%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Shield Cave Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Shield Cave Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:07:48-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:07" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Shield Cave Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fshield-cave-archaeological-site&amp;title=Shield%20Cave%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Shield Cave is a large limestone cavern in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a> that contains painted <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> dating to the Historic period and deposits of the iron mineral pigment material used to make ochre-color paint. This site is one of hundreds of caverns that have developed in the Mississippian Period <strong>Leadville Limestone</strong> geological formation in Colorado, but one of only a few such caves that exhibit evidence of human activity predating the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado </strong><strong>Gold Rush</strong></a>. Painted rock art panels, called pictographs, in the forms represented at Shield Cave have been interpreted as belonging to the Early Historic <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indian</strong></a> style dating to 1600–1830 CE.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Pigment Source</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Few artifacts have been documented at the Shield Cave site other than modified chunks of mineralized pigment stone. Most of these materials are brick red in color, the tint resulting from the presence of hematite in the rock. This iron mineral also discolors the soil in patches outside the mouth of the cave, and in high enough concentrations could also be used to manufacture paints. A minor amount of pigment stone in Shield Cave is yellow, as are a few of the rock art motifs painted on the cave walls. Other motifs are painted partly or entirely in shades of gray to black using charcoal, presumably salvaged from campfire debris. Archaeologists have conducted only minor test excavations here in a single project in 1985, which was focused on repairing damage from earlier illicit digging. No buried artifacts were found in the test.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rock Art</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The numerous pictographs at Shield Cave are scattered along the cave’s interior walls and on the most easily accessed outer wall near its mouth. Part of the cave opening has been closed off by the gradual accumulation of rock and soil washing down the adjacent slope. Most of the painted images are small in scale and painted red, consisting of human forms, animals, objects, and tally-like lines. Some of the human figures are shown on horseback while others are overlaid by painted circles and are called shield figures. All the human forms (called “anthropomorphs” by specialists) and the animal figures (“zoomorphs”) are simple illustrations with little detail added. Rock art expert Sally Cole has identified such unadorned figures as characteristic of the Early Historic Ute style, which developed into more detailed scenes in the subsequent Late Historic Ute style represented in scores of panels elsewhere in western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>More Than Paint</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beyond creating pictographs, hematite was used in ceremonial contexts and for myriad painting needs such as body adornment, decorative drawings, or all-over coatings on artifacts of virtually any material. The history of its use spans the entire human history of North America, including in Colorado, where a <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> site in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a> contained human skeletal remains coated with red ochre. With its vivid color, many cultures viewed it as the blood of the earth, and the places where it occurred in abundance were treated with reverence. While hematite-colored rocks and soil are commonplace in widely scattered locations throughout the west, large sources like Shield Cave are rare.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, many peoples believed caves were portals connecting the natural and spirit worlds, which may help explain the prevalence of rock art in caves the world over. Throughout their homeland, the Ute people consider both caves and hematite sources as sacred places, so Shield Cave holds a very special place in their history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Preservation Concerns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unfortunately, caves are also targeted by both vandals and unscrupulous antiquities dealers. Efforts to curb such illegal activities are an ongoing challenge for everyone concerned with the preservation of these unique cultural resources. Remote places such as Shield Cave are especially vulnerable to unmonitored visitation. Some of the conservation options pursued at these sensitive sites include public education via interpretive signs and classes, site stewardship programs that schedule visits by trained volunteers, limited access to and publicity about site locations, and vigorous enforcement of laws protecting sites against vandalism and unauthorized digging.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Duane C. Anderson, “The Gordon Creek Burial,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 32 (June 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado,</em> rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>An Analysis of the Prehistoric and Historic Rock Art of West-Central Colorado</em>, Cultural Resource Series 21 (Denver: US Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone: Rock Art of the Colorado Plateau and Four Corners Region</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-cave-tours">Colorado Cave Tours</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/strata-photos">Colorado Stratigraphy</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://cse.umn.edu/esci">Hematite</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, <em>Petroglyphs of Western Colorado and the Northern Ute Indian Reservation as Interpreted by Clifford Duncan</em> (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Press, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard J. Rhinehart and David Harris, <em>Colorado Caves: Hidden Worlds Beneath the Peaks</em> (Englewood, CO: Westcliffe Publishers, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:07:48 +0000 yongli 3090 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T14:37:34-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 14:37" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 14:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado" data-a2a-title="Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado&amp;title=Prehistoric%20Stone%20Quarrying%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From exquisitely flaked <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> spear points to the spectacular <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, among the most visible vestiges of Colorado’s Native American history are those crafted from naturally available rock. Archaeologists and others have documented nearly 1,000 places across the state with evidence of ancient Coloradans gathering rocks for toolmaking and wall construction.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first people to settle in Colorado more than 13,000 years ago brought with them a stone tool technology that was millions of years in the making. Indeed, the oldest known stone tools were made in east Africa more than 3 million years ago. The long history the toolmaking craft prior to the settlement of North America meant that most native cultures in the American West shared a common set of implements. Nevertheless, these early peoples did put their own stylistic imprint on specific tools, such as the projectile points used to tip spears and arrows.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Identifying “Quarry” Sites</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Useful toolmaking materials, sometimes called “toolstone,” can be found among all the major rock categories: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Toolstones gathered from bedrock outcrops, as is commonly seen in the mountains and on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> at sites such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site"><strong>Trout Creek</strong></a>, are said to derive from primary sources. Nonbedrock quarries are called secondary sources and have the potential to yield multiple rock types. Such secondary deposits can be found statewide, even on the open plains in the form of gravels in streambeds and of loose rock pavements called pediments, which cover many prairie surfaces near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> mountain front.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although these diverse sites are often called quarries, that label exaggerates the scale of “mining” that archaeologists typically encounter at prehistoric sites. In fact, actual pit excavations at ancient quarries are uncommon at best, documented at fewer than 10 percent of known sites. Far more typical was casual surface collection of nodules in gravel deposits and of blocks broken away from bedrock outcrops by natural forces. At both primary and secondary sources, archaeologists often find broken nodules of low-quality material, called tested cobbles, which suggests that native cultures engaged in a basic quality control equivalent to the modern-day mining practice of high grading—taking the best-quality material and leaving inferior materials behind.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the earliest Colorado sites of the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, archaeologists have found artifacts made from high-quality materials gathered well beyond the state’s borders. For example, at the <a href="/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> age <strong>Drake Cache</strong> in <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, eleven of the thirteen finely flaked spear points were made from a flinty rock type called chert that derived from a source zone in the Texas Panhandle, while one specimen came from an even more distant source area in central or west Texas.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Local Sources</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s native peoples explored more of the state, they quickly homed in on more local toolstones of high quality. For example, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer</strong></a> site of Folsom age has yielded thousands of stone artifacts made almost exclusively from locally available raw materials, including many items from a source high in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Later toolmakers of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods likewise preferred local Colorado rock types with the exception of glassy volcanic obsidian, which occurs in much larger quantities in the neighboring states of New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and beyond.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Late Paleo-Indian and Archaic period toolmakers expanded their use of local rock with the addition of sandstones and other coarse-textured materials needed mainly for seed milling equipment (manos and metates), among other tasks that required an abrasive surface. In the Formative period, this need skyrocketed particularly among the agrarian <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> of the Four Corners region. Their sedentary village life and dependence on corn as a staple crop created even more of a need for blocky, abrasive rock—mainly sandstone—for use as manos, metates, and wall building, among other purposes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Right Rock, Right Purpose</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Decisions about which rock types best fit the needs of the toolmaker were based on several key criteria. Implements requiring a sharp edge or tip, such as knives and projectile points, could be made only from rocks that break in what is known as “conchoidal fracture,” in which sufficient force applied by a “flintknapper” at the correct angle near an edge produces sharp-edged pieces called flakes that can be used as is for simple cutting tasks. The toolmaker can then modify the flake or the nodule from which it was struck (called a core) into other needed implements. Among the rocks that break in this manner are chert, quartzite, basalt, petrified wood, and obsidian.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In selecting toolstones, artisans also sought out homogeneous rock samples without internal cracks or impurities and of a size fitting the tool’s purpose, from tiny, delicate items used for etching or piercing to large, heavy items used for pounding or chopping. For most tasks, toolmakers preferred more durable rock types that could withstand repeated uses before needing repair or replacement. An important exception was glassy obsidian, which is not at all durable but does break with an extremely sharp edge that was so favored that it became an important trade item. The texture of a rock’s surface also played a role in the selection process, with smoother types such as chert providing sharper edges while coarser sandstones and granites make better seed-milling tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, the visual attractiveness or aesthetic quality of a rock was clearly part of the toolmaking story. Archaeologists find many artifacts crafted from truly beautiful gem-like materials that were not accidental choices. Many of the spear points in the Drake Cache are proof of this aspect of the toolmaker’s craft. Clearly, the most skilled flintknappers were able to impart an unmistakable artistic imprint to their products even as they created the functional tools they needed to help them survive and thrive.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sonia Harmand et al., “3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools From Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya,” <em>Nature</em> 521 (21 May 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies</em>, eds. Marcel Kornfeld, George C. Frison, and Mary Lou Larson, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis J. Stanford and Margaret A. Jodry, “The Drake Clovis Cache,” <em>Current Research in the Pleistocene</em> 5 (1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Stiger, “Lithic Sources in the Upper Gunnison Basin,” in <em>Hunter–Gatherer Archaeology of the Colorado High Country</em>, by Mark Stiger (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://insider.si.edu/2012/05/3d-imaging-adds-remarkable-dimension-to-understanding-of-north-americas-clovis-stone-points/">3-D Imaging Adds Remarkable New Understanding of North America’s Mysterious Clovis People</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jenny L. Adams, <em>Ground Stone Analysis: A Technological Approach</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/archaeologists-take-wrong-turn-find-world-s-oldest-stone-tools-update/">Archaeologists Take Wrong Turn, Find World’s Oldest Stone Tools</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tim Church, Julie E. Francis, and Cherie Haury, <em>Lithic Resource Studies: A Sourcebook for Archaeologists</em>, Lithic Technology Special Publication No. 3 (Tulsa, OK, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John C. Whittaker, <em>Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools</em> (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 21:37:34 +0000 yongli 3089 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org