extraction and heat conservation, the latter accomplished through manufacture of heavy tailored clothing and construction of insulated structures. Archaeologists Mark Stiger at the <strong>Tenderfoot</strong> site in the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Basin and Todd Surovell and Nicole Waguespack at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site"><strong>Barger Gulch site</strong></a> in Middle Park have shown that Folsom people regularly built structures at these high-altitude sites that were most likely used in the winter.</p> <p>In summary, while Folsom people are known to have occupied all the states adjacent to Colorado as well as much of North America, in Colorado they likely practiced a variety of subsistence pursuits, relied more heavily on clothing and structures, and seem to have been especially fond of mountain basins, where their sites are particularly common.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kornfeld-marcel" hreflang="und">Kornfeld, Marcel</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fluted-points" hreflang="en">fluted points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lindenmeier" hreflang="en">lindenmeier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>C. Vance Haynes, Jr., “Clovis-Folsom Geochronology and Climatic Change,” in <em>From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic–Paleo-Indian Adaptations</em>, ed. Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov (New York: Plenum Press, 1993).</p> <p>James J. Hester and James Grady, “Paleoindian Social Patterns on the Llano Estacado,” <em>Museum Journal</em> 17 (1977).</p> <p>Margaret A. Jodry and Dennis J. Stanford, “Stewart’s Cattle Guard Site: An Analysis of Bison Remains in a Folsom Kill-Butchery Campsite,” in <em>Ice Age Hunters of the Rockies</em>, ed. Dennis J. Stanford and Jane S. Day (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1992).</p> <p>Mark Stiger, “A Folsom Structure in the Colorado Mountains,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 71 (April 2006).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Barger Gulch Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George Agogino, “The Amateur Involvement in the Discovery of the Folsom Type Site,” <em>Chesopiean</em> 23, no. 4 (1985).</p> <p>George A. Agogino and Al Parrish, “Fowler-Parrish Site: A Folsom Campsite in Eastern Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 16 (May 1971).</p> <p>Brian N. Andrews, “<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;amp;res_dat=xri:pqdiss&amp;amp;rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&amp;amp;rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3403864">Folsom Adaptive Systems in the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado: An Analysis of the Mountaineer Site</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Sloan Emery and Dennis Stanford, “Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Investigations at the Cattle Guard Site, Alamosa County, Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 48 (March 1982).</p> <p>Jesse D. Figgins, “The Antiquity of Man in America,” <em>Natural History</em> 27, no. 3 (1927).</p> <p>C. T. Hurst, “A Folsom Location in the San Luis Valley, Colorado: A Preliminary Report,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 7 (September 1941).</p> <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Jason LaBelle and Cody Newton, “<a href="https://www.academia.edu/8773465/Red_Ocher_Endscrapers_and_the_Folsom_Occupation_of_the_Lindenmeier_Site_Colorado_with_Cody_Newton_">Red Ocher, Endscrapers, and the Folsom Occupation of the Lindenmeier Site, Colorado</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Lithic Casting Lab, “<a href="http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2012marchlindenmeiersitepage1.htm">The Lindenmeier Folsom Site</a>,” February 29, 2012.</p> <p>David J. Meltzer, <em>Folsom: New Archaeological Investigations of a Classic Paleoindian Bison Kill</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).</p> <p>Brian S. Naze, “The Folsom Occupation of Middle Park, Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 52 (December 1986).</p> <p>Bonnie L. Pitblado, “Paleoindian Presence in Southwest Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 60 (winter 1994).</p> <p>Frank H. H. Roberts, “Additional Information on the Folsom Complex: Report on the Second Season’s Investigations at the Lindenmeier Site in Northern Colorado (with 12 plates),” <em>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</em> 95, no. 10 (1936).</p> <p>Southern Methodist University, “<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php">Folsom Site, NM</a>,” updated June 10, 2011.</p> <p>University of California Museum of Paleontology, “<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php">The Pleistocene Epoch</a>,” updated June 10, 2011.</p> <p>University of Oklahoma, “<a href="https://www.ou.edu/cas/archsur/game/pdffiles/paleo.pdf">Folsom Culture</a>.”</p> <p>Western State Colorado University, “<a href="https://western.edu/academics/undergraduate/anthropology/folsom-points">Folsom Points</a>.”</p> <p>Western State Colorado University, “<a href="https://western.edu/academics/undergraduate/anthropology/folsom-tools">Folsom Tools</a>.”</p> <p>Hannah Marie Wormington, <em>Ancient Man in North America</em>, 4th ed., Popular Series No. 4 (Denver: Denver Museum of Natural History, 1957).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 22 Jun 2016 20:59:07 +0000 yongli 1475 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Franktown Cave http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/franktown-cave <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Franktown Cave</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1467--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1467.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/middle-ceramic-period-moccasin-franktown-cave"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=Q9hDXC34" width="1000" height="733" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/middle-ceramic-period-moccasin-franktown-cave" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Middle Ceramic Period Moccasin from Franktown Cave</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Complete Promontory culture bison hide moccasin. This artifact was thought to have been manufactured by the ancestral Apache around AD 1160-1280.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1468--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1468.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/reconstructed-early-ceramic-period-pot"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=jFyDpjcI" width="1000" height="761" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/reconstructed-early-ceramic-period-pot" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Reconstructed Early Ceramic Period Pot</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Early Ceramic period reconstructed ceramic vessel from Franktown Cave. The exterior of the pot A sherd from this pot was AMS dated to AD 660-880.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1469--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1469.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/middle-archaic-period-sandal"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=0szAlUTY" width="1000" height="393" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/middle-archaic-period-sandal" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Middle Archaic Period Sandal</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This sandal was woven from yucca leaves and dates to 3350-2880 BC.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1470--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1470.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/middle-ceramic-period-netted-hoop"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=4cTPBHPX" width="1000" height="395" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/middle-ceramic-period-netted-hoop" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Middle Ceramic Period Netted Hoop</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This Promontory Culture hoop is made from a willow twig that was bent into a circle and used as a frame to weave a sinew net. This object may have been used to play the hoop game, where small feathered darts were thrown at the hoop as it rolled across the ground.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1471--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1471.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/franktown-cave-site-overview"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-5_0.jpg?itok=19f88Exx" width="1000" height="1333" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/franktown-cave-site-overview" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Franktown Cave Site Overview</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Site overview looking west.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1472--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1472.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/franktown-cave-excavation-crew-1956"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Franktown-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=ctbJEnM3" width="1000" height="804" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/franktown-cave-excavation-crew-1956" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Franktown Cave Excavation Crew, 1956</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Franktown Cave excavation crew in upper shelter, 1956.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-22T13:17:42-06:00" title="Wednesday, June 22, 2016 - 13:17" class="datetime">Wed, 06/22/2016 - 13:17</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/franktown-cave" data-a2a-title="Franktown Cave"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffranktown-cave&amp;title=Franktown%20Cave"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located two and a half miles southwest of Franktown, Franktown Cave is a prehistoric archaeological site in a large <strong>rockshelter </strong>that contained artifacts from prehistoric occupations over 8,000 years. Some of the findings include rare perishable artifacts manufactured from hide, wood and fiber, and plant material. Preservation of perishable artifacts in archaeological sites is extremely rare in general and exceptional in eastern Colorado. This makes Franktown Cave a significant archaeological site that provides invaluable and unique information on prehistoric people not available from other sites.</p> <p>Franktown Cave is on the north edge of the Palmer Divide, an area of grassland, scrub oak, and open ponderosa <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pine forest</strong></a> above 6,000 feet in elevation. The area forms the drainage divide between the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river">South Platte River</a> </strong>to the north and the <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> to the south. The cave developed at the contact between two sedimentary rock units: the harder Castle Rock Conglomerate above and the softer, finer-textured Dawson Arkose formation below. At Franktown Cave the softer Dawson Arkose eroded from under the Castle Rock Conglomerate, leaving an overhang that was attractive as a shelter to prehistoric people and dry enough to preserve delicate artifacts made from perishable materials.</p> <h2>Early Investigations</h2> <p>The Franktown Cave collection at the <strong>University of Denver</strong> <strong>(DU)</strong> contains materials from five episodes of archaeological investigation: four excavations and a one-day visit. Hugh Capps, a 1941 graduate of DU, was the first person to perform a scientific excavation at Franktown Cave. In 1949 and 1952, Professor Arnold Withers of DU’s Department of Anthropology supervised students in the excavation of two adjacent areas. From 1956 to 1957, Gerold Thompson, a graduate student working under Professor Withers’s supervision, led excavations within a grid system different from that of the previous Withers excavations.</p> <p>In 1976 a one-day investigation at the site was conducted under the supervision of Dr. Sarah Nelson of DU’s Department of Anthropology. The intention of this investigation was to determine if any remaining archaeological deposits were still intact, relocate and examine the walls of previous excavation units, and screen portions of the substantial back-dirt piles to recover artifacts and ecofacts (evidence of ancient environments, such as plant remains) that were missed during previous excavations or episodes of vandalism.</p> <p>In 2003 a National Science Foundation grant provided funding to <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon date</strong></a> many of the perishable artifacts using the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) method, which allows the dating of tiny amounts of organic material. This information was used in the nomination to list Franktown Cave on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.</p> <p>Much of the early work at Franktown Cave did not meet modern standards for scientific excavation, and no formal reports of these investigations were ever prepared. However, despite the lack of documentation of past work, research—using the available records regarding the excavations coupled with modern analysis of portions of the collections—continues to provide information important for understanding the prehistory of eastern Colorado.</p> <h2>Franktown Cave Collections</h2> <p>Based on AMS dates and artifact types that have been dated at other sites in the region, Franktown Cave was occupied periodically during the Early <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> (6400–3800 BC), Middle Archaic (3800–1250 BC), Late Archaic (1250 BC–AD 150), Early Ceramic (AD 150–1150), Middle Ceramic (AD 1150–1540), and Protohistoric periods (AD 1540–1860) as defined for northeastern Colorado. Only the earliest occupation at the site by Early Archaic people is defined solely by the presence of artifacts typical of these cultures and not by radiocarbon dates. Two projectile points characteristic of the Late <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a><a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"> period</a> (9400–7000 BC) may represent an even earlier occupation of the site, but because only two of these artifacts are present, it is uncertain whether they represent an occupation by these early people or items collected and reused by later people.</p> <p>More than 4,000 artifacts and samples recovered from excavations at Franktown Cave include chipped stone artifacts (including 160 projectile points and projectile point fragments), grinding stones for processing plants, and fragments of pottery vessels used for cooking and water storage. However, it is the perishable items that make Franktown Cave such an important site.</p> <p>Perishable artifacts in the collection include fragments of baskets, woven yucca sandals, one complete <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hide moccasin and a fragment of a second, pieces of a possible rabbit fur robe, a small sinew net woven on a willow twig, the sewn seams of leather clothing that were cut from garments to recycle the leather for other uses, digging sticks, weaving tools, pieces of arrow and atlatl foreshafts, a bone tool with drilled holes used to straighten arrow shafts, possible wooden gaming pieces, and 140 pieces of cordage. The ecofacts include corncobs, kernels of corn, and what are thought to be portions of corn stalks, as well as tied bundles of grass and pine needles, reeds, cactus pads, and yucca fibers. Perishable artifacts and ecofacts are almost completely unknown from sites in eastern Colorado, and the quantity and variety of the materials found at Franktown Cave is unmatched in this part of the state.</p> <p>Although the information from all the occupations recorded at Franktown Cave is important and the perishable artifacts and ecofacts provide information unique for all the occupations at the site, two occupation periods are especially significant: the Middle <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> period and the Middle Ceramic period. This latter occupation represents what is possibly the first appearance of the ancestral <strong>Apache</strong> in Colorado.</p> <h2>Middle Archaic Period</h2> <p>Franktown Cave is the only rock-shelter site in the Palmer Divide that has provided Middle Archaic period dates. Twelve AMS radiocarbon dates on woven yucca sandals, coiled basket fragments, and a piece of a possible rabbit fur robe define several occupations between 3350 BC and 2500 BC. Abundant research over the past half century has conclusively demonstrated that basketry, textiles, sandals, and cordage are more useful for determining ethnic and linguistic affiliation than any other class of artifacts.</p> <p>The fragments of coiled baskets suggest a longer occupation of Franktown Cave by people of the same cultural tradition. The coils used to make baskets consist of a combination of one or more bundles of fiber (often grass) and can also contain one or more flexible wood rods, allowing for dozens of possible combinations of these two elements. The pattern used by any one group of people is consistent and can indicate cultural or ethnic affiliation. In the Franktown Cave collection, two pieces of coiled basket from the Middle Archaic period exhibit a single bundle within the coils, and an Early Ceramic period occupation ca. AD 670–870 also contains a fragment of single-bundle coiled basketry. Because the technology shared between these occupations is so similar, it could indicate a persistence of this technology for at least 3,500–4,000 years at Franktown Cave.</p> <h2>Middle Ceramic Period</h2> <p>A later occupation at Franktown Cave dates to around AD 1160–1280 and is affiliated with the Promontory Culture, defined at a few sites in Utah and Wyoming. The Promontory Culture is thought to represent the first entry of the ancestral Apache into the Intermountain West from their ancestral homeland in northern Canada and central Alaska. Their descendants in the Southwest became the Apache and <strong>Navajo</strong>. Although several perishable artifacts from Franktown Cave are quite similar to those found at Promontory Caves, the defining artifact of the Promontory Culture is a particular style of moccasin, two of which were found at Franktown Cave—one complete and one fragmentary. The complete moccasin is approximately eight inches long, which, based on a comparison of living Apache foot length and age, corresponds to a child of approximately seven years.</p> <p>Moccasins are artifacts produced through a complex and culturally specific manufacturing sequence. Therefore, similar moccasins found in different places reflect a shared cultural heritage between the people who made them. The Promontory Culture moccasins at Promontory Caves and Franktown Cave are also very similar to a moccasin dated AD 550–660 found in the Yukon (close to the homeland of the ancestral Apache), and likely made by the ancestors of the occupants of both sites.</p> <p>An important task for archaeologists is determining where and when events occurred in prehistory. Determining the timing and route taken by the ancestral Apache on their migration from their ancient homeland (where native people still speak languages closely related to those of the Navajo and Apache) is one such event. The similarity with the Promontory moccasins suggests that both sites were occupied very soon after the eastern (Plains Apache) and western (Navajo/Western Apache) groups divided on their migration south.</p> <p>The artifacts found in Franktown Cave demonstrate the importance of perishable artifacts in interpreting prehistory. Since these artifacts are extremely rare, archaeologists are by necessity forced to reconstruct past societies based on the stone, ceramic, and bone artifacts that are durable and therefore preserved at most archaeological sites. The collection from Franktown Cave and a handful of other sites containing perishable artifacts demonstrates that the vast majority of the things made and used by prehistoric people rarely survive into the present.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/gilmore-kevin" hreflang="und">Gilmore, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historical-archaeology" hreflang="en">historical archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Apache Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaic" hreflang="en">Archaic</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/early-ceramic-period" hreflang="en">Early Ceramic period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/protohistoric-period" hreflang="en">Protohistoric period</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>James M. Adovasio and D. R. Pedler, “A Tisket, a Tasket: Looking at the Numic Speakers Through the ‘Lens’ of a Basket,” in <em>Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and David Rhode (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).</p> <p>Michael Billinger and John W. Ives, “Inferring Demographic Structure With Moccasin Size Data From the Promontory Caves, Utah,” <em>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</em> 156 (January 2015).</p> <p>Kevin P. Gilmore, <em>National Register of Historic Places Registration Form for the Franktown Cave Site (5DA272), Douglas County, Colorado</em> (Denver: Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, History Colorado, 2005).</p> <p>Kevin P. Gilmore, John Ives, and Sean Larmore, “Promontory on the Plains: An Examination of Material Culture Similarities Between the Great Basin and Eastern Colorado and the Implications for Apachean Migration” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, Glenwood Springs, Colorado, March 22, 2014), DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3350.8800.</p> <p>Kevin P. Gilmore, Marcia J. Tate, Mark L. Chenault, Bonnie J. Clark, Terry McBride, and Margaret Wood, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Platte River Basin, </em>Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists Series (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John W. Ives, Duane G. Froese, Joel C. Janetski, Fiona Brock, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey, “A High Resolution Chronology for Steward’s Promontory Culture Collections, Promontory Point, Utah,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 79 (October 2014).</p> <p>Anthony King, “Substance Dynamics and Stone Tools at Franktown Cave, Colorado” (master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Denver, 2006).</p> <p>Helen M. Pustmueller, “Notched Projectile Points From Franktown Cave: Classification and Traditional and Statistical Analysis” (master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Denver, 1977).</p> <p>Allison N. Rexroth, “Prehistoric Sandals of the Southern High Plains: Indicators of Cultural Affinity and Change” (master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Denver, 2010).</p> <p>University of Alberta, Institute of Prairie Archaeology, “<a href="https://sites.google.com/a/ualberta.ca/ipa/home/ipa-research-in-the-news">IPA Research In the News</a>.”</p> <p>University of Denver, “<a href="https://portfolio.du.edu/kegilmor">Kevin Gilmore, DU Portfolio</a>,” updated September 9, 2014.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 22 Jun 2016 19:17:42 +0000 yongli 1465 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Dent Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dent-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Dent Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T15:35:38-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 15:35" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 15:35</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dent-site" data-a2a-title="Dent Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdent-site&amp;title=Dent%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Early colonists occupied Colorado’s rich and ecologically diverse landscapes in the waning millennia of our planet’s most recent major Ice Age, the Pleistocene, between 14,000 and 12,000 years. Our best-documented evidence for Colorado’s earliest hunter and gatherer inhabitants, people we call <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a>, comes from the Dent site, a naturally exposed bone bed of Late Ice Age and now-extinct Columbian mammoths associated with three stone spear points. The site is situated along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> on the margins of Colorado’s western high plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery and Research</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent</strong></a> railroad depot, now demolished, was once located next to the South Platte River southeast of Milliken, Colorado. Railroad tracks serving the depot ran over eroded Ice Age terrace remnants south and west of the river’s modern floodplain. After heavy spring rains in April 1932, railroad foreman Frank Garner noticed very large animal bones eroding from a deep gully draining through a low sandstone bluff west of the tracks. Word of the discovery reached Regis College geology professor and Jesuit priest Conrad Bilgery through one of his students, who was the son of the Dent Depot manager. In September 1932 Father Bilgery excavated some of the bones with his students, identifying them as mammoth. He then contacted Jesse Figgins, paleontology curator at the Colorado Museum of Natural History (now the <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Figgins delegated further exploration of the mammoth remains to museum staff member Frederick Howarter, who conducted excavations in June and July 1933, with museum volunteers, trustees, Father Bilgery, and his Regis College students. Partial skeletons of five adult female and eight young mammoths were recovered and taken to the Denver museum with two complete Clovis spear points. A third artifact, a broken, upper part of a Clovis point, was kept by its discoverer, railroad foreman Garner, and was given to the museum in the 1950s. At the time, the Clovis culture’s existence was not recognized by archaeologists, although Dent’s projectile points were recognized as belonging to a Late Ice Age (<a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a>) Native American culture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>No further Dent research took place until 1973, when a joint team from the universities of Colorado and Arizona excavated a trench in the earlier bone bed area. The project was to involve two days’ worth of field studies for a University of Colorado student’s doctoral dissertation, but the project was abandoned when it was found that the remaining bones were buried under active railroad tracks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The team’s trench along the track’s west edge showed that the bones had likely been redeposited from the adjacent bluff draw or washed in from an upstream source. The most deeply buried bones rested on ancient river gravels, showing that the South Platte River once flowed near the 1932–33 bone-bed location. A wood fragment mixed with recovered bone was radiocarbon-dated to AD 1800, indicating that the bone had been historically redeposited from a nearby location. Along with smaller mammoth bone pieces, a young juvenile’s skull was found, indicating the existence of a fifteenth mammoth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The most recent research at Dent took place between 1987 and 1994. Field studies involved soil sampling cores in the adjacent gully draw, its former bone bed area, and power-driven cores through the railroad bed to surviving bone bed material below. Geologic analysis of an exposed Ice Age terrace near the site and a hand-dug trench in the gully draw were done by University of Northern Colorado (UNC) and University of Arizona (UA) researchers. Other studies analyzed Dent mammoth bones, teeth, and tusks for information on season of death, the mammoths’ social system, and diets as well as Ice Age climate, butchering evidence, chronology, and artifact traits.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Accurate dating of the Dent mammoths’ deaths was not possible at the time of discovery. However, in the past two decades, high-precision <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dating</strong></a> methods and advanced techniques for dating organic components such as bone and ivory made reliable dating possible. More than a dozen radiocarbon dates were done on Dent bone between 1963 and 2006. In 2006, three high-precision AMS radiocarbon dates on Dent bone provided an averaged calendar-age date of 12,850 years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Research on Dent mammoth bones has been hampered by early dispersal of much of the original collection to out-of-state museums in exchange for other museums’ specimens. On one occasion a complete juvenile mammoth skeleton was assembled from bones of different animals and traded to a Cleveland museum. Modern researchers, in order to access much of the original skeletal collection, have had to travel to multiple museums. Both early (1930s) and more recent skeletal analyses identified a minimum number of fourteen animals. They include an older adult female, four younger adult females, four adolescents, and four younger juveniles and infants. Using modern African elephants for comparison, scientists found Dent’s animals to closely resemble a matriarchal family herd, with young males (bulls) separating from their birth families after maturity.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dent mammoth bone studies found cut, chop, gouge, and pry marks consistent with carcass defleshing and bone-joint disarticulation. Butchering marks were interpreted as being made when the animals were freshly killed and days to weeks after death. The amount of time between fresh-kill and later butchering episodes is unknown, but season-of-death evidence placed Dent mammoth deaths in late fall to early winter, during which cool or even freezing temperatures would have preserved usable meat for days or weeks. Data from studies of teeth and tusks at the Dent site indicate that the mammoths lived and traveled within a small grazing territory in foothills and plains just east of Colorado’s Front Range.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Geological studies of the 1973 railroad track trench and nearby Ice Age river terrace supported the view that the bone bed’s adjacent draw, which cut through a low sandstone bluff, provided Dent mammoths easy access to water and a shallow river crossing. A UNC excavation in that draw uncovered a narrow gully that the mammoths might have used to descend to the river and where they may have been ambushed, trapped, and killed. The mammoth bones’ relatively unweathered physical condition meant they had not been exposed on the surface for any period of time, suggesting they were buried by sediments, possibly within months to a year after death.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the butchering marks, evidence of human involvement with the Dent mammoths was found in the form of two intact Clovis spear points and an upper portion of a third point reworked into a hafted knife. One of the points disappeared from the Denver museum collection in the late 1930s or early 1940s. Its location remains a mystery. However, plaster casts and descriptions of the missing point allow detailed reconstruction of its physical traits and tool material. The second point and reworked point/knife are displayed in the museum’s modern Dent exhibit. The three Clovis tools were made from widely dispersed stone sources: northeast Colorado plains Flattop chert, southeastern Wyoming Hartville chert, and a dark gray chert from southeastern Wyoming or the northern <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. Crushed, worn blade edges on all three tools show they were used for heavy-duty cutting of meat and bone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Conclusions</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s Dent Mammoth site is one of very few North American archaeological sites with direct evidence of human procurement of extinct Columbian mammoth meat and bone. Deaths of its animals occurred in two or more kill events several days or weeks apart, suggesting ambushes of two herds at different times, or that several animals escaped the earlier ambush only to be ambushed again when they returned to the scene. As is common in prehistoric hunting societies, the Clovis points used to kill the animals were also used in butchering. The scientific evidence from the Dent site shows that Clovis people had a thorough understanding of Colorado mammoths, which made them skilled, successful hunters of the impressive Ice Age mammal.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/brunswig-robert" hreflang="und">Brunswig, Robert</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dent-site" hreflang="en">dent site</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pleistocene" hreflang="en">Pleistocene</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert H. Brunswig, “New Interpretations of the Dent Mammoth Site: A Synthesis of Recent Multidisciplinary Evidence, in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Brunswig, Jr., and D. C. Fisher, “Research on the Dent Mammoth Site,” <em>Current Research in the Pleistocene </em>10 (1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda Scott Cummings and Rosa Maria Albert, “Phytolith and Starch Analysis of Dent Site Mammoth Teeth Calculus: New Evidence for Late Pleistocene Mammoth Diets and Environments,” in <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780870819766"><em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em></a>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse D. Figgins, “A Further Contribution to the Antiquity of Man in America,” <em>Proceedings of the Colorado Museum of Natural History </em>12, no. 2 (1933).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel C. Fisher and David L. Fox, “Season of Death of the Dent Mammoths: Distinguishing Single From Multiple Mortality Events,” in <em><a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780870819766">Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</a></em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>C. Vance Haynes, Michael McFaul, Robert H. Brunswig, and Kenneth D. Hopkins, “Kersey and Kuner Terrace Investigations at the Dent and Bernhardt Sites, Colorado,” <em>Geoarchaeology </em>13, no. 2 (1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katherine Hoope, “Late Pleistocene Mammoth Herd Structure, Migration Patterns and Clovis Hunting Strategies Inferred From Isotopic Analysis of Multiple Death Assemblages,” <em>Paleobiology </em>30, no. 1 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey L. Saunders, “<a href="https://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents-nmr/Publicaties/Deinsea/Deinsea_06/Deinsea6_006_Saunders.pdf">Morphological Analysis of <em>Mammuthus columbi </em>from the Dent Site, Weld County, Colorado</a>,” <em>Deinsea </em>6 (May 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey L. Saunders, “Processing Marks on Remains of <em>Mammuthus columbi</em> from the Dent Site, Colorado, in Light of those from Clovis, New Mexico: Fresh Carcass Butchery Versus Scavenging?” in <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780870819766"><em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em></a>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., “Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>Science</em> 315 (February 23, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Center for the Study of the First Americans, “<a href="https://liberalarts.tamu.edu/csfa/">Who Were the First Americans?</a>” adapted from Ted Goebel, Michael R. Waters, and Dennis H. O’Rourke, “<a href="https://liberalarts.tamu.edu/csfa/">The Dispersal of Modern Humans in America During the Late Pleistocene</a>,” <em>Science </em>319, no. 1497 (2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>George C. Frison, “<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.95.24.14576">Paleoindian Large Mammal Hunters on the Plains of North America</a>,” <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em> 95, no. 24 (November 24, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles C. Mann, “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-clovis-point-and-the-discovery-of-americas-first-culture-3825828/">The Clovis Point and the Discovery of America’s First Culture</a>,” <em>Smithsonian Magazine</em>, November 2013.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 21:35:38 +0000 yongli 1358 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1354--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1354.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_Bonito_Aerial%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=NVZtimPq" width="912" height="684" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of Pueblo Bonito, one of the most distinctive great houses in Chaco Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T14:21:06-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 14:21" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 14:21</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region" data-a2a-title="Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region&amp;title=Ancestral%20Puebloans%20of%20the%20Four%20Corners%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Formerly labeled Anasazi, the Ancestral Puebloan culture is the most widely known of the ancient cultures of Colorado. The people who built the <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great houses</strong></a> of <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> were subsistence farmers of corn, beans, and squash. The structures of this culture date to between ca. 350 BC and AD 1300 and are found throughout southwestern Colorado and other adjacent states of the Four Corners region. The great southward migration from this region by AD 1300 marks the end of the Ancestral Puebloan occupation in southwestern Colorado. The sites and histories of this ancestral culture are still valued today in song and prayer by the Pueblo peoples now residing in New Mexico and Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> refers to both the ancient cultural tradition and the peoples once found in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest. It is one of three major cultural traditions defined by archaeologists in the four southwestern states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah). The other two traditions are the Hohokam and Mogollon, neither of which extends into Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Archaeology and Terminology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early investigators such as <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Alfred V. Kidder referred to what we now call the Ancestral Pueblo tradition as the <em>Anasazi</em>. Although many early researchers drew inspiration from the historic Pueblos in their interpretations of the architecture and practices of the Ancestral Pueblo, they did not always make a clear link between this ancient culture and historic Pueblo peoples. They drew upon the Navajo workmen who helped them with some of their investigations and who called these ancient people <em>ʾ</em><em>anaasází</em>, translated as “old people,” “enemy ancestors,” or “ancient non-Navajos.” As archaeologists have increasingly associated many aspects of this ancient cultural tradition with the modern Pueblos, the term <em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> has gradually replaced <em>Anasazi</em> in archaeological literature as a more appropriate term.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The two branches of the Ancestral Pueblo tradition discussed in this summary—Mesa Verde and Chaco—are distinguishable from one another by differences in their pottery styles, architecture, and settlements, but they also shared a great deal in common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The cultural diversity we see in the past is similar to modern Pueblo culture, which encompasses seven distinct languages and twenty-one pueblos, each under separate governance. They share a richly interwoven past. When Spanish conquistadors encountered the Pueblo groups in the sixteenth century, they found at least 50,000 to 60,000 people in approximately seventy-five Pueblo villages in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. Over the last 125 years, historians, archaeologists, and Pueblo tribal authorities have worked to untangle Ancestral Puebloan history to better understand how this tradition has shaped the customs and ways of life of modern Pueblo people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All Pueblo culture shares in common an agricultural heritage focused on the cultivation of maize (corn) and a sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyle centered on large village communities, or pueblos. The roots of this culture date back more than two millennia, to the very beginnings of agriculture and settled life in the northern Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture in the Northern Southwest (350 BC–AD 575<strong>)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The environment of the Four Corners made hunting and gathering difficult. The semiarid and arid upland landscape of the <strong>Colorado Plateau </strong>and Southern Rocky Mountains had patches of wild resources that were not reliable subsistence sources. In good years, the piñon nut harvest could be remarkable and large game such as <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, pronghorn, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a></strong> offered fine hunting opportunities at certain times and locales throughout the year. But these resources, even when teamed with the wild grasses, berries, and other native plants of the area, necessitated a mobile lifestyle and tremendous seasonal flexibility. Consequently, the population was restricted to small groups that used particular areas seasonally. Climatic shifts also limited human occupation in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 2100 to 1200 BC, increasingly reliable summer precipitation and the introduction of maize from the south allowed for early horticulture. The first corn was not well adapted to the short growing seasons and dry <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>, and the resulting corncobs were only an inch or two long. It would take 1,000–1,500 years before maize varieties were developed or introduced that could be successfully grown across a wide area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the transition from a limited horticulture and seminomadic lifeway to a more dedicated and sedentary agricultural lifeway was slow, small farming communities emerged in the late <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> to early <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods and the population began to increase steadily. In general, this early farming culture is still referred to as <strong>Basketmaker</strong> because basketry and woven goods remained the mainstays of storage, cooking, and serving vessels.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 350–200 BC and AD 300–350, there was a notable increase in multi-season and multi-household residential sites in certain regions. Evidence at these sites shows that the inhabitants were more dependent on maize cultivation, supplemented by localized hunting and gathering. These early farmers invested energy in more substantial and weatherproof pithouses and large, secure cists for food storage. The trash heaps, or middens, at these early residential sites indicate the inhabitants were at least semisedentary, residing at a single location for more than half a year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southern half of the Ancestral Pueblo area in New Mexico and Arizona is a source of innovation and many changes in the period between AD 200 and 600. The earliest Basketmaker brown ware pottery originates here and serves as a model for the first pottery in the Mesa Verde region. The original development and most widespread use of large community structures called great <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> also occurred in the south. Finally, beans, which offered a critical dietary pairing with maize, were more widely distributed in the south in early Basketmaker times. The south offered a historically secure and possibly more resilient locale for early agriculture, and at least half of the early farming populations in the Mesa Verde region likely could trace their origins to south of the San Juan River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Pueblos and <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a> (AD 575–900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The adoption of maize agriculture and the increasing use of beans and squash to achieve a more balanced diet helped to trigger a population increase, a demographic transition that characterizes many early agricultural societies. With decreased mobility, mothers can have and sustain more children and larger households are economically useful and viable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 600 the population south of the San Juan River had increased significantly, and immigrant populations began to move into the Mesa Verde region once again. The central part of this region holds evidence of early habitations built during the span of AD 575–700. <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>Tree-ring</strong></a> and pollen records suggest that for much of the seventh century climatic conditions for farming would have been good in this region, and the immigrants were moving into a landscape rich in natural and wild resources. By AD 725–750, there were at least 4,500 people spread across the whole Mesa Verde region, from Elk Ridge north of Blanding, Utah, to the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> valley near <strong>Durango</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The settlements of the mid-seventh century were most commonly single-household or paired-household hamlets. Small villages of eight to ten pithouses are known, but these were exceptional. Equally rare were great kivas, immense pit structures that could be from ten to twenty meters in diameter. <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>Rock art</strong></a> that dates to this period appears to portray community gatherings at great kivas and suggests the grand scale of these ritual events.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 750, the first small room blocks that would have housed two to four individual families are evident, foreshadowing a significant transformation in how settlements will be organized. Within a single generation after this architectural change, the first large villages with ten to twenty or more households emerge. Some of the earliest villages in the Ancestral Pueblo area occur in eastern and western Mesa Verde by about AD 775.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The period between AD 775 and 875 saw significant demographic shifts across the whole Ancestral Pueblo area, continued population growth, and a concentration of population in the central Mesa Verde region when compared to other Pueblo regions. Migration from the peripheries to the center of the Mesa Verde region, along with natural reproduction, concentrated as many 12,000 people into clusters of compact villages by AD 875. A mix of styles in the architecture, pottery, basketry, and organization of these villages suggests diversity within the regional population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest villages and the concentration of population in the Mesa Verde region lasted only two to three generations. After a demographic peak at approximately AD 860, the population began to decrease by 880, and by the middle of the next century, there were no more than 2,500 people in the core area of the Mesa Verde region. Social and environmental turmoil appear to have been accelerated by several extended periods of drought and shortened growing seasons, and three centuries of expanding human populations had taken a toll on the region’s natural resources, wild game, and clean water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, we see evidence of the failure of key sociopolitical organizations suggested by the ritual burning of specific community structures and patterned acts of ritual violence against particular individuals in villages with early great houses. Particular structures, which previously had been the center of community feasts and ritual events, were deliberately burned down when they were depopulated. The focus on specific structures and particular individuals suggests these were deliberate, internal acts. Apparently, the social “glue” and alliances within these community centers came apart under the stresses of the late ninth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Once again, the various Pueblo groups—with their particular histories, evolving languages, and increasingly interwoven traditions—chose to leave their communities in this region and head either west and southwest or south and southeast. It appears that out of the dust and ideas of these ninth-century Mesa Verde villages emerged the even greater houses of Chaco Canyon of the tenth and eleventh centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco World (AD 900–1125)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the tenth century the center of the Ancestral Pueblo world moved south of the San Juan River once again. The developments following the depopulation of the early Pueblo villages that resulted in the emergence of a southern great house system are still poorly understood. Current explanations argue that the large influx of people from the northern villages, combined with the germ of what was learned from the failure of the first great house experiments, gave rise to an organizational model in which great houses were placed at the center of a more dispersed rural community instead of within villages. Great houses were situated on prominent places within a landscape, and smaller residences were built around it. Between AD 900 and 1000, a great house system of over twenty-five communities appeared south of the San Juan, and throughout the period of AD 1020–1125. Chaco Canyon was the undisputed center of this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Chaco system influenced and at least partially united—if not dominated—much of the northern Southwest for at least a century. This is one of many elements of Ancestral Puebloan history that helps us understand the extraordinarily entangled histories of the modern Pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the century of the Chaco system’s florescence, the great houses in Chaco Canyon became truly monumental, rising four or five stories and having precisely laid masonry, massive walls, and striking symmetries. The reach of this system stretched from the <a href="/article/far-view-sites"><strong>Far View Group</strong></a> of sites at Mesa Verde National Park and <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> in the far north to the Andrews and Casamero sites near Grants, New Mexico, in the south. By AD 1125–1150, there may have been as many as 200 great houses aligned with or emulating this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco’s century of prominence coincided with a regional population increase. Population rebounded in Mesa Verde and other regions that had seen significant population loss in the tenth century. We are still uncertain about the extent to which these outlying regions were connected to Chaco Canyon, but it is clear that many outlying great houses were built in the same fashion as the great houses of the canyon. By the mid-to-late 1000s, there was a clear and strong connection between Chaco Canyon and particular groups of sites, such as the Aztec complex of sites in New Mexico, just south of Durango along the Animas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Chaco’s Decline and the Last Migration from the North (AD 1125–1300)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Southwest suffered one of the most severe droughts of the last millennium between AD 1130 and 1180. It is a period associated with a significant increase in violence, decreased population, and regional reorganization. Construction in Chaco Canyon all but ceased, and both its influence and population moved to other regions. It is uncertain whether the drought was the primary cause of Chaco’s dramatic decline or was simply one more factor bringing down a system that had become too top-heavy and costly for its adherents. Whatever the causes, Chaco’s decline was quick and decisive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the north, centers of influence emerged around Aztec—at the periphery of both the Chaco and Mesa Verde regional systems—and around several large Mesa Verde community centers, such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo and the Goodman Point–Shields Pueblo. The turbulence and violence of the late twelfth century subsided in the Mesa Verde region as Aztec’s leadership faltered and power struggles became more localized and smaller in scale. However, there still appears to have been a widespread perception of risk that may have propelled a growing number of people to seek refuge in large villages. The settlement pattern shifted from small villages on mesa tops close to farm fields to canyon rims closer to water and defensive positions. This shift resulted in significant increases in both the population and size of the largest villages, as outlying populations converged in the central Mesa Verde region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Community architecture and religious practices also changed. Great houses were no longer constructed but in some areas were replaced by villages with multi-walled structures. Multi-walled structures are uncommon in the western Mesa Verde region and not found in the late Pueblo villages of <a href="/.../hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a>. This absence is especially evident at western sites such as <strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong> that had large great houses only a century earlier.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After AD 1225 some villages, such as Yellow Jacket, became larger than the others. Village clusters became more tightly packed and competition for suitable agricultural land, trade partnerships, and access to wild resources and water appears to have intensified. The more competitive social landscape after AD 1250 is marked by a dramatic rise in the number of towers and walls dating to this period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Population in the core of the Mesa Verde region appears to have peaked between AD 1225 and 1260 at an estimated 26,000, with certainly more than 30,000 people across the whole region. Soon thereafter, people began to leave. Emigration accelerated markedly once it began, and the collapse of settlements on the peripheries, such as those at Hovenweep, must have contributed to the chaos. People within or adjacent to what is now Mesa Verde National Park used the protection afforded by cliff dwellings and the advantage of nearby agricultural lands to hold on longer than many other settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some of the first sites investigated by the Wetherills and <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf</strong> <strong>Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, such as <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> and <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, may have been among the last communities to depopulate. The entire region was largely depopulated by AD 1290, only thirty or forty years after it had reached its highest population. Many of the most defining characteristics of Mesa Verde architecture, pottery, social organization, and material culture were left behind. Where did these Ancestral Puebloans go? Subtle clues within the material culture of later sites, along with histories of the Pueblos, have helped experts identify the places where these migrants settled. People from the western communities largely moved into what is now Arizona and forged new relationships and identities with the Hopi. Central and eastern Mesa Verde groups appear to have had connections with groups in northern New Mexico such as the Keresan Pueblos (e.g., Acoma, <a href="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya"><strong>S</strong></a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya">anta Ana/Tamaya</a></strong>, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) and Tewa Pueblos (e.g., Ohkay Owingeh, San Ildefonso, and Santa Clara).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Interestingly, one of the very last occupied sites, <strong>Yucca House</strong>, is likely mentioned in T19 Pueblos of New Mexico ewa oral history as being a place of the ancestors. It is also the only late Mesa Verde village where a portion of its layout is built in a style not commonly seen until fourteenth-century pueblos of northern New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no single reason explains the final Mesa Verde migration, it is clear that social and political strife, the threat of violence, religious upheaval, and disruptions of interaction and trade networks all predate the most severe droughts of this period. The droughts must have been the final blow, especially with the promise of slightly better conditions to the south. Whether non-Pueblo groups—such as the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> or Athapaskans—forced the Ancestral Pueblo people to leave the Mesa Verde region is an old hypothesis that still has some adherents, but today there is little archaeological evidence that these groups constituted a significant presence in the Mesa Verde region in AD 1280, when the last Puebloans were leaving.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the depopulation of the Chaco, Mesa Verde, and other even more northerly regions and the establishment of the historically known pueblos of the Rio Grande and Little Colorado regions, the history of the Ancestral Pueblo becomes the “deep history” that is now remembered in the oral traditions of the modern Pueblo and researched by archaeologists and historians. These historic Pueblo groups built even larger villages and a more populous civilization, but structures of Mesa Verde and Chaco, as well as the lessons they offer, continue to intrigue us.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-hovenweep-national-monument-national-monuments-colorado-canyons-ancients-national" hreflang="en">hovenweep hovenweep national monument national monuments colorado canyons of the ancients national monument southwest colorado four corners region hiking southwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chimney-rock-archaeological-area" hreflang="en">chimney rock archaeological area</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. G. Matson, <em>The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul F. Reed, <em>Chaco’s Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after A.D. 1100</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark D. Varien, Scott G. Ortman, Timothy A. Kohler, Donna M. Glowacki, and C. David Johnson, “Historical Ecology in the Mesa Verde Region: Results from the Village EcoDynamics Project,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 72 (April 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John A. Ware, <em>A Pueblo Social History: Kinship, Sodality, and Community in the Northern Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/azru/index.htm">Aztec Ruins, National Monument, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” US Bureau of Land Management, last modified May 28, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 3, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument, Colorado</a>,” Chimney Rock Interpretive Association, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda S. Cordell and Maxine E. McBrinn, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em>, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado, Utah</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 1, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/index.htm">Learn About the Park</a>,” Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service, last modified November 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>A History of the Ancient Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://indianpueblo.org/pueblos-pigments-and-prominence-the-murals-of-ipcc/">The 19 Pueblos of New Mexico</a>,” Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>In Search of Chaco</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/who_were_the_anasazi.html">Who Were the Anasazi</a>?,” Anasazi Heritage Center, US Bureau of Land Management, last modified August 2, 2012.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 20:21:06 +0000 yongli 1353 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fremont Culture http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fremont Culture</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-03T15:31:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, May 3, 2016 - 15:31" class="datetime">Tue, 05/03/2016 - 15:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture" data-a2a-title="Fremont Culture"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffremont-culture&amp;title=Fremont%20Culture"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Although it is on the eastern fringe of the area occupied by a people known to archaeology as the Fremont, Colorado is nevertheless important in the Fremont story, since clues to their origins and end are found there. Additionally, the presence of Fremont farmers had a profound influence on the indigenous hunting and gathering people of western Colorado.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The term “Fremont” describes people whose territory stretched from eastern Nevada to western Colorado, and from southern Utah to southern Idaho and Wyoming. In Colorado, their sites occur in a fifty-mile-wide swath along the Utah border, from roughly Unaweep Canyon near <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a> north to the Wyoming border. Fremont roots go back about 2,000 years; they disappeared about 500 years ago after florescence and decline. Like the better-known Basketmaker and <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people who inhabited the Four Corners region of Colorado, the Fremont were people who adopted farming into their subsistence patterns. They grew corn, beans, and squash, but their diet usually included a wide array of wild foods as well.</p> <p>The “Fremont” people who lived during this 1500-year period are now recognized to have varied in many important ways and probably included people who spoke different languages and customs. Yet these people had enough in common that their archaeological remains share similarities. Artifacts common to the Fremont include a distinctive method of basketry called “one-rod-and-bundle,” moccasins constructed from the hock of deer or mountain sheep, clay figurines with trapezoidal bodies, hair bobs, headdresses and necklaces, and a distinctive, thin-walled gray pottery style of coiled construction. Of these, pottery is the most durable, and hence the most widely preserved. Another characteristic of the Fremont is the use of dispersed, sheltered stone storage features called granaries. But perhaps the most distinctive Fremont feature is their <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> style that includes the same trapezoidal human figures depicted in figurines. In fact, rock art is the most visible and most recognized aspect of the Fremont in Colorado with panels known from canyons in the Grand Junction area, the Rangely area, <a href="/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a>, and the Brown’s Park vicinity.</p> <h2>In Colorado</h2> <p>The distribution of Fremont living sites in Colorado largely mimics the distribution of rock art. Beginning in the south, some evidence of villages and rock shelters has been found in the Paradox Valley of western <a href="/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a>, where the Fremont apparently had a rather tenuous presence that is not yet well understood. Known Fremont sites in the Glade Park area west of Grand Junction in <a href="/article/mesa-county"><strong>Mesa County</strong></a> are mainly rock art panels. Sites with projectile points similar to Fremont styles have also been found, as have granaries. Northwestern Colorado has several important centers of Fremont activity on tributaries of the White, <a href="/article/yampa-river"><strong>Yampa</strong></a>, and Green Rivers. Rock art, granaries, and habitation sites occur along these drainages. Sites such as <a href="/article/mantles-cave"><strong>Mantle’s Cave</strong></a>, the <a href="/article/texas-creek-overlook-archaeological-site"><strong>Texas Creek Overlook</strong></a>, Eagle Point shelter, and many others show a Fremont presence on what must have been the northeastern frontier of their heartland. Some of the earliest and latest dates on Fremont maize come from northwestern Colorado.</p> <p>Maize growing began on the Colorado Plateau, including northwestern Colorado, shortly after about AD 1, with evidence of corn (pollen, kernels, cob fragments) gradually appearing in camp sites and small hamlets. These early experiments with farming are a northward extension of early farming from the eastern Basketmaker area of southwestern Colorado. Archaeologists now think that the Fremont culture developed from a combination of limited Basketmaker migrations and the adoption of crop growing on the part of indigenous hunter-gatherers. Fremont ceramics appear after AD 500, with distinctively Fremont farming villages appearing in Utah by about AD 750. The Fremont pattern reached its peak around AD 900 with a step-like decline after about AD 1050. By about AD 1300, farming as a way of life collapsed throughout most of Colorado and Utah, partly as a result of a series of severe droughts, but also compounded by increasingly complex social pressures.</p> <h2>Neighbors</h2> <p>Archaeologists now think of the development of the Fremont Culture as a process of interactions that occurred between people who were looking for good farmland and the people who already lived there. In short, a new culture developed from multiple roots as the change from a purely foraging-based diet shifted to a dependence on cultivated foods. Interaction between migrants and locals led to a new complex of artifacts, behaviors, and beliefs. In western Colorado farming was only viable in the lowest valleys, but the presence of farmers changed the lives of their foraging neighbors to the east and north. One important development, shared by the Fremont and their foraging neighbors, was the adoption of the bow and arrow, a significant change from the spear-like darts propelled by throwing sticks that had been the main weapon for thousands of years. The bow and arrow changed hunting strategies, and at the same time there was an apparent increase in the diversity of wild foods that were collected and processed. Like in the Fremont area, populations increased in the adjacent uplands in response to these changes.</p> <p>Anthropological observations in many parts of the world show a complex relationship between farmers and their non-farming neighbors. Interactions take many forms, including trade partnerships, intermarriage, enslavement, raiding, and warfare. Interaction between these upland foragers and the Fremont is documented by trade items found in archaeological sites. Marine shell, obsidian, beads, and pendants made from minerals like lignite and jet, and pottery from the Fremont area show that some kind of exchange or trade occurred on a regular basis. Evidence of violence is found in several places, including the Douglas Creek area of Colorado, but thus far such evidence is not common. The nature and extent of Fremont-forager interaction is not yet well understood, but it is a topic worthy of future research.</p> <h2>What Happened to the Fremont?</h2> <p>We know from the abandonment of farming villages in northeastern Utah, as well as a region wide decline in the number of radiocarbon-dated sites that something changed in the prehistoric world beginning about AD 1050. In the Fremont area of central Utah, settled villages continued to be viable until about AD 1300, but elsewhere decline seems to have started earlier. Some people undoubtedly migrated to other areas; others returned to a foraging lifeway. A few others apparently continued to eke out a living with limited farming, and in fact, the Douglas Creek area south of Rangely and portions of Dinosaur National Monument display the latest known Fremont sites with dates as late as AD 1600. Changes affected not just the Fremont and Puebloan farmers, but also the upland foraging people as well. What led to this reorganization of societies?</p> <p>Part of the explanation is climate. We know from tree ring and other records that a series of droughts occurred in the Colorado River system, with the worst conditions about AD 1150. These droughts not only affected the viability of farming, but also disrupted the distribution of plants and animals that were collected and hunted. Another factor was population growth, partly fueled by the economic success of farming during the good times. As conditions favorable for crop growing declined, people had to change their mode of subsistence or move. We know the area was not completely abandoned; there is good evidence that some people were able to return to foraging by using the resources of higher terrain, where cooler temperatures and more precipitation continued to make foraging viable. <strong>Hopi</strong> and other Puebloan oral traditions suggest that some of the Fremont people migrated south and integrated with people there. Other Fremont no doubt migrated elsewhere. Archaeologists continue to explore this problem through continued excavations, re-examination of materials excavated decades ago, interpretive studies of rock art, and learning more about the oral traditions of modern Native Americans.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/metcalf-michael" hreflang="und">Metcalf, Michael</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-culture" hreflang="en">Fremont culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/basketmaker" hreflang="en">Basketmaker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Steven G. Baker, “Fremont Archaeology on the Douglas Creek Arch, Rio Blanco County, Colorado: The Sky Aerie Charnel Site (5RB104),” unpublished manuscript, Chandler Douglas Arch Report Series No. 85 (Montrose, CO: Centuries Research, Inc., 1999).</p> <p>Robert F. Burgh and Charles R. Scoggin, <em>The Archaeology of Castle Park, Dinosaur National Monument</em>, University of Colorado Studies, Series in Anthropology No. 1 (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1948).</p> <p>Steven D. Creasman and Linda J. Scott, “Texas Creek Overlook: Evidence for Late Fremont (Post A.D. 1200) Occupation in Northwest Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 53 (December 1987).</p> <p>Joel C. Janetski, “Trade in Fremont Society: Contexts and Contrasts,” <em>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</em> 21 (2002).</p> <p>David B. Madsen, <em>Exploring the Fremont</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1989).</p> <p>David B. Madsen and Steven R. Simms, “The Fremont Complex: A Behavioral Perspective,” <em>Journal of World Prehistory</em> 12 (September 1998).</p> <p>Alan D. Reed and Michael D. Metcalf, <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Steven R. Simms,<em> Ancient Peoples of the Great Basin and the Colorado Plateau</em> (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008).</p> <p>Jerry D. Spangler, <em>Paradigms and Perspectives Revisited: An Updated Class I Overview of Cultural Resources in the Uinta Basin and Tavaputs Plateau</em> (Salt Lake City, UT: Uinta Research, 2002).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James M. Adovasio, David R. Pedler, and Jeffrey S. Illingworth, “Fremont Basketry,” in <em>The Great Basin: People and Places in Ancient Times</em>, eds. Catherine S. Fowler and Don D. Fowler (Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research, 2008).</p> <p>David A. Breternitz, assembler, <em>Archaeological Excavations in Dinosaur National Monument, Colorado-Utah, 1964–1965</em>, University of Colorado Studies, Series in Anthropology No. 17 (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1970).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/dino/learn/historyculture/index.htm">History &amp; Culture</a>,” Dinosaur National Monument, National Park Service, updated December 11, 2015.</p> <p>Joel C. Janetski, “The Enigmatic Fremont,” in <em>The Great Basin: People and Places in Ancient Times</em>, eds. Catherine S. Fowler and Don D. Fowler (Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research, 2008).</p> <p>David B. Madsen, “<a href="http://historytogo.utah.gov/utah_chapters/american_indians/thefremont.html">The Fremont</a>,” Utah History To Go, n.d..</p> <p>Steven R. Simms, <em>Traces of Fremont: Society and Rock Art in Ancient Utah</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2010).</p> <p>Richard K. Talbot and Lane D. Richens, <em>Fremont Farming and Mobility on the Far Northern Colorado Plateau</em>, Museum of Peoples and Culture, Occasional Paper No. 10 (Provo, UT: Brigham Young University, 2004).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 03 May 2016 21:31:52 +0000 yongli 1322 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Yucca House National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1311--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1311.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Yucca-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=NE1Hfvsp" width="1000" height="631" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jackson&#039;s View of the Upper House at &quot;Aztec Spring&quot;</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>William H. Jackson's famous photo taken in 1874 is one of the earliest known images of the Yucca House site, showing more extensive standing walls than now exist. The view is to the southeast with Mesa Verde in the background and Capt. John T. Moss standing in front of a wall near the center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1312--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1312.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_0343_2_0.jpg?itok=KelZ2fJJ" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View from the Upper House looking east at the Lower House</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1313--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1313.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/yucca_house_past_3-D_0.jpg?itok=b3UpYb6x" width="1000" height="666" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cyber-Montage of Yucca House Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This "virtual reality" reconstruction of Yucca House by Dennis R. Holloway, Architect, looks east with the Mesa Verde escarpment in the background. It is based on mapping by Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and photography by Adriel Heisey.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T15:29:48-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 15:29" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 15:29</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Yucca House National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fyucca-house-national-monument&amp;title=Yucca%20House%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Yucca House National Monument was established to protect and preserve a large <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>village south of <strong>Cortez</strong> in the southwestern corner of Colorado. Yucca House is an important Ancestral Pueblo village based on its size, unique configurations, and prominent, highly visible location in the Montezuma Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Location</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The monument is situated along the western edge of the Montezuma Valley on the lower, eastern slope of <strong>Ute Mountain</strong>, at an elevation of approximately 5,800 feet and with an average rainfall of 11–15 inches and average frost-free period of 100 to 135 days. This area is geologically diverse with access to Mancos Shale, igneous rock cobbles (diorite), both Dakota and Point Lookout sandstones, and gravel and alluvium terraces. All these geological materials were used in the construction of Yucca House.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description and Importance</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Yucca House has two distinct architectural complexes: the Lower House and the West Complex (also called the Upper House by Holmes in 1878). The Lower House is an L-shaped, rectangular room block containing eight first-story rooms and possibly second-story rooms given the amount of rubble. South of the L-shaped room block is a plaza that is defined by a low masonry enclosing wall on the west and south, and an earthen berm along the southeast edge. In the middle of the plaza is a great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The West Complex is a D- or horseshoe-shaped pueblo bisected by a spring that includes the Upper House, a prominent building with two enclosed kivas. This layout is strikingly similar to that of Sand Canyon Pueblo and other late Pueblo III period (post-AD 1200) villages. The West Complex contains multiple room blocks, as many as 100 kivas, several towers, a great kiva, and a circular bi-walled structure. Based on the number of kivas, there are probably 450 to 600 rooms. Most of the residential architecture is north of the spring and Upper House, and the public architecture is on the south side.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A critical issue for understanding its regional significance is determining when Ancestral Pueblo people constructed and lived in the village. Yucca House has long been thought of as a Chacoan <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great house</strong></a> due to the distinctiveness of the Upper House, which has architectural characteristics typical of great houses. However, the limited data available points to Yucca House being a Pueblo III period village (AD 1150–1290) with a strong post-1250s occupation. There are only three <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dates</strong></a> for the site and they all come from the southeast corner of the Upper House. These samples, collected by Al Lancaster, date to the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Much of the data regarding chronology comes from the West Complex, and there is little data about the construction, occupation, and use of the Lower House. Thus, until further testing is done, we do not know if the Lower House was built during the Pueblo II period or earlier, and then used until the late AD 1200s, or if it was exclusively built and occupied during the Pueblo III period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History of the Monument</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On August 19, 1892, Henry [Harry] Van Kleek purchased Aztec Springs from George W. Stafford, likely because he wanted the reliable water source for ranching and was intrigued by the large Pueblo site as a potential tourist destination. Jesse Walter Fewkes, an early archaeologist who worked at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, visited the site in 1918 and was so impressed with its size and preservation that he convinced Van Kleek to deed a 9.6 acre parcel that included most of Yucca House to the government on July 2, 1919. Because of the significance of Yucca House as an intact example of a valley pueblo, President Woodrow Wilson declared it a National Monument, issuing Presidential Proclamation No. 1549 on December 19, 1919. It was at this time that the name of the site was changed from Aztec Springs to Yucca House. This was Fewkes’ suggestion, on account of its location on the slopes of Ute Mountain, which is referred to by the Ute and other local groups as the “mountain with lots of yucca growing on it.” Fewkes noted that Yucca Mountain is a place name that Tewa Pueblo people used to refer to this area and that they also consider Yucca House an ancestral village.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1919, Yucca House National Monument has been managed by Mesa Verde National Park. In May 1990, the monument was expanded to thirty-four acres when Hallie Ismay donated an additional twenty-four acres to provide access to Yucca House from the south and to preserve several sites on the ridge near the main village. Among these sites is Snider’s Well, which is situated on a gravel topped ridge of Mancos Shale that runs south from Yucca House. Snider’s Well is an isolated <strong>Chacoan</strong> period kiva containing a mass burial that was excavated by the <strong>Wetherills</strong> during the spring and early summer of 1894. Recent survey on adjacent lands has determined there were a series of several isolated kivas along this same ridge.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaeological Research at Yucca House</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Relatively little formal archaeological investigation has occurred at Yucca House. Although <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>W. H. Jackson</strong></a> was the first to describe the site as part of the 1874 <strong>Hayden Expedition</strong>, it was W. H. Holmes who drew the first sketch map of Yucca House when he returned to the site the following year. Fewkes also published a description and a schematic map (not to scale) in his Bureau of American Ethnology report. In 1964, Al Schroeder and Al Lancaster conducted the only archaeological testing and stabilization at Yucca House to date. Schroeder excavated five test trenches to the north of the Upper House in the West Complex, which uncovered structures with both adobe and masonry wall construction, and a portion of a room with a flagstone floor. Lancaster excavated in the Lower House where he tested the great kiva and did limited excavation and stabilization of the north wall of the Lower House room block.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Bob Powers and his colleagues included Yucca House in their inventory of Chacoan outliers in the northern Southwest. Most recently, in 2000, Donna Glowacki directed the Yucca House Mapping Project, a joint effort between Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and Mesa Verde National Park to produce the first detailed and systematic map of the site, conduct an analysis of surface pottery, and use remote sensing, resistivity, and magnetometry to map sub-surface features. Although we now have a better sense of layout and spatial relationships among the architectural features at Yucca House, we still know relatively little about the length of the Yucca House occupation, the role of public architecture in the village, and the extent of social interaction and other relationships with nearby large villages.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/glowacki-donna-m" hreflang="und">Glowacki, Donna M. </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/blackburn-fred-m" hreflang="und">Blackburn, Fred M. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sniders-well" hreflang="en">Snider&#039;s Well</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred M. Blackburn, <em>The Wetherills: Friends of Mesa Verde</em> (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Whitman Cross, <em>The Laccolithic Mountain Groups of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona</em>, Department of Interior, US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1895).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, Letter to Mr. Albright Regarding the Origins of the Name Yucca House, letter on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, <em>Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 70 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1919).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donna M. Glowacki, “Yucca House (5MT5006) Mapping Project Report,” unpublished manuscript on file, Mesa Verde National Park and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Holmes, <em>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Examined During the Summer of 1875</em>, extracted from Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. II, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Jackson, “Report of W. H. Jackson on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado,” in <em>Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Embracing Colorado and Parts of Adjacent Territories; Being a Report of Progress of the Exploration for the Year 1874</em>, F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William D. Lipe and Mark D. Varien, “Pueblo III (A.D. 1150–1300),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em>, eds. William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and R. H. Wilshusen (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert C. McBride and Diane E. McBride, “Cultural Resource Survey of the Bernard and Nancy Karwick Property, Montezuma County, Colorado: A Study of the Greater Yucca House Community,” unpublished paper submitted to History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frank McNitt, <em>Richard Wetherill: Anasazi, Pioneer Explorer of the Southwestern Ruins </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde National Park, “Management Plan, Statement for Management, Yucca House National Monument,” unpublished report on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1987.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert P. Powers, William B. Gillespie, and Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Outlier Survey: A Regional View of Settlement in the San Juan Basin</em>, Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service (Albuquerque: US Department of the Interior, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas Ramsey, A. Price, and D. Curtis, “Preliminary Information from the Cortez Soil Survey Area,” United States Department of Agriculture (Cortez, CO: Soil Conservation Service, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis R. Holloway, “<a href="http://www.dennisrhollowayarchitect.com/YuccaHouse.html">Yucca House, Four Corners Ancestral Puebloan, A.D. 1150-1300, near Towaoc, Colorado</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yuho/index.htm">Yucca House National Monument, Colorado</a>,” National Park Service, last modified November 17, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 21:29:48 +0000 yongli 1308 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Paleo-Indian Period http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Paleo-Indian Period</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T14:08:38-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 14:08" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 14:08</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period" data-a2a-title="Paleo-Indian Period"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpaleo-indian-period&amp;title=Paleo-Indian%20Period"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Paleo-Indian period is the era from the end of the <strong>Pleistocene</strong> (the last Ice Age) to about 9,000 years ago (7000 BC), during which the first people migrated to North and South America. This period is seen through a glass darkly: Paleo-Indian sites are few and scattered, and the material from these sites consists almost entirely of animal bone and stone tools. Available information from Paleo-Indian times documents hunting of several animals that became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene, spectacularly skilled stone working by artisans who made beautifully crafted stone tools (especially spear points), and the beginning of a reliance on <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunting that persisted on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> for 10,000 years.</p> <p>Although Paleo-Indians were more than just flintknappers and big-game hunters, those have been the most visible aspects of their lives since archaeologists first recognized this period in the early twentieth century. From animal kill sites to tool caches, some of the most important clues to the Paleo-Indian past have been found in Colorado.</p> <h2>First People: Clovis and Pre-Clovis</h2> <p>Europeans have debated the origins of the indigenous people of North America ever since the Spanish conquest of Mexico. If human beings did not evolve here, where did they come from and how did they get here? Traditionally, it has been argued that humans migrated here out of Asia, either moving in boats down the west coast or walking through a corridor between the continental <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glaciers</strong></a> onto the northern Great Plains, although the timing of this migration has always been uncertain. This theory has been complicated by recent arguments that the earliest North Americans were biologically distinct from more recent people and that they may have arrived from Europe.</p> <p>However, chemists have now extracted DNA from very ancient skeletons in Montana and the Yucatan Peninsula. Most (not all) of the skeletons of the earliest people in North America do look slightly different from those of many recent people. Similar skeletons are well known on the northwestern Great Plains from many periods of time. This new genetic work leaves no doubt that the earliest migrants to this continent were the biological ancestors of recent people, and that these migrants were unambiguously Asians, not Europeans.</p> <p>But even if the first people in the New World (and Colorado) arrived here from Asia, it is less certain when they arrived. People were certainly in what is now Colorado by 11,500 BC, producing the distinctive and beautiful spear points and other artifacts classified as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a>. But it is also possible that people were here earlier. Sites dated as early as 39,000 years ago, including the Dutton and Selby sites near Wray and the Villa Grove site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache County</strong></a>, contain the bones of large, extinct animals broken in ways that suggest human action. However, these localities produce no stone artifacts at all, and very few archaeologists accept them as definite evidence of human occupation.</p> <p>By about 11,500 BC, though, discoveries of Clovis artifacts in sites with the bones of at least some of these animals leave no doubt that people were here. The best-known Clovis sites in North America are mammoth kills, and this has led many to view Clovis people as specialized big-game hunters. The <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> is the only Clovis site in Colorado (Figure 1). By themselves, however, these sites are misleading since large bones like those of mammoths always attract archaeological attention, and digging around them can hardly tell us about activities other than hunting.</p> <p>Clovis campsites (best known from Texas) tell a very different story. Clovis people relied on a wide array of large and small animals. They also cached tools on the landscape. Most often understood as “insurance” to guarantee access to the tools in areas without natural stone sources, these caches also may have served as offerings or for other reasons. Three of these tool caches are in Colorado: the CW and Drake caches from northeastern Colorado and the Mahaffy cache from within the city of Boulder (Figure 2). The CW cache includes tools made from stone that outcrops north of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sterling-0"><strong>Sterling</strong></a>, but the other two include material from the Texas Panhandle (the Drake cache) and from across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> as far away as Utah (the Mahaffy cache). These discoveries suggest movements over very large areas, although it is uncertain whether families, individuals, or larger social groups made these movements.</p> <p>By some time after 11,000 BC, most large mammals in North America, including mammoths, mastodons, camels, horses, and many others, were extinct. A handful of archaeologists think these were simply exterminated by human hunters. However, the overwhelming majority sees no convincing evidence of this and suspects that a combination of environmental change and some degree of human hunting is more probable. In fact, no one knows for certain what caused this extinction, although recent work in modern and ancient animal DNA is beginning to offer fairly detailed answers. So far, this new work does not suggest extinction by overhunting.</p> <h2>Plains and Mountain Hunters and Gatherers</h2> <p>Knowledge of human ways of life after 10,800 BC has increased dramatically. Later Paleo-Indian sites are subdivided by types of spear points: <strong>Folsom</strong> in the plains and mountains from 10,800 to about 9700 BC and a variety of types (Agate Basin, Hell Gap, Scottsbluff, Eden, and so on) after that on the plains. Many plains types also occur in the mountains alongside a number of distinctive mountain points (often labeled Foothills-Mountain and Western Stemmed).</p> <p>It is known that Clovis people passed through the high country in Colorado, but essentially nothing is known about what they did there. Later Paleo-Indian groups, though, lived throughout Colorado. On the eastern plains and in the mountain parks, Paleo-Indians hunted bison and other animals. People undoubtedly hunted in a variety of ways, but large bison kills at sites like<a href="/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"> <strong>Olsen-Chubbuck</strong></a> and<strong> <a href="/article/jones-miller-bison-kill-site">Jones-Miller</a></strong> on the eastern plains were communal events that involved large numbers of people and sometimes killed hundreds of animals at a time.</p> <p>Archaeologists have often viewed later Paleo-Indian groups much like those who lived during Clovis times as wide-ranging nomads who rarely or never reused particular places on the landscape. This is clearly wrong. Paleo-Indian sites throughout the plains, and throughout Colorado—for example, Folsom-age <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a>, near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, and Cody-age <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jurgens-archaeological-site"><strong>Jurgens</strong></a> on the plains near Greeley, as well as sites in the mountains—document nearly total reliance on local raw material to make all of their tools other than spear points, implying that they did not travel over particularly large areas. Lindenmeier, perhaps the most spectacular Paleo-Indian site in North America, also shows thick accumulations of debris that mark a place where people camped over and over again for centuries. Paleo-Indians did not always do that—the Folsom-age Cattle Guard site in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> is a single encampment near a bison kill—but enough is known to say that Paleo-Indian ways of life were quite variable, often at a local level.</p> <p>Within Colorado, this variation especially involved the obvious differences between the eastern plains and the western mountains and Colorado Plateau. Bison ranged into the mountains and Paleo-Indians hunted them there, in Middle Park and elsewhere, just as plains Paleo-Indians hunted them (and many other animals) on the open grasslands. But mountain groups seem more local in their habits. For example, there is little evidence that they imported stone from the plains or from distant parts of the high country, and they seem to have occupied the high country year-round. Folsom groups in western Colorado built stone foundation houses at least sometimes (these are unknown elsewhere), and later Paleo-Indian groups in the area roasted food (probably but not definitely plants) in pits, using pre-heated rocks as heating elements. Unsurprisingly, mountain sheep and other high elevation species were important in the diet of high country Paleo-Indians.</p> <h2>End of Paleo-Indian Times</h2> <p>The Paleo-Indian period began near the end of the Ice Age, when glaciers were melting as climate warmed. It was punctuated in the middle by a climatic interval called the Younger Dryas, a return to cooler and wetter conditions that began fairly abruptly at 10,800 BC and ended even more abruptly at 9700 BC. For the remainder of the period, the climate warmed and dried. On the Great Plains in general, as upland range conditions deteriorated and bison herds declined, hunters preyed on animals like deer and antelope more often, and families took more small animals. After 8000 BC, human populations seem to have thinned on the Colorado plains, with some people perhaps joining their neighbors in the high country; by 7000 BC and after, people throughout the state began to make new styles of spear points and to experiment with new kinds of hunting, marking the end of this period.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/bamforth-douglas-b" hreflang="und">Bamforth, Douglas B. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Brunswig and Bonnie Pitblado, <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleo-Indian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p> <p>James Chatters, Douglas Kennett, et al., “Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans,” <em>Science</em> 344 (May 16, 2014).</p> <p>David Kilby and Bruce Huckell, <em>Clovis Caches: Recent Discoveries and New Research</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014).</p> <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>David Meltzer, <em>First People in a New World</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Douglas B. Bamforth, <em>The Allen Site: A Paleo-Indian Camp in Southwestern Nebraska</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007).</p> <p>Donald Grayson and David Meltzer, “Revisiting Paleoindian Exploitation of Extinct North American Mammals,” <em>Journal of Archaeological Science</em> 56 (2015).</p> <p>Edward J. Knell and Mark P. Muniz, <em>Paleoindian Lifeways of the Cody Complex</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Brenda Martin, Kate Bowell, Treloar Tredennick Bower, and Terry Burton, “<a href="https://fcmod.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/lindenmeier.pdf">The Excavation of Lindenmeier: A Folsom Site Uncovered 1934-40</a>,” (Fort Collins, CO: Fort Collins Museum of Discovery, 2009).</p> <p>David Meltzer, <em>The Great Paleolithic War: How Science Forged an Understanding of America’s Ice Age Past</em> (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2015).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/main.htm">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” The University of Tennessee at Knoxville, updated October 4, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 20:08:38 +0000 yongli 1302 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Kivas http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Kivas</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1185--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1185.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Puzzle%20House%20Aerial_0.jpg?itok=L-wtVsAi" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Puzzle House Aerial, 1993</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Kiva and room block from the Puzzle House site in Montezuma County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1187--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1187.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/harvest-dance-santo-domingo-pueblo-1910"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/P-1219_0.jpg?itok=PhGW2B6m" width="1000" height="570" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/harvest-dance-santo-domingo-pueblo-1910" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Harvest Dance, Santo Domingo Pueblo, 1910</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Turquoise or Squash Kiva at Santo Domingo Pueblo, Sandoval County, New Mexico.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas" data-a2a-title="Kivas"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fkivas&amp;title=Kivas"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Kivas were architecturally unique rooms or structures built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> </a>in southwest Colorado that served important ceremonial and social functions. Architecturally, they are recognized in the archaeological record in southwestern Colorado as far back as AD 500, although there are widespread inconsistencies in the use of the term. Although no longer used in Colorado, kivas remain important ceremonial structures and social units within contemporary Pueblo communities in the Southwest.</p> <h2>Definition</h2> <p>The term <em>Kiva </em>was originally derived from a Hopi word meaning “ceremonial room” and was adopted by early twentieth-century archaeologists. <strong>John Wesley Powell</strong> seems to be the first to use the Hopi term in describing a small site in Glen Canyon during the Colorado River exploration. He states: “In the space in the angle there is a deep excavation. From what we know of the people in the province of Tusayan, who are, doubtless, of the same race as the former inhabitants of these sites, we conclude that this was a “kiva” or underground chamber, in which their religious ceremonies were performed.”</p> <p>Jesse Walter Fewkes, in his description of <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, further explains: “The special chamber set apart by Pueblo Indians for ceremonial purposes was called by the early Spanish discoverers an <em>estufa</em>, or stove, a name no doubt suggested by the great heat of the room when occupied. An estufa is commonly designated by the Hopi Indians a <em>kiva</em>, which term is rapidly replacing the older name. It is found that prehistoric sites as well as modern pueblos have kivas.</p> <p>The way we understand the term <em>Kiva</em> today stems back to the first Pecos Conference held in 1927. Alfred V. Kidder clarified that after discussing the variety of shapes and internal features of kivas, the conference adopted this broad definition: “A kiva is a chamber specially constructed for ceremonial purposes.”</p> <p>This broad definition glosses over the wide range of variation that anthropologists observe over time and across the Southwest. For example, the shape of kivas varies. In Western Pueblos (Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, and Laguna) kivas are rectangular and usually incorporated into the room blocks. However, in Eastern Pueblos (such as <strong>Tamaya</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) kivas are generally round and are separate structures. There is also variation in size, design, and function. Using the presence of a specific ritual feature called a <em>sipapu</em>, Fewkes attempted to differentiate a circular structure with a ceremonial purpose (kiva) from a pithouse. He explains that “a sipapu is a small circular opening in the floor representing symbolically the entrance to the underworld.” In fact, some archaeologists argue today that the presence of ceremonial features is a much clearer indication of a kiva’s ceremonial use than its size, shape, or construction.</p> <h2>Small Kivas</h2> <p>The purpose of kivas has also changed over time. In Prehistoric times, at Ancestral Puebloan sites after AD 900, each small room block had a kiva. These “unit pueblos”—which consisted of a room block, kiva, and an associated midden for trash—have been called Prudden Units, after the archaeologist who first recognized them. It is unclear what purpose the kivas in these unit pueblos served but they usually contain diverse remains. This suggests they may have served many uses, both secular and ceremonial. Many archaeologists question the use of the term <em>kiva</em> for these types of structures because the term implies a ceremonial purpose that may or may not have been their primary function.</p> <p>Prudden cautions us not to see all these structures as kivas, and suggests that some may be the “last manifestation of a long standing tradition of pithouses.” He argues that many of these circular subterranean/semisubterranean rooms exhibit wide variations in features and probably function more as living rooms with multiple uses for men, women, and children. These rooms may have evolved out of earlier pithouse structures and over time their purpose changed to become more ceremonial and gender specific. While their exact purpose is unknown prehistorically, archaeologists have been calling them kivas for about a hundred years and it is likely that some ceremonial or ritual activities took place in them.</p> <p>During the Pueblo I through Pueblo III eras (AD 700–1300), Mesa Verde kivas in the Four Corners area of the Southwest typically have one proto-kiva or kiva for each block of six to nine rooms, and were probably used by relatively small social groups such as an extended family. Mesa Verde kivas also have a distinctive shape. They are keyhole shaped, having a larger southern recess than ones found farther south in the <strong>Chaco</strong> region. This recess results from building out the walls as opposed to simply containing a recess in the bench, as in the Chacoan great kivas. Mesa Verde kivas also have high masonry pilasters to support the cribbed roof.</p> <h2>Great Kivas</h2> <p>Great kivas, on the other hand, were ceremonial structures and public buildings that could accommodate large numbers of people. In the Mesa Verde region, great kivas appear as early as the Basketmaker III period (AD 500–750) and continued through the Pueblo III period (AD 1150–1300), when the region was largely depopulated. Great kivas served to integrate various sectors of the community through ceremony and meetings. They differed from small kivas not just in size and their unambiguous purpose but also in the distinctive internal features they contained. These distinctions include unique floor features (like foot drums), size (generally over 100 square meters of floor space), and artifacts (large bowls for serving, presumably related to feasting). Great kivas can be broken into Chacoan and non-Chacoan kivas, each with slightly different features.</p> <p>Chacoan great kivas appear in the Mesa Verde region during the Pueblo II era (AD 900-1150) in conjunction with Chaco-style <strong>great houses</strong>. They are associated with developments in <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> originating in New Mexico. Chacoan great kivas had a highly standardized construction design that included</p> <ul><li>a four-posthole arrangement in a square in the center of the structure designed to seat the large posts needed to the support the massive roof;</li> <li>benches around the interior circumference of the kivas (sometimes doubled)</li> <li>a series of wall niches around the circumference above the benches, varying in dimension and number and sometimes including more than one series on different levels;</li> <li>a staircase leading down from an antechamber, which can usually be found on the north side;</li> <li>a north/south axis with a fire box slightly offset to the south;</li> <li>a deflector (common in small kivas with a ventilation shaft on the south side), just south of the fire pit;</li> <li>two floor vaults.</li> </ul><h2>Tower Kivas</h2> <p>Tower kivas, another form found in southwest Colorado, are circular kivas with two or more stories. They can be freestanding; however, they are more commonly incorporated into a room block and enclosed by rectangular walls. The intervening spaces are filled with rubble. Tower kivas can be found throughout the Southwest.</p> <h2>Contemporary Kivas</h2> <p>Since most contemporary kivas are used for ritual and private ceremonies and activities, it is inappropriate for nonpueblo residents to press for information on what happens inside. However, the anthropologist and San Juan Pueblo native Alfonso Ortiz has offered a description of the underlying meaning from the perspective of a Tewa speaker: “The contemporary Tewa kiva … is regarded, when in use, as a symbolic representation of the primordial underworld home from which the Tewa believe they emerged to this world. The term used for the kiva when gods [kachinas] are impersonated, <em>Sipofene</em>, is the same name used for the primordial home. The impersonation of the gods is itself a reenactment of the original act of emergence from the underworld. Therefore, although there may be numerous sacred centers, the kiva itself is the center of centers, or the navel of navels.”</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/larkin-karin" hreflang="und">Larkin, Karin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Linda Cordell, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em> (San Diego: Academic Press, 1997).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895,” in <em>Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895-96</em>, by J. W. Powell (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Ventilators in Ceremonial Rooms of Pre Historic Cliff-Dwellings,” <em>American Anthropologist </em>New Series 10 (July–September 1908).</p> <p>A. V. Kidder, “Southwestern Archaeological Conference,” <em>Science</em> New Series 66 (November 18, 1927).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “The Idea of the Kiva in Anasazi Archaeology,” <em>Kiva </em>53 (Spring 1988).</p> <p>W. D. Lipe and Michelle Hegmon, “The Architecture of Social Integration in Prehistoric Pueblos,” <em>Occasional Papers of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center </em>No. 1 (Cortez, CO: Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 1989).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>J. W. Powell, <em>Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tributaries. Explored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, Under the Direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://crowcanyon.org/">Crow Canyon Archaeological Center</a> .</p> <p>Alfonso Ortiz, ed., <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 9:<em> The Southwest</em> (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1979).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Canyon National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” last modified December 3, 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</a>,” last modified December 11, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Mar 2016 17:39:35 +0000 yongli 1181 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org