%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Godfrey’s Ranch http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Godfrey’s Ranch </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3704--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3704.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Matilda_and_Holon_Godfrey_0.jpg?itok=O43nSVHh" width="614" height="516" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Holon and Matilda Godfrey</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1863 Holon and Matilda Godfrey set up a trading post in northeast Colorado along the Overland Stage Line. On January 7, 1865, a party of Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors attacked the stop as part of a campaign against white settlers in retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre in late 1864.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3705--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3705.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fort_Wicked_historical_marker.jpeg?itok=D7wJNFjT" width="1000" height="879" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Wicked Historical Marker</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This marker stands near the place in Logan County (northeast Colorado) where a violent clash occurred between settlers Holon and Matilda Godfrey and Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors in January 1865. The warriors attacked the Godfreys' stage stop as part of retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre of November 1864, in which Colorado troops murdered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho, many of them women and children.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-07-28T13:14:13-06:00" title="Thursday, July 28, 2022 - 13:14" class="datetime">Thu, 07/28/2022 - 13:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch" data-a2a-title="Godfrey’s Ranch "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgodfreys-ranch&amp;title=Godfrey%E2%80%99s%20Ranch%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>On January 14–15, 1865, immigrant Holon Godfrey found his family homestead in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> under attack by about 100 Indigenous warriors engaged in a campaign of reprisal attacks after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of November 1864. The fierce battle at Godfrey’s Ranch was an example of a common cycle of violence during the American conquest of Colorado: as white immigrants invaded and occupied Indigenous land, both whites and Indigenous people suffered attacks and reprisals, of which Native Americans bore the brunt. The fight for Godfrey’s Ranch reflects deeper stories of opportunity, expansion, and the violent consequences of occupation.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Drawn West</h2> <p>Holon Godfrey’s early life was one of westward migration. Born in New York in 1812, he moved to Chicago in 1844 to learn carpentry in the growing city, a skill that would prove useful on the plains. With the onset of the California Gold Rush, he was counted among the many thousands of forty-niners spellbound by opportunity. In 1858 gold again captivated Godfrey in the form of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. Colorado’s gold rush must have been lackluster for Godfrey, as he eventually settled near Julesburg, a stage stop along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a>, where he and his family supplied the stop from their fields. Gold had not once, but twice, tempted the Godfreys west. But land ultimately proved more alluring.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862 encouraged labor and land out west. It was also a direct assault on Indigenous sovereignty, as its facilitation of white occupation put more pressure on Indigenous nations such as the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong>, many of which were struggling to survive on the contested Colorado plains. The Godfreys, incentivized by the act, moved once again to a spot along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> approximately thirty miles from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-morgan"><strong>Fort Morgan</strong></a>. Here the Godfreys ranched and operated their own stagecoach station paired with a general store. As violence along western trails increased, the Godfreys built adobe walls, plenty of gunports, and even a watchtower.&nbsp;</p> <h2>“Free” Land and Failed Treaties</h2> <p>By the time the Godfreys arrived, Indigenous peoples <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/plains-woodland"><strong>had lived</strong></a> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Colorado Great Plains</strong></a> for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>thousands of years</strong></a>, with the Cheyenne and Arapaho being the latest residents in the early to mid-nineteenth century. The 1851 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> recognized the Cheyenne and Arapaho as legitimate sovereign nations, with much of eastern Colorado as part of their domain. But the Colorado Gold Rush attracted far more whites to what became Colorado Territory. As these immigrants brought different ideas of land possession and contested Indigenous claims, often violently, the US government decided to replace the 1851 treaty with a new one that sought to nullify Indigenous sovereignty in the area.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> of 1861 readdressed the situation, severely reducing the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a reservation between the <strong>Arkansas</strong> and Smoky Hill Rivers in southeastern Colorado. Warrior bands and younger Cheyenne and Arapaho did not accept this treaty. Living on a relatively small reservation would destroy important aspects of their culture, such as horse raids to supplement herds and gain societal prestige, as well as hunting to provide enough food. The <em>Hotamétaneo'o</em>, or <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, was one such warrior society that championed continued raiding and drew many young men to their ranks. They were opposed by peace-seeking leaders such as <strong>Moketaveto </strong>(Black Kettle) of the Cheyenne and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a> (Left Hand) of the Arapaho.</p> <p>On the morning of November 29, 1864, Colonel <strong>John </strong><strong>Chivington</strong>’s soldiers massacred Moketaveto’s and Niwot’s peaceful bands at their camp on Sand Creek. The horrific event left the Cheyenne and Arapaho scattered across the plains right at the onset of winter.</p> <h2>A Swift Campaign and Wicked Fight</h2> <p>&nbsp;Arduous weather, poorly fed and declining pony herds, and reduced game typically discouraged the Cheyenne and Arapaho from waging war in the winter. Decades of land encroachment, neglected treaties, and the recent mass murder at Sand Creek caused them to break with that tradition. The fragmented and enraged Cheyenne and Arapaho began assembling allies by extending the war pipe. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>, also known as <em>Ho-my-ike</em>, was at Sand Creek and participated in the ensuing battles. He identified the recipients of the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho’s overtures. The Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, specifically the Dog Soldiers, and several bands of the Lakota, including Spotted Tail’s Brules and Pawnee Killer’s Ogallala, joined in a war council. The council decided to target <strong>Julesburg</strong>.</p> <p>The target was a purposeful selection, as Julesburg not only held a military installation but was also a communication hub, with a prominent stagecoach stop as well as telegraph lines connecting Denver and the greater Pacific Coast to the eastern United States. After the initial Indigenous attack on Julesburg on January 7, 1865, fourteen soldiers and four civilians were dead, miles of telegraph lines were in ruins, and the surrounding area was pillaged.&nbsp;</p> <p>George Bent aptly called the weeks after the attack a panic. Without telegraph lines for communication, and with a weakened military post, the Overland Trail was vulnerable to raids from Fort Morgan well into Nebraska. The Indigenous coalition fragmented into smaller and sporadic raiding parties that decimated ranches and stage stops above and below Julesburg.&nbsp;</p> <p>On January 15, 1865, a war party made its way to Godfrey’s fortified ranch. About 100 warriors succeeded in stealing cattle as they were fired upon from the gunports in the adobe ranch house. Holon Godfrey’s hired hands took cover within the adobe walls, and his wife and daughters helped reload rifles. The war party turned to fire, setting the prairie grass ablaze, and even used flaming arrows against the ranch. Neither tactic succeeded against the adobe bastions. Anticipating a siege, a Mr. Perkins, who was employed by the Godfreys, made a desperate ride to Fort Morgan about thirty miles away. He made it to the town and was able to send for help, but by the time a detachment of soldiers arrived back at Godfrey’s Ranch, the fighting had ended.</p> <p>While they had successfully defended their own home, the residents at Godfrey’s Ranch helplessly watched American Ranch, about two miles away, succumb to a lethal attack that resulted in seven casualties. Reinforcements arrived after the belligerents had already left. Considering its staunch defense, the ranch was christened as “Fort Wicked.” Another story has it the Cheyenne referred to Holon Godfrey as “Old Wicked,” a name he repurposed.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>After the winter campaign of 1865, the Cheyenne found themselves once again split, with most of the Southern Cheyenne heading south for quieter country, while the Northern Cheyenne joined their allies in continued raiding and warfare on the northern plains. Perhaps such defiant holdouts as the one at Godfrey’s Ranch, along well-established routes, convinced the Indigenous warriors to take the fighting elsewhere. For the most part, the Overland Trail remained unthreatened until 1869 with the Battle of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a>.&nbsp;</p> <p>The Godfreys soon moved again, this time near present-day LaSalle, Colorado. They have since been remembered and even celebrated as pioneers, with the Godfreys’ defense of their ranch along the Overland Trail enshrined as a stirring defense of the American homestead. The Godfrey name has been inscribed on the land, with Godfrey’s Bluffs in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a> and Godfrey’s Bottoms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld County</strong></a> memorializing their “wicked fight” in 1865. A marker for the Godfrey stage stop stands near the intersection of US 6 and CR 2.5 in Merino.&nbsp;</p> <p>Yet every victory flaunted by immigrants and their successors pushed Indigenous peoples another step closer to destitution. Diminished access to hunting grounds, scarce game, and poorly supplied reservations led to suffering and death for the plains’ previous occupants. The wicked fight at Godfrey’s Ranch exemplifies the larger conquest of the Great Plains, including opportunities for white immigrants, the fraught nature of homesteading, and the violent displacement of Indigenous peoples.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lovell-neil" hreflang="und">Lovell, Neil</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gofreys-ranch" hreflang="en">gofreys ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wicked" hreflang="en">fort wicked</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">Dog Soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-wars" hreflang="en">Indian Wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wars" hreflang="en">colorado wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morgan-county" hreflang="en">Morgan County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/phillips-county" hreflang="en">Phillips County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/logan-county" hreflang="en">logan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-history" hreflang="en">indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ranching" hreflang="en">ranching</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George Bird Grinnell,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22The%20Fighting%20Cheyenne%22"><em>The Fighting Cheyenne</em></a>&nbsp;(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968).&nbsp;</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Spotted Tail’s Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>Nell Brown Probst, <em>Forgotten People: A History of the South Platte Trail</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1979).&nbsp;</p> <p>National Archives and Records Administration, Holon Godfrey Indian Depredation Claim #2559, Record Group 123, n.d.</p> <p>Luella Shaw, <em>True History of Some of the Pioneers of Colorado</em> (Denver: Press of Carson-Harper Company, 1909).&nbsp;</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John H. Moore,&nbsp;<em>The Cheyenne</em>&nbsp;(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).</p> <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Southern Cheyenne</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>.</p> <p>Elliot West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Jul 2022 19:14:13 +0000 yongli 3703 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3347--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3347.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/john-collier"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Reorganization-Act-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=s_ylM5oL" width="577" height="384" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/john-collier" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">John Collier</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>After advocating for Indigenous&nbsp;rights in New Mexico, John Collier was appointed commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1933. He conceived of the Indian Reorganization Act as a way to restore health and self-determination to the nation's Indigenous people.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3348--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3348.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Reorganization-Act-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=qgwHyR6G" width="900" height="1498" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Southern Ute leader Buckskin Charley encouraged his fellow tribal members to accept the Indian Reorganization Act, under which the tribe would create a new constitution.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:19:05-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:19" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal" data-a2a-title="Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal&amp;title=Indian%20Reorganization%20Act%20%28Indian%20New%20Deal%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Passed by Congress in 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) was a wide-reaching set of reforms designed to improve conditions for Indigenous people, especially those living on federal reservations. As the centerpiece of the “Indian New Deal,” the IRA focused on protecting tribal land, reestablishing tribal governments, and spurring economic development among Indigenous nations.</p> <p>Spearheaded by John Collier, commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the IRA was designed to address the failures of previous federal Indian policy, which was based on the destruction of Indigenous sovereignty and culture. Despite this, many federally recognized tribes, including the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> Tribes of Colorado, were skeptical of the act and accepted it reluctantly. While the IRA provided modest improvements in the lives of the Utes and other Indigenous people, it fell far short of its goal of achieving full tribal self-determination and economic independence.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>By the late nineteenth century, most Indigenous people lived on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>federally managed</strong></a> reservations. Despite their&nbsp;ongoing adaptations to American rule, the federal government generally viewed Indigenous people as backward people who were obstacles to national progress.</p> <p>To solve this so-called Indian problem, the government enacted policies designed to force Indigenous people to assimilate into Euro-American society. A succession of laws <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>ended treaty making</strong></a> with American Indian nations (1871), banned <strong>traditional customs</strong> and ceremonies (1883), <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>privatized reservation land</strong></a> (1887), and abolished tribal governments (1898).</p> <p>In addition, Indigenous children were forced into <strong>boarding schools</strong> where they were forbidden to speak their own languages, dress in traditional clothes, or practice any Indigenous religion. These children were often overworked, underfed, and malnourished, all of which contributed to outbreaks of disease at the schools. By the turn of the century, these policies had disastrous effects on the Indigenous population, leaving it fragmented, impoverished, and unhealthy.</p> <h2>A New Class of Reformers</h2> <p>After being generally ignored during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a> (1900–20), the plight of Indigenous people received greater attention in the 1920s. Anthropologists and writers began to move away from racist ideas about Indigenous inferiority and instead to recognize the value and beauty of Indigenous culture. Convinced that Native American&nbsp;culture should be restored and celebrated instead of punished and stamped out, a growing community of artists and intellectuals began to criticize the existing federal&nbsp;policy.</p> <p>Among this new group of reformers was a young sociologist and writer from New York named John Collier. In the early 1920s, Collier allied himself with other reformers and artists in Taos, New Mexico, to vigorously defend the Pueblo people from a bill that would have taken vast amounts of their land. While engaged in the extended (and ultimately successful) fight to protect Pueblo land, Collier and fellow activist Robert Ely founded the American Indian Defense Association (AIDA) on May 7, 1923.</p> <p>Unlike earlier white advocacy groups, such as the Indian Rights Association, the AIDA entirely rejected the doctrine of assimilation and instead called for sweeping reform that would restore Indigenous identity and self-determination. Over the next several years, Collier and the AIDA worked with and on behalf of Indigenous nations to improve conditions for Native Americans in New Mexico and California.</p> <h2>A New Deal for Indigenous Nations</h2> <p>In 1933, as the nation faced the unprecedented hardship of the <strong>Great Depression</strong>, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed John Collier as BIA commissioner. Collier was recommended by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a fellow Indigenous advocate. While Roosevelt and Congress launched a series of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> reforms to relieve poverty and unemployment during the Depression, Collier was determined to bring similar reforms to the nation’s Indigenous population.</p> <p>Among Collier’s first acts as BIA commissioner was to decriminalize expressions of Indigenous culture and religion, which had been prohibited since the 1880s. He also hired more Indigenous people to the BIA and began closing boarding schools, cutting enrollment nearly in half by 1935.</p> <h2>The Wheeler-Howard Act</h2> <p>John Collier envisioned the linchpin of the Indian New Deal as the IRA, an ambitious reversal of federal Indigenous policy. His initial draft of the bill sought to completely remove the federal government from Indigenous affairs except for providing funds to establish tribal governments and corporations. Among other radical changes, Collier’s draft would have forced all Indigenous landowners to return their land to collective tribal ownership. It even called for the gradual dismantling of the BIA.</p> <p>The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) that eventually passed Congress as the Wheeler-Howard Act was a substantially revised version of Collier’s bill. While it reversed allotment, it did address some of the tribal criticism by giving Indigenous people who owned allotments the option to keep their land instead of forcing them to transfer it to a tribe. The IRA also included provisions to protect existing Indigenous lands and allow tribes to buy back land that had been deemed “surplus” and sold off under previous law.</p> <p>The final draft of the IRA still allowed for the creation of tribal governments, but it kept Indigenous people squarely under federal authority. Not only were tribal constitutions subject to federal approval, but they had to be ratified by “a majority vote of the adult members of the tribe . . . at a special election authorized and called by the Secretary of the Interior.”</p> <p>The IRA also included provisions to help Indigenous economies. It allowed tribes to incorporate as businesses, established sustainable forestry and grazing programs on reservations, called for a $10 million “revolving fund” that could provide startup loans for Indigenous businesses, and reserved $250,000 for “the payment of tuition and other expenses in recognized vocational and trade schools.”</p> <h2>Indigenous Opposition</h2> <p>After the IRA’s passage, each tribe had to hold a referendum to decide whether it wanted to accept the new law. Collier had assumed that most, if not all, tribes would welcome self-government under the IRA, but the referenda results reflected a dearth of tribal support. Nearly a third of the more than 250 tribes who voted on the IRA rejected the act. In addition, election turnout was poor; across all Indigenous nations, only 38,000 of the 97,000 eligible tribal members voted in the referenda. This meant that the IRA was applied to some tribes, including Colorado’s Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, without significant support from their members.</p> <p>Reasons for rejecting the IRA varied among Indigenous nations. The <strong>Navajo</strong>, for instance, resented the IRA’s mandatory reduction of their sheep herd to conserve grazing lands. Other nations, including the Southern Ute Tribe of Colorado, were already used to the status quo and were uncomfortable with the IRA’s massive changes. In February 1934, Southern Ute tribal leaders wrote a letter to Collier in which they politely declined to vote on the IRA. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in Colorado also opposed the act; leader <strong>John Miller </strong>stated that he rejected any federal involvement in tribal affairs beyond fulfillment of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>.</p> <h2>The IRA in Colorado</h2> <p>Convinced that Indigenous people would benefit from the IRA, Collier and his team tried to convince skeptical nations, including the Utes, to accept the act. Eventually, with the help of leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Buckskin Charley</strong></a>, the Southern Ute Tribe voted to accept the IRA on June 10, 1935, by a vote of 85–10. Almost half of eligible Southern Ute members chose not to vote.</p> <p>When the Ute Mountain Utes finally held their referendum, only twelve Utes voted, and the IRA won 9–3. Despite the extraordinarily low turnout, the election satisfied the IRA requirement of having “a majority vote of the adult members,” and the IRA was applied to the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe.</p> <p>Later, in the fall of 1936, the Southern Ute Tribe voted to <strong>adopt a constitution</strong>, though support remained far from unanimous. In May 1940, the Ute Mountain Utes approved their <strong>own Constitution</strong> by a vote of 91–12. The implementation of the IRA changed little in the day-to-day life of Colorado’s Ute people, though the Southern Ute Tribe did use its new autonomy to buy back some 220,000 acres of land that had been sold to non–Natives under earlier laws.</p> <h2>Flaws</h2> <p>Despite its various successes, the act’s highly touted material benefits largely failed to materialize, and when they did, they were unevenly distributed across Indigenous nations. In Colorado, for example, the Southern Utes and Ute Mountain Utes had fewer sheep and more cattle as a result of IRA grazing policies, but the law scarcely improved Ute incomes or education on either reservation. Rather, most of the tribes’ financial gains in the ensuing years came through their own actions—such as leasing rights to oil and gas deposits on tribal land—most of which occurred outside the specific parameters of the IRA.</p> <p>There were several reasons why the act failed to realize reformers’ hopes. First, the IRA was a blanket solution that did not address the disparate needs of the hundreds of federally recognized tribes. Second, the IRA underestimated the degree to which many Indigenous people had already begun adapting to existing policy, including private land ownership, and the modern American economy. Many other tribal members were moving from reservations to cities in pursuit of better&nbsp;economic and educational opportunities.</p> <p>Third, a variety of federal institutions, from Congress to the Bureau of the Budget, remained resistant to Indigenous autonomy and failed to adequately fund IRA provisions even after the act was passed.</p> <p>Finally, whatever its actual merits, the IRA was destined to prove controversial among Indigenous nations because it was designed&nbsp;by a federal government that had spent generations deceiving, dispossessing, and murdering Indigenous people.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The IRA&nbsp;unintentionally laid the groundwork for more repressive Indian policy in the coming years. Under presidents Truman and Eisenhower, Congress came to agree with John Collier’s initial suggestion of dismantling the BIA and other federal support systems for Indigenous&nbsp;nations. This resulted in a policy known as “termination,” officially adopted in 1953. Termination sought to completely sever the link between the federal government and tribes without the financial support that Collier called for in the IRA. Under termination, Indigenous nations were allowed to file suit against the government for any money they believed they were owed, but they would be on their own after that. Most of the nation’s federally recognized&nbsp;tribes resisted the termination policy, as they had been dealing with federal agencies for more than seventy years and had grown accustomed to the interactions.</p> <p>In addition to its&nbsp;controversial application and legacy, the IRA&nbsp;fell well short of its goal to improve the lives of the majority of Indigenous people, even as it is widely recognized as a valiant effort at legitimate reform.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-reorganization-act" hreflang="en">indian reorganization act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-new-deal" hreflang="en">indian new deal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute" hreflang="en">southern ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute" hreflang="en">ute mountain ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-history" hreflang="en">indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-deal" hreflang="en">New Deal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-collier" hreflang="en">john collier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/franklin-d-roosevelt" hreflang="en">franklin d roosevelt</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gary Clayton Anderson and Kathleen P. Chamberlain, <em>Power and Promise: The Changing American West </em>(New York: Pearson, 2008).</p> <p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p> <p>House Committee on Indian Affairs, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0000108282&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=1"><em>Hearings on Readjustment of Indian Affairs, H.R. 7902</em></a>, 73 Cong., 2 sess. (1934).</p> <p>Lawrence C. Kelly, “The Indian Reorganization Act: The Dream and the Reality,” <em>Pacific Historical Review </em>44, no. 3 (August 1975).</p> <p>Tomas Amalio Salinas, “Pearl Chase, John Collier, and Indian Reform Through the New Deal: Native American Affairs in California and the West, 1880–1937” (PhD dissertation, University of California–Santa Barbara, 1995).</p> <p>Ryan W. Schmidt, “American Indian Identity and Blood Quantum in the 21st Century: A Critical Review,” <em>Journal of Anthropology </em>2011 (2011).</p> <p>M. Kaye Tatro, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CU006">Curtis Act (1898)</a>,”<em> Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, n.d.</p> <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Cody White, “<a href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/ccc-id.html">The CCC Indian Division</a>,” <em>Prologue Magazine</em> 48, no. 2 (Summer 2016).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:19:05 +0000 yongli 3166 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org