%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Medicine Lodge Treaties http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Medicine Lodge Treaties</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:40:49-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:40" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:40</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties" data-a2a-title="Medicine Lodge Treaties"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmedicine-lodge-treaties&amp;title=Medicine%20Lodge%20Treaties"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties were a series of three <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> between the US government and the <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Plains Apache</strong>, Southern <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and Southern <strong>Arapaho</strong> American Indian nations, signed in October 1867 along Medicine Lodge Creek, south of Fort Larned, Kansas. By treating with multiple tribes at once, the government hoped to reestablish peace across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> so that the transcontinental <strong>railroad</strong> could be completed without costly military campaigns. The Indian nations, suffering from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> outbreaks, internal political crises, and diminishing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds, sought supplies and protection from the government, even if they did not wish to give up their lands.</p> <p>The treaties at Medicine Lodge created two new reservations in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) for the above-mentioned five nations. After the treaties, the Cheyenne and Arapaho largely withdrew from Colorado’s plains and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a>, where they had lived since the late 1700s. The treaties also forced Indian children to attend boarding schools, a practice that became more widespread over the next eighty years. Although the treaties removed American Indians from the path of the railroad, they failed to establish peace and had disastrous effects on the lives and culture of Indigenous people on the Great Plains.</p> <p><strong>Origins</strong></p> <p>The 1860s was a period of intense conflict between whites and Plains Indians, as whites repeatedly invaded Indian homelands. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 drew gold seekers and other white immigrants to the region, while in 1862 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead</strong></a> Act and the Pacific Railroad Act spurred even more immigrants as well as construction of a transcontinental railroad across the Great Plains. These incursions diminished critical resources on the Plains, especially the bison, upon which the Plains Indians depended.</p> <p>Other political and economic developments exacerbated tensions between whites and Indians. Kansas (1861) and Nebraska (1867) both gained statehood during the decade, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> continued to grow thanks to new technology that revived its mining industry. The end of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> in 1865 also allowed the government to divert more resources to the development and conquest of the American West.</p> <p>Indigenous nations were divided on how to respond to increased pressure from white immigrants and the US military. Some leaders, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Moketaveto</strong> (Black Kettle) and the Arapaho <strong>Hosa</strong> (Little Raven), believed that maintaining peace was necessary in the face of a superior fighting force. Others, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Tall Bull</strong> and the <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, believed that the Americans could not be trusted to preserve peace and must be violently resisted.</p> <h2>Treaties and Conflicts</h2> <p>In 1861 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> assigned the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho a reservation in eastern Colorado Territory. That changed after US cavalry slaughtered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho as they camped at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre-0"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>, on the edge of the reservation, in late 1864. In 1865 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Little Arkansas Treaty</strong></a> promised reparations for the massacre and sought to move both tribes to a reservation spanning northern Indian Territory (present Oklahoma) and southern Kansas.</p> <p>However, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers never agreed to this treaty, and tensions only increased after the US military built two new forts near important Cheyenne sites in Kansas. To intimidate the Indians into another treaty, General Winfield Scott Hancock was sent to western Kansas in the spring of 1867. When his troops arrived at a Cheyenne-Lakota camp near Fort Larned, the Indians fled, fearing another Sand Creek Massacre. Hancock, who had little experience with Indians, was insulted and ordered the abandoned camp burned. Reprisals from Indigenous nations—a series of conflicts dubbed “Hancock’s War”—finally prompted the government to send a peace commission to Fort Larned in the fall of 1867.</p> <h2>Treaty Negotiations</h2> <p>The peace commission’s goal was to “establish security for person and property along the lines of railroad now being constructed to the Pacific.” Leading the negotiations would be acting Indian affairs commissioner Nathaniel G. Taylor, Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri, General William T. Sherman, and Christian reformer Samuel F. Tappan, among others. Numbering 165 wagons, 600 men, and 1,200 horses and mules, the US government’s treaty delegation reflected a sizable investment in peace instead of warfare. For about two weeks in October 1867, the government supply train fed a camp of more than 5,000 Indians along Medicine Lodge Creek, southeast of Fort Larned.</p> <p>The government could afford to be generous because it was the most powerful player in the negotiations. The military had already established forts in the region, the tribes were fractured along lines of peace and warfare, and the bison herds were diminishing so rapidly that the tribes would likely be open to securing government <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> to help them survive.</p> <p>The tribes shared the same difficult position, but each pursued its own objectives at the negotiations. Kiowa and Apache leaders, for instance, pointed to their peoples’ peaceful relations with Americans to lobby for annuities and to avoid being sent to reservations. Comanche leaders objected to the reservations but were willing to sign as long as the government fulfilled its promises; otherwise, as the Comanche leader Tosahwi said, they would “return with our wild brothers to live on the prairie.”</p> <p>By October 21, two agreements had been reached with bands of Apache, Comanche, and Kiowa. Several days later, the Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs arrived, signing their own treaty on October 28. The treaties created two reservations in western Indian Territory—one for the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, and one for the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne. Tribes would be allowed to hunt off the reservations, but only as long as the bison existed—a cruel caveat, as the bison were on the brink of extinction. The Indian nations<strong>.}</strong> also had to “compel their children, male and female, between the ages of six and sixteen years” to attend US boarding schools, “to insure the civilization of the tribes.”</p> <p>The treaties provided for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agents</strong></a> who would distribute annuities, including a full set of clothes for every Indian each year, as well as more than $20,000 in additional provisions for thirty years. As a final token of goodwill, the US peace commission distributed more than $150,000 in gifts to the assembled tribes, including clothes, blankets, weapons, tools, and tobacco.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties achieved the government’s main objective of moving the Plains Indian nations out of the way of the transcontinental railroad. However, they did not bring peace to the plains, for two main reasons: government agents and Indian leaders interpreted the treaties differently, and not all Plains Indians were represented at the Medicine Lodge council.</p> <p>For starters, the Cheyenne and Arapaho either misinterpreted or disagreed with the location of their new reservation, and so for two years they did not have one. In a letter to the interior secretary in August 1869, new Indian affairs commissioner Ely S. Parker wrote that the tribes not only “did not understand the location of the reservation,” but also “had never been upon said reserve” and “did not desire to go there.” Instead, Parker recommended another location that the Indians selected along the North Fork of the Canadian River. President Ulysses S. Grant immediately approved the new reservation.</p> <p>In addition, although the treaties provided for blacksmiths, agricultural equipment, and housing on the reservations, most Plains Indians neither wanted nor intended to use any of those resources. Most considered the reservation or agency to be a seasonal gathering place instead of a permanent home. Kiowa and Comanche, for example, continued to live off the reservation, hunting bison and taking cattle and other livestock from white settlements.</p> <p>Meanwhile, by the time of the Medicine Lodge Treaties, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers’ strong alliance with the Lakota had made them into the region’s premier fighting force. They had no interest in a peace treaty; neither did the Kwahada band of Comanche, who still held some power on the southern plains.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>Having failed to control the Plains Indians by treaty, the government again used force. In 1869 it built Fort Sill, a military post in southern Indian Territory, in an attempt to discourage raiding. Later that year, the army decisively defeated the Dog Soldiers at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> in northeast Colorado.</p> <p>By then, however, President Grant was pursuing a “peace policy,” preferring cultural warfare over military campaigns. Mandatory boarding-school education, as described in the Medicine Lodge Treaties, played a central role in what was in effect the government’s campaign of cultural genocide.</p> <p>While their children were sent off to schools to be stripped of their culture, American Indians saw their reservation lands further reduced under the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act</strong></a> of 1887 and in the runup to the creation of the state of Oklahoma in 1907.</p> <p>Today, the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho people continue to live on the reservation established for them in the aftermath of the Medicine Lodge Treaties.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x 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field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa" hreflang="en">kiowa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/medicine-lodge-treaty" hreflang="en">medicine lodge treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ulysses-s-grant-0" hreflang="en">ulysses s grant</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american" hreflang="en">native american</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">cheyenne dog soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakota" hreflang="en">lakota</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/40th-congress/session-1/c40s1ch32.pdf">An Act to Establish Peace With Certain Hostile Indian Tribes</a>,” 40th Congress, Sess. I, Ch. 32, July 20, 1867.</p> <p>Lorraine Boissoneault, “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-1867-medicine-lodge-treaty-changed-plains-indian-tribes-forever-180965357/">How the 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty Changed the Plains Indian Tribes Forever</a>,” <em>Smithsonian Magazine</em>, October 23, 2017.</p> <p>Colorado Virtual Library, “<a href="https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/digital-colorado/colorado-histories/beginnings/chief-little-raven-peacemaker/">Chief Little Raven: Peacemaker</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210752/page/1">The Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 25, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>“<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuGmR_p8bgcC&amp;pg=PA251&amp;lpg=PA251&amp;dq=DEPARTMENT+OF+THE+INTERIOR,+Office+of+Indian+Affairs,+June+19,+1869&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=zmcW4o-TmH&amp;sig=ACfU3U1pWsiz3JcvA9YF7uAQ3dh6J_XxFw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiTx-H4vb3mAhVNa80KHQgzDxMQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=DEPARTMENT%20OF%20THE%20INTERIOR%2C%20Office%20of%20Indian%20Affairs%2C%20June%2019%2C%201869&amp;f=false">Indian Territory: Cheyenne and Arapaho Reserve</a>,” letters dated June 19 and August 10, 1869, in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1878 </em>(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1878).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/hancocks-war.htm">Hancock’s War</a>,” updated April 22, 2019.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/medicine-lodge-treaty.htm">Medicine Lodge Treaty</a>,” updated December 17, 2018.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210757/page/1">The Peace Commission: Second Session of the Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 28, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Jacki Thompson Rand, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=ME005">Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867)</a>,”<em> Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, n.d.</p> <p>&nbsp; “<a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101078161559&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=1">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Tribes of Indians</a>,” October 28, 1867.</p> <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p> <p>Kerry R. Oman, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3353&amp;context=greatplainsquarterly">The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867–1868</a>,” <em>Great Plains Quarterly </em>22 (winter 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4080">Speaking From Medicine Lodge: Two Native American Opinions on Removal, White Culture, and Government Relations</a>,” The History Engine.</p> <p>Elliott West, “<a href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/ap-us-history/period-6?modal=/history-resources/essays/american-indians-and-transcontinental-railroad">American Indians and the Transcontinental Railroad</a>,” AP US History Study Guide (Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:40:49 +0000 yongli 3267 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Little Arkansas Treaty http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Arkansas Treaty</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3316--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3316.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=lD0qXZ-D" width="600" height="805" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mrs. John Prowers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Walking Woman, also known as Amache, was the daughter of Southern Cheyenne leader Lone Bear, who was killed in the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. Amache, who later married Colorado rancher John Prowers, was one of several Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians who were promised reparations for the massacre in the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3318--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3318.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/little-raven"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=af1euXaY" width="600" height="847" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/little-raven" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Raven</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Little Raven led an Arapaho band on the Front Range of Colorado during the mid-nineteenth century. His people were among several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands slaughtered by US troops during the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. He signed the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865, hoping that his people would receive the promised reparations for the massacre. To this date, the descendants of the massacre victims have not received what was promised.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:37:19-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:37" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty" data-a2a-title="Little Arkansas Treaty"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flittle-arkansas-treaty&amp;title=Little%20Arkansas%20Treaty"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Little Arkansas Treaty refers to a pair of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> signed between the US and Indigenous nations in Kansas in mid-October 1865: one with the <strong>Southern Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Southern Cheyenne </strong>nations and one with the <strong>Comanche</strong> and<strong> Kiowa</strong>. Of the two, the treaty signed on October 14 with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, was the most significant within Colorado because it removed the two Indigenous nations to a new reservation in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and offered them reparations for the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of the previous year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Little Arkansas Treaty remains contested today, as the Interior Department apparently mismanaged funds allocated for the reparations. Descendants of those killed in the Sand Creek Massacre have been fighting for these lost reparations throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In February 1861, just two weeks after the US government established <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>. Representatives of both nations agreed to forfeit their bands’ land in northern Colorado and live on a reservation in eastern Colorado. Despite the treaty, episodes of white-Indigenous violence still occurred, so in September 1864, the Southern Cheyenne leader <strong>Black Kettle</strong>, among others, visited <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to make a peace agreement with territorial governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In late November 1864, a group of several hundred Cheyenne and Arapaho, including Black Kettle’s band, camped at Sand Creek near Fort Lyon, along the boundary of the reservation. Believing themselves to be under the protection of the fort, the men left to hunt <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> one morning and came back to a horrific scene—US troops under Colonel <strong>John Chivington</strong> had attacked the camp, slaughtering at least 230 women, children, and elders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cheyenne and Arapaho retaliated over the next several months, burning ranches and other white settlements, including the town of <strong>Julesburg</strong>. After a lengthy investigation, the US government condemned the Sand Creek Massacre and decided to offer reparations to the afflicted parties in exchange for peace. In addition, with the end of the <strong>Civil War</strong> in 1865, the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado was part of the government’s renewed focus on pacifying the indigenous population of the American West to make way for <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a>, <strong>railroads</strong>, mines, and cities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Meeting on the Little Arkansas</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To accomplish the joint goals of reparations and removal, the United States sent a treaty delegation—led by Colonel Henry Leavenworth and including Colorado notables <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a>—to the banks of the Little Arkansas River, where they arrived on October 4, 1865. There the party waited until several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands arrived on October 11, with their numbers eventually totaling more than 4,000. Among them were Black Kettle’s Cheyenne and <strong>Little Raven</strong>’s Arapaho—both of whom had been at Sand Creek—as well as five other Cheyenne bands and six other Arapaho bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho was concluded on October 14. In addition to calling for an end to hostilities between the parties, the treaty established a small reservation for both Indigenous nations in what is now western Oklahoma. However, the government had already removed other Native peoples to that area and would have to move them again to make space for the newcomers. Until then, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were allowed to “reside upon and range at pleasure throughout … that part of the country they claim as originally theirs, which lies between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> listed at twenty dollars per person for forty years, the Little Arkansas Treaty included reparations for the “gross and wanton outrages” of the Sand Creek Massacre. These included monetary reparations, as well as grants of 640 acres within the old 1861 reservation to members of affected families, including the Bent children and the extended family of <strong>John Prowers</strong> and his Cheyenne wife, <strong>Amache</strong>. The treaty also promised 320-acre grants within the new reservation to the leaders of bands killed at Sand Creek, including Black Kettle, and 160-acre grants to “each other person of said bands made a widow, or who lost a parent,” in the massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho—which was later amended to include a small number of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>—a second treaty was signed with leaders from the Comanche and Kiowa nations on October 18.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The American delegates at the Little Arkansas council were eager to acknowledge and make amends for the tragedy at Sand Creek, but the US government did not follow up on those promises. For one thing, the treaty’s promises to the Indigenous nations, while wholly justified, went beyond what was typical at the time and would incur costs that still had to be approved by the Senate. Samuel Kingman, an American observer at the council, noted that the Cheyenne-Arapaho treaty was “very liberal in its terms to the Indians, probably more so than will be sanctioned by the [S]enate.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, in 1866 Congress appropriated $39,050 to cover the specific reparations outlined in the treaty. It is not known whether this amount would have been sufficient, but it did not matter; instead of issuing that money to the individuals listed in the treaty, the Interior Department gave some of the money to the tribes and, according to a modern legal assessment, “returned the rest” to the Treasury as “surplus.” The promised land grants did not materialize, either. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> of 1867, which the government saw as a replacement for the Little Arkansas Treaty, did not address the missing Sand Creek reparations. By 1869 most of the Cheyenne and Arapaho had left Colorado for their new reservation in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Descendants of the Sand Creek Massacre victims have long sought to reclaim the reparations listed in the Little Arkansas Treaty. Congress considered bills to pay out reparations in 1949, 1957, and 1965, but none passed. In 2013 Homer Flute, Robert Simpson, Jr., and Dorothy Wood—all members of the <strong>Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Trust</strong>—filed a lawsuit against the federal government to recoup the lost reparations. A district court dismissed the case, agreeing with US attorneys who argued that the government was no longer responsible for the reparations. The descendants’ lawyers had argued that a recent law did, in fact, allow their case to be heard, and they appealed to the US Tenth Circuit Court. In 2015, however, the appellate court affirmed the dismissal. In 2016 the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case, resulting in yet another denial of justice for one of the worst atrocities in American history.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-indians" hreflang="en">colorado indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-little-arkansas" hreflang="en">treaty of little arkansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-prowers" hreflang="en">john prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Avalon Project, “<a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/char65.asp">Treaty With the Cheyenne and Arapaho; October 14, 1865</a>,” Yale Law School, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Berry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/government-seeks-to-end-claims-from-1864-s-sand-creek-massacre">Government Seeks to End Claims From 1864’s Sand Creek Massacre</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 10, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>FindLaw, “<a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-10th-circuit/1721456.html">Flute v. United States</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>First People, “<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheComancheAndKiowa1865.html">Treaty With the Comanche and Kiowa, October 18, 1865</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gorski, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/07/11/sand-creek-massacre-descendants-sue-federal-government-for-reparations/">Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Sue Federal Government for Reparations</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kansas State Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kancoll.org/khq/1932/32_5_kingman.htm">Diary of Samuel A. Kingman at Indian Treaty in 1865</a>,” originally published in <em>Kansas Historical Society </em>1, no. 5 (November 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alexander Sokolosky, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1337&amp;context=olr">Rebuilding Trust? The Sand Creek Massacre and the Federal-Tribal Trust Relationship in <em>Flute v. United States</em></a>,” <em>Oklahoma Law Review </em>70, no. 4 (2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>DocsTeach, “<a href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/treaty-of-little-arkansas-river-october-14-1865-ratified-indian-treaties-341-14-stat-703-between-the-us-and-arapahoe-and-cheyenne-indians-black-kettle-band-granting-lands-in-reparation-for-the-sand-cr">Treaty of Little Arkansas River, October 14, 1865 …</a> ,” National Archives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Konnie LeMay, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/what-led-to-the-sand-creek-massacre-check-out-this-timeline">What Led to the Sand Creek Massacre? Check Out This Timeline</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, November 28, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:37:19 +0000 yongli 3266 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org