%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-18T22:34:26-06:00" title="Wednesday, March 18, 2020 - 22:34" class="datetime">Wed, 03/18/2020 - 22:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites" data-a2a-title="Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites&amp;title=Sand%20Wash%20Basin%20Tool%20Stone%20Sites"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p align="left">Located northwest of Craig in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moffat-county"><strong>Moffat County</strong></a>, the Sand Wash Basin is an area of Bridger Formation rock outcrops that prehistoric peoples mined extensively as a source for stones to make tools with. Bridger Formation chert is typically light to dark brown, though some of the chert in the basin is referred to as “tiger chert” because of its distinct alternating light and dark brown banding. Tiger cherts have been found across Colorado and in both Utah and Wyoming. The distinct patterning of tiger chert has allowed archaeologists to trace the movement of prehistoric people in and out of northwestern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Geology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The Sand Wash Basin is the southern portion of the Green River Basin system in Wyoming, which is an Eocene-aged lake system that drained south into the Piceance Basin of Colorado and the Uinta Basin of Utah. Deposits in the Sand Wash Basin are sedimentary and contain many fossils, including well-preserved vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant fossils. Because of high silica content in the region’s geology, the Sand Wash Basin contains layers of chert bedrock, chert nodules, petrified wood, and fossilized stromatolites that lend themselves to striped banding.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">There are different varieties of chert tool-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado"><strong>stone quarries</strong></a> in the Sand Wash Basin. The basin’s center contains bedrock layers of chert. The basin’s perimeter contains more nodules of petrified wood and stromatolites that are available as eroded gravel deposits and isolated clusters. Whether quarried from layers of chert bedrock or collected from erosional deposits, all the stone material in the basin was usable for tool blanks and is typically identified as Bridger Formation chert.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Archaeology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">In 1976 Richard Stucky did an archaeological survey of the Sand Wash Basin. Stucky noted that the basin’s Bridger Formation cherts had a long history of use and can be associated with the bison-hunting <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> populations of 13,000 years ago as well as later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>, and historical groups, including the Shoshone and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a>. In some places in the basin one can still see the large quantities of stone that were quarried and tested by prehistoric inhabitants of the area. One additional piece of evidence for a long period of use of the basin’s cherts comes from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/boulder-artifacts"><strong>Mahaffy cache</strong></a> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, with its impressive tiger chert artifacts. Stucky suggested that prehistoric families camped around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin while mining resources in the middle of it, which was supported by a subsequent archaeological study in 2010. Stucky’s work resulted in a collection of pristine materials now housed at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>, including a fourteen-centimeter-long cold-worked copper knife found at the Cathedral Butte site, which is similar to knives found in Oklahoma and the Great Lakes region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation chert artifacts have been found in archaeological sites in neighboring states, such as the John Gale Cache in Wyoming and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> villages in western Colorado and Utah, and archaeologists are studying their chemical structure to connect these artifacts to specific quarries in the Sand Wash Basin. Interestingly, heating the Bridger Formation chert in a fire alters its structure and makes it easier to shape into a tool. While this can create sharper tools, it can also crack the chert and make it more brittle. The heat-treating of cherts has been shown to occur more often around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin than in the heart of the Sand Wash Basin, though it is unknown how heat-treating alters the ability of scientists to source the Bridger Formation chert to specific quarries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation cherts from the Sand Wash Basin help archaeologists understand the way prehistoric families lived and moved through Colorado over the last 13,000 years. Beyond that strong archaeological value, tiger chert artifacts can be beautiful examples of prehistoric craftsmanship. Thus, in addition to being utilitarian tools that now serve as markers of trade and antiquity, they were likely admired and appreciated for their striking visual characteristics as much in the past as they are today.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/landt-matthew" hreflang="und">Landt, Matthew</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bridger-formation" hreflang="en">Bridger formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_1" id="_ENREF_1">H. P. Buchheim, L. R. Brand, and H. T. Goodwin, “Lacustrine to fluvial floodplain deposition in the Eocene Bridger Formation,” <em>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</em> 162 (September 2000).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Neil Hauser, “Sourcing Bridger Chert With Laser Breakdown Spectroscopy, Technical report, Advanced Technical Solutions for Archaeology and Anthropology, Centennial, Colorado” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_3" id="_ENREF_3">Brian R. Ingalls and Lisa E. Park, “Biotic and Taphonomic Response to Lake-Level Fluctuations in the Greater Green River Basin (Eocene), Wyoming,” <em>Palaios</em> 25 (May 2010).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt, “Class III Survey of Select Areas in Sand Wash Basin, Moffat County, Colorado, Technical report, Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado” (Craig: Vermillion Chapter, Colorado Archaeological Society, and Bureau of Land Management, Little Snake Field Office, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt and Robyn Watkins Morris, “Lithic Procurement in the Sand Wash Basin of Northwestern Colorado: How Unpredictability Highlights Adaptations,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 63 (February 2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Byron Loosle, “The Acquisition of Nonlocal Lithic Material by the Uinta Fremont,” <em>Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology</em> 22, no. 2 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_4" id="_ENREF_4">James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains</em>, ed. George C. Frison (San Diego: Academic Press, 1991).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Mark E. Miller, Michael D. Stafford, and George W. Brox, “The John Gale Site Biface Cache,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_5" id="_ENREF_5">Paul C. Murphey and David Daitch, “</a><a href="https://publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2009/02/63538.pdf">Paleontological Overview of Oil Shale and Tar Sands Areas in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming</a>,” Technical report for US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, December 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"> </p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_6" id="_ENREF_6">M. Elliot Smith, Alan R. Carroll, and Brad S. Singer, “Synoptic Reconstruction of a Major Ancient Lake System: Eocene Green River Formation, Western United States,” GSA Bulletin 120 (January–February 2008).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_7" id="_ENREF_7">Richard K. Stucky, et al., “Magnetic Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Mammalian Faunas of the Early Uintan Washakie Formation, Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado,” in <em>The Terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene Transition in North America</em>, ed. Donald R. Prothero (New York: Cambridge University Press,1996).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a name="_ENREF_8" id="_ENREF_8">Richard Keith Stucky, “Archaeological Survey of the Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado” (MA thesis, University of Colorado–Boulder, 1977).</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Claire Cleveland, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/03/16/gunnison-county-effectively-shutting-down-public-life-to-fight-covid-19/">Gunnison County Effectively Shutting Down Public Life To Fight COVID-19</a>,” Colorado Public Radio, March 16, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shaun Yuan, “<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/17/in-china-life-returning-to-normal-as-coronavirus-outbreak-slows">In China, life returning to normal as coronavirus outbreak slows</a>,” <em>Al Jazeera</em>, March 17, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 19 Mar 2020 04:34:26 +0000 yongli 3196 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Barger Gulch Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Barger Gulch Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:28:06-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:28" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site" data-a2a-title="Barger Gulch Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbarger-gulch-site&amp;title=Barger%20Gulch%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>There are few places in western North America richer in <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> archaeology than <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a>, the valley that forms the headwaters of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> in <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand County</strong></a>. Within Middle Park, the Barger Gulch area preserves an impressive amount of evidence from early humans, with sites dating from roughly 12,900 to 10,000 years ago. Barger Gulch is a small, spring-fed tributary of the Colorado River, flowing south to north, draining an area east of Junction Butte, and joining the Colorado River about four miles east of <strong>Kremmling</strong>. In all, eleven Paleo-Indian localities have been documented along this drainage. Artifacts in the Barger Gulch area span the Paleo-Indian period with one exception— no <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> archaeology has yet been found in Middle Park, though <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a>, the period that follows Clovis, is abundant.</p> <h2>Natural History</h2> <p>If you were to visit the Barger Gulch area today, you would find it to be a nondescript and fairly uninviting area. The high, flat surface that begins on the margins of the Colorado River Valley and slowly slopes upward to the south is covered with a sea of <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> and grass with an occasional isolated <a href="/article/conifers"><strong>juniper or Douglas fir</strong></a> on north-facing slopes. It is one of the driest parts of Middle Park. Barger Gulch has a modest flow and has cut deeply through Miocene Troublesome Formation bedrock. As inhospitable as the place appears today, the archaeology suggests that it was a good place to live more than 10,000 years ago because people in that period returned to the area time and again. One of the attractions comes straight from the bedrock—Troublesome Formation chert, used to make stone tools.</p> <p>During the Miocene, approximately 20 to 5 million years ago, the valley of Middle Park was filling with sediments, and one major source of sedimentation was volcanism. Some of the ashy sediments that filled the basin later were transformed into a fine-grained silicate rock called chert, ideal for the manufacture of stone tools. Large amounts of Troublesome Formation chert, also known as Kremmling Chert, can be found in the Barger Gulch area, and all of the nearby archaeological localities are dominated by this material. Chert was one clear attraction.</p> <h2>Ancient Camp</h2> <p>The most intensively studied part of the Barger Gulch site is called Locality B, a large Folsom campsite dating to around 12,760 years ago. Locality B is remarkable for its large numbers of chipped stone artifacts, with an assemblage totaling more than 75,000 pieces. The types of nonlocal lithic raw materials recovered show that people moved into Barger Gulch from areas east and west of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <p>Paleo-Indian peoples are renowned for the distances they moved in their seasonal rounds, but occasionally, and likely seasonally, they settled down in one spot for an extended duration of time. Barger Gulch is one of a handful of sites that show this less mobile side of early Paleo-Indian life. In the winter, large mammals are snowed out of high-elevation regions, and their density in winter grazing areas in valley bottoms increases dramatically. Current evidence suggests that the Barger Gulch site represents one or multiple cold-season occupations by Folsom hunter-gatherers, who probably camped in the valley bottom for several weeks to take advantage of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds wintering in Middle Park. During the winter, Folsom hunter-gatherers camping in the Barger Gulch area would have had easy access to water, stone, wood, and large game.</p> <h2>Research Findings</h2> <p>Because the Barger Gulch site has a relatively high density of artifacts and well-preserved spatial patterning, archaeologists have used it to examine several poorly studied aspects of human lifeways at the end of the last Ice Age in the Rocky Mountains. The site preserves at least four hearth features, three of which sat within households. This allows for studies of the differences in the use of interior and exterior space. For example, it was found that early-stage flintknapping—the removal of large flakes from the outer portions of chert nodules—mostly took place in exterior spaces. Later-stage knapping, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluting of projectile points</strong></a> and resharpening of tools, occurred inside. There is also evidence for artifacts produced by novice flintknappers at the site, most likely children.</p> <p>The Barger Gulch site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/surovell-todd" hreflang="und">Surovell, Todd A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-folsom-sites" hreflang="en">colorado folsom sites</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-county" hreflang="en">Grand County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/troublesome-formation" hreflang="en">Troublesome formation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Folsom Hearth-Centered Use of Space at Barger Gulch, Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2007).</p> <p>Nicole M. Waguespack and Todd A. Surovell, “A Simple Method for Identifying Households Using Lithic Assemblages: A Case Study From a Folsom Campsite in Middle Park, Colorado,” in <em>Lithics in the West: Using Lithic Analysis to Solve Archaeological Problems in Western North America</em>, ed. Douglas H. MacDonald, William Andrefsky Jr., and Pei-Lia Yu (Missoula: University of Montana Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, “<a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">Colorado Stratigraphy: Main Strat Chart</a>,” updated October 30, 2018.</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell, <em>Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology</em>: <em>Cases From Paleoindian Archaeology</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:28:06 +0000 yongli 3122 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lyons Sandstone http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lyons-sandstone <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lyons Sandstone</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3335--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3335.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/garden-gods-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lyons-Sandstone-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=HpUg9sxb" width="1090" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/garden-gods-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Garden of the Gods Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Garden of the Gods Park in El Paso County preserves some of the most scenic outcrops of Lyons sandstone on the Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2609--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2609.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/garden-gods"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Colorao_Springs_20170521_0111_0.jpg?itok=wSNNLCzZ" width="1090" height="673" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/garden-gods" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Garden of the Gods</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Garden of the Gods is a public park located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, US. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1971. Address: 1805 N 30th St, Colorado Springs, CO 80904</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:23:33-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:23" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:23</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lyons-sandstone" data-a2a-title="Lyons Sandstone"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flyons-sandstone&amp;title=Lyons%20Sandstone"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Named for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> town whose historic quarries made it famous, the <strong>Lyons</strong> Sandstone formation is a Permian age rock layer in the foothills of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> from the Wyoming border to south of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>. It is the primary formation in the scenic red rock outcrops at <strong>Garden of the Gods Park</strong> near Colorado Springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient Uses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>People have made use of the well-cemented sandstones of the Lyons formation for thousands of years, beginning at least 6,500 years ago in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a>. Because the sandstone usually occurs in flat layers of varying thickness, such as flagstone, it was a popular raw material among American Indians for seed-milling slabs called metates and the handheld counterparts called manos. These artifacts have been found throughout the Front Range region from the open plains to near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, many miles from the outcrops where the material was gathered. Although the milling of wild plant seeds into flour was the primary function of these tools, corn grinding was added in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong></a> after 200 CE. In addition, small pieces of sandstone were used as a kind of natural sandpaper for abrading and smoothing work. The sandstone was quarried from many locations between <strong>Manitou Springs</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Historic Quarrying</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In more recent times, the quarries around the town of Lyons constituted a major source of Lyons sandstone. <strong>Edward S. Lyon</strong>, the town’s founder, began commercial quarrying in 1880 in competition with quarries west of Fort Collins that were backed by the Union Pacific Railroad. A railroad line running into Lyons had to wait until Hugh Murphy, a paving contractor from Omaha, Nebraska, bought part of Lyon’s holdings in 1884.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lyons sandstone served as a building material, but its primary use was for paving stones and sidewalks. Quarrymen, mostly immigrants from Scandinavia, cut sidewalk slabs directly from the bedding planes using shims and wedges (known as “blocks and feathers”). Other quarries in nearby Noland and Beech Hill competed with Murphy for markets, but demand declined as asphalt and concrete became more popular pavement materials in the early twentieth century. In 1916 Murphy sold the business to his superintendent, John Brodie. Brodie’s quarry remained viable by crushing the stone for use as a road base. The Brodie quarry contributed some stone to the construction of the University of Colorado’s Boulder campus, which had adopted a new architectural style in the 1920s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Sandstone Industry</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The ranch-style houses and suburban culture that developed in California and other areas after World War II gave consumers a taste for patios and other decorative landscape features. Quarries in Arizona made profits from the new demand for stone. Not until 1946, however, did Colorado quarries become aware of the opportunity. That year a Californian named Dewey Summers came to Boulder County with his wife, May Vickery, to restore his health. May’s brothers lived in nearby Jamestown and were working as quarrymen. When Summers saw the quality of the sandstone that her brothers were quarrying, he went into business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Soon the local industry could not keep up with the demand. Other entrepreneurs such as Les Stennette and Irving Jacobson started quarrying to meet their own construction needs. The major bottleneck in production involved cutting the sandstone pieces to customers’ specifications. Although several stonecutting prototypes existed, Summers chose one invented by Chris Jenkins of Kansas City, Missouri, and enticed Jenkins to move his enterprise to Colorado, where his machine transformed the industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The use of Lyons sandstone has spread across the country from California to New York, and into Canada. In 1950 Chris Jenkins recognized Lyons sandstone in a New York City sidewalk. Buildings at the University of Texas at San Antonio; the US Geological Survey’s research center in Reno, Nevada; and the Hotel Chaco in Albuquerque, New Mexico, are among the many other places that feature this rock.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, several companies continue the tradition of Lyons sandstone quarrying along the Front Range. The material’s uses have spread beyond wall construction and pavers to such products as signage, outdoor furniture, landscaping accents, and artwork. The quality and beauty of this material have proven its appeal to Coloradans for thousands of years.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pace-alfred" hreflang="und">Pace, Alfred</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lyons-formation" hreflang="en">Lyons formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>E. Steve Cassells, “Coming into the Colorado High Country: The Archaeology of the Sawtooth Game Drive,” in <em>This Land of Shining Mountains: Archaeological Studies in Colorado’s Indian Peaks Wilderness Area</em>, ed. E. Steve Cassells, Research Report No. 8 (Ward, CO: Center for Mountain Archeology, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alfred C. Pace, <em>A History of the Lyons Sandstone Quarries</em> (Lyons, CO: Applications Plus, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Lon Abbott and Terri Cook, <em>Geology Underfoot Along Colorado’s Front Range</em> (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/UnitRefs/LyonsRefs_9129.html">“Geologic Unit: Lyons,”</a> USGS National Geologic Map Database, September 24, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lyons Sandstone, <a href="http://www.lyonssandstone.com/project-examples/major-architectural-projects/">“Major Architectural Projects,”</a> n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Al Pace, <a href="https://lyonscolorado.com/history/quarries-and-redstone">“Quarries and Redstone,”</a> Town of Lyons, Colorado, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, <a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">“Main Strat Chart,”</a> Colorado Stratigraphy, October 30, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marcus R. Ross et al., <em>Garden of the Gods at Colorado Springs: Paleozoic and Mesozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics</em>, Field Guide 18 (Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America, 2010).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:23:33 +0000 yongli 3120 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Trout Creek Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trout Creek Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:13:05-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:13" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Trout Creek Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftrout-creek-archaeological-site&amp;title=Trout%20Creek%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Trout Creek in east <a href="/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee County</strong></a> is an extensive archaeological site exhibiting natural outcrops of colorful jaspers that were used for thousands of years as raw material for toolmaking by many different groups of Native Americans. It is one of the best-known toolstone sources not only in central Colorado but in the whole of the Southern <strong>Rocky Mountains</strong>. Archaeologists have surveyed and documented rock outcrops, quarry pits, and workshop debris spread over more than 1,000 acres south of Trout Creek Pass on both private and public lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geologic Context</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Outcrops at Trout Creek are mostly yellow brown to dusky red chert, often with black, green, or red inclusions. The rock can be described as a dendritic jasper—an iron-rich chert—because of the common presence of green to black lines in intricately branching patterns. Some Trout Creek materials have inclusions that are not dendritic forms, while others are solid colors lacking any patterning. Recent geologic mapping found that the material occurs in blocks of late Eocene or Oligocene age (23 to 38 million years old), whose movement slid sections of much more ancient rock northward down toward Trout Creek. A preliminary study in the 1980s identified the host rock as the Manitou formation, which is Early Ordovician (470–85 million years old) limestone and dolomite. More recent fieldwork suggests that some of the jasper also may occur in the Fremont dolomite of Middle and Late Ordovician age (443–70 million years old).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prehistoric Activities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Artifacts found in the workshop areas and in the surrounding region show that people used Trout Creek jasper throughout the prehistoric era, beginning in the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> at least 10,000 years ago. Because jaspers and other cherts are quite durable and fracture into sharp-edged fragments, flintknappers were able to make many different kinds of tools, including spear points and arrowheads, knives, scrapers, drills, and choppers. Other artifacts not made from the local jasper were brought to the site to meet other needs, such as seed-milling tools and a few ceramic containers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no evidence of ancient houses has been found at Trout Creek, smaller prehistoric features have been documented. These include several campfire pits and one somewhat different burned pit interpreted as a “heat-treatment” feature. When certain rock types, such as chert and jasper, are buried in shallow pits and then baked for several hours, the result is rock that is more brittle but fractures with even sharper edges than unheated rock. In effect, toolmakers were sacrificing the durability of the rock to create material that was easier to shape and provided sharper cutting edges.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Trout Creek Source Zone</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After decades of research, archaeologists now know that many other jaspers occur in the same general region as the Trout Creek source, especially to the south in the Arkansas Hills, and eastward into <strong>South Park</strong>. At last count, twenty-seven separate sources of jasper have been documented beyond Trout Creek, even though less than 10 percent of this area has been inventoried. Some of these materials have dendritic inclusions visually similar to Trout Creek, and artifacts made from them may be erroneously assumed to be from Trout Creek. There are other such “source zones” known to archaeologists in the American West, such as in western North Dakota and the Texas Panhandle, but these are the exception rather than the rule. Clearly, there is much more to be learned about this part of Colorado that was so heavily frequented by Native Americans. It is quite likely, however, that the Trout Creek site is the largest and most intensively utilized source in the region.<br />&#13;  </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaffee-county" hreflang="en">chaffee county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jasper" hreflang="en">jasper</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “Progress and Prospects Geoarchaeological Research on Chert Sources in Central Colorado,” in “Rocky Mountain Archaeology: A Tribute to James Benedict,” ed. Kenneth P. Cannon, Judson Byrd Finley, and Molly Boeka Cannon, <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 60, Memoir 43 (2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Collette Chambellan et al., “A Cultural Resource Evaluation of Site 5CF84, Salida Ranger District, Pike and San Isabel National Forests, Colorado,” unpublished ms. on file at History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver (Boulder, CO: Western Cultural Resource Management, 1984).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John W. Keller, James P. McCalpin, and Benjamin W. Lowry, <em>Geologic Map of the Buena Vista East Quadrangle, Chaffee County, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 04-4 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>C. A. Wallace and John W. Keller, <em>Geologic Map of the Castle Rock Gulch Quadrangle, Chaffee and Park Counties, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 01–1 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2003).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/2017/paac_antelopegulch_final.pdf">Archaeological Survey of a Portion of the Antelope Gulch Locality, Fremont County, Colorado</a>,” History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (Denver: Office of the State Archaeologist of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.minerals.net/gemstone/jasper_gemstone.aspx">The Gemstone Jasper</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>T. G. Lovering, <em>Jasperoid in the United States—Its Characteristics, Origin, and Economic Significance</em>, Professional Paper 710 (Washington, DC: US Geological Survey, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:13:05 +0000 yongli 3091 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Shield Cave Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Shield Cave Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:07:48-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:07" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Shield Cave Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fshield-cave-archaeological-site&amp;title=Shield%20Cave%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Shield Cave is a large limestone cavern in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a> that contains painted <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> dating to the Historic period and deposits of the iron mineral pigment material used to make ochre-color paint. This site is one of hundreds of caverns that have developed in the Mississippian Period <strong>Leadville Limestone</strong> geological formation in Colorado, but one of only a few such caves that exhibit evidence of human activity predating the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado </strong><strong>Gold Rush</strong></a>. Painted rock art panels, called pictographs, in the forms represented at Shield Cave have been interpreted as belonging to the Early Historic <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indian</strong></a> style dating to 1600–1830 CE.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Pigment Source</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Few artifacts have been documented at the Shield Cave site other than modified chunks of mineralized pigment stone. Most of these materials are brick red in color, the tint resulting from the presence of hematite in the rock. This iron mineral also discolors the soil in patches outside the mouth of the cave, and in high enough concentrations could also be used to manufacture paints. A minor amount of pigment stone in Shield Cave is yellow, as are a few of the rock art motifs painted on the cave walls. Other motifs are painted partly or entirely in shades of gray to black using charcoal, presumably salvaged from campfire debris. Archaeologists have conducted only minor test excavations here in a single project in 1985, which was focused on repairing damage from earlier illicit digging. No buried artifacts were found in the test.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rock Art</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The numerous pictographs at Shield Cave are scattered along the cave’s interior walls and on the most easily accessed outer wall near its mouth. Part of the cave opening has been closed off by the gradual accumulation of rock and soil washing down the adjacent slope. Most of the painted images are small in scale and painted red, consisting of human forms, animals, objects, and tally-like lines. Some of the human figures are shown on horseback while others are overlaid by painted circles and are called shield figures. All the human forms (called “anthropomorphs” by specialists) and the animal figures (“zoomorphs”) are simple illustrations with little detail added. Rock art expert Sally Cole has identified such unadorned figures as characteristic of the Early Historic Ute style, which developed into more detailed scenes in the subsequent Late Historic Ute style represented in scores of panels elsewhere in western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>More Than Paint</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beyond creating pictographs, hematite was used in ceremonial contexts and for myriad painting needs such as body adornment, decorative drawings, or all-over coatings on artifacts of virtually any material. The history of its use spans the entire human history of North America, including in Colorado, where a <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> site in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a> contained human skeletal remains coated with red ochre. With its vivid color, many cultures viewed it as the blood of the earth, and the places where it occurred in abundance were treated with reverence. While hematite-colored rocks and soil are commonplace in widely scattered locations throughout the west, large sources like Shield Cave are rare.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, many peoples believed caves were portals connecting the natural and spirit worlds, which may help explain the prevalence of rock art in caves the world over. Throughout their homeland, the Ute people consider both caves and hematite sources as sacred places, so Shield Cave holds a very special place in their history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Preservation Concerns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unfortunately, caves are also targeted by both vandals and unscrupulous antiquities dealers. Efforts to curb such illegal activities are an ongoing challenge for everyone concerned with the preservation of these unique cultural resources. Remote places such as Shield Cave are especially vulnerable to unmonitored visitation. Some of the conservation options pursued at these sensitive sites include public education via interpretive signs and classes, site stewardship programs that schedule visits by trained volunteers, limited access to and publicity about site locations, and vigorous enforcement of laws protecting sites against vandalism and unauthorized digging.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Duane C. Anderson, “The Gordon Creek Burial,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 32 (June 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado,</em> rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>An Analysis of the Prehistoric and Historic Rock Art of West-Central Colorado</em>, Cultural Resource Series 21 (Denver: US Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone: Rock Art of the Colorado Plateau and Four Corners Region</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-cave-tours">Colorado Cave Tours</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/strata-photos">Colorado Stratigraphy</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://cse.umn.edu/esci">Hematite</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, <em>Petroglyphs of Western Colorado and the Northern Ute Indian Reservation as Interpreted by Clifford Duncan</em> (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Press, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard J. Rhinehart and David Harris, <em>Colorado Caves: Hidden Worlds Beneath the Peaks</em> (Englewood, CO: Westcliffe Publishers, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:07:48 +0000 yongli 3090 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T14:37:34-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 14:37" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 14:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado" data-a2a-title="Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado&amp;title=Prehistoric%20Stone%20Quarrying%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From exquisitely flaked <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> spear points to the spectacular <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, among the most visible vestiges of Colorado’s Native American history are those crafted from naturally available rock. Archaeologists and others have documented nearly 1,000 places across the state with evidence of ancient Coloradans gathering rocks for toolmaking and wall construction.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first people to settle in Colorado more than 13,000 years ago brought with them a stone tool technology that was millions of years in the making. Indeed, the oldest known stone tools were made in east Africa more than 3 million years ago. The long history the toolmaking craft prior to the settlement of North America meant that most native cultures in the American West shared a common set of implements. Nevertheless, these early peoples did put their own stylistic imprint on specific tools, such as the projectile points used to tip spears and arrows.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Identifying “Quarry” Sites</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Useful toolmaking materials, sometimes called “toolstone,” can be found among all the major rock categories: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Toolstones gathered from bedrock outcrops, as is commonly seen in the mountains and on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> at sites such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site"><strong>Trout Creek</strong></a>, are said to derive from primary sources. Nonbedrock quarries are called secondary sources and have the potential to yield multiple rock types. Such secondary deposits can be found statewide, even on the open plains in the form of gravels in streambeds and of loose rock pavements called pediments, which cover many prairie surfaces near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> mountain front.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although these diverse sites are often called quarries, that label exaggerates the scale of “mining” that archaeologists typically encounter at prehistoric sites. In fact, actual pit excavations at ancient quarries are uncommon at best, documented at fewer than 10 percent of known sites. Far more typical was casual surface collection of nodules in gravel deposits and of blocks broken away from bedrock outcrops by natural forces. At both primary and secondary sources, archaeologists often find broken nodules of low-quality material, called tested cobbles, which suggests that native cultures engaged in a basic quality control equivalent to the modern-day mining practice of high grading—taking the best-quality material and leaving inferior materials behind.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the earliest Colorado sites of the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, archaeologists have found artifacts made from high-quality materials gathered well beyond the state’s borders. For example, at the <a href="/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> age <strong>Drake Cache</strong> in <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, eleven of the thirteen finely flaked spear points were made from a flinty rock type called chert that derived from a source zone in the Texas Panhandle, while one specimen came from an even more distant source area in central or west Texas.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Local Sources</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s native peoples explored more of the state, they quickly homed in on more local toolstones of high quality. For example, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer</strong></a> site of Folsom age has yielded thousands of stone artifacts made almost exclusively from locally available raw materials, including many items from a source high in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Later toolmakers of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods likewise preferred local Colorado rock types with the exception of glassy volcanic obsidian, which occurs in much larger quantities in the neighboring states of New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and beyond.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Late Paleo-Indian and Archaic period toolmakers expanded their use of local rock with the addition of sandstones and other coarse-textured materials needed mainly for seed milling equipment (manos and metates), among other tasks that required an abrasive surface. In the Formative period, this need skyrocketed particularly among the agrarian <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> of the Four Corners region. Their sedentary village life and dependence on corn as a staple crop created even more of a need for blocky, abrasive rock—mainly sandstone—for use as manos, metates, and wall building, among other purposes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Right Rock, Right Purpose</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Decisions about which rock types best fit the needs of the toolmaker were based on several key criteria. Implements requiring a sharp edge or tip, such as knives and projectile points, could be made only from rocks that break in what is known as “conchoidal fracture,” in which sufficient force applied by a “flintknapper” at the correct angle near an edge produces sharp-edged pieces called flakes that can be used as is for simple cutting tasks. The toolmaker can then modify the flake or the nodule from which it was struck (called a core) into other needed implements. Among the rocks that break in this manner are chert, quartzite, basalt, petrified wood, and obsidian.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In selecting toolstones, artisans also sought out homogeneous rock samples without internal cracks or impurities and of a size fitting the tool’s purpose, from tiny, delicate items used for etching or piercing to large, heavy items used for pounding or chopping. For most tasks, toolmakers preferred more durable rock types that could withstand repeated uses before needing repair or replacement. An important exception was glassy obsidian, which is not at all durable but does break with an extremely sharp edge that was so favored that it became an important trade item. The texture of a rock’s surface also played a role in the selection process, with smoother types such as chert providing sharper edges while coarser sandstones and granites make better seed-milling tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, the visual attractiveness or aesthetic quality of a rock was clearly part of the toolmaking story. Archaeologists find many artifacts crafted from truly beautiful gem-like materials that were not accidental choices. Many of the spear points in the Drake Cache are proof of this aspect of the toolmaker’s craft. Clearly, the most skilled flintknappers were able to impart an unmistakable artistic imprint to their products even as they created the functional tools they needed to help them survive and thrive.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sonia Harmand et al., “3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools From Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya,” <em>Nature</em> 521 (21 May 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies</em>, eds. Marcel Kornfeld, George C. Frison, and Mary Lou Larson, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis J. Stanford and Margaret A. Jodry, “The Drake Clovis Cache,” <em>Current Research in the Pleistocene</em> 5 (1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Stiger, “Lithic Sources in the Upper Gunnison Basin,” in <em>Hunter–Gatherer Archaeology of the Colorado High Country</em>, by Mark Stiger (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://insider.si.edu/2012/05/3d-imaging-adds-remarkable-dimension-to-understanding-of-north-americas-clovis-stone-points/">3-D Imaging Adds Remarkable New Understanding of North America’s Mysterious Clovis People</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jenny L. Adams, <em>Ground Stone Analysis: A Technological Approach</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/archaeologists-take-wrong-turn-find-world-s-oldest-stone-tools-update/">Archaeologists Take Wrong Turn, Find World’s Oldest Stone Tools</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tim Church, Julie E. Francis, and Cherie Haury, <em>Lithic Resource Studies: A Sourcebook for Archaeologists</em>, Lithic Technology Special Publication No. 3 (Tulsa, OK, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John C. Whittaker, <em>Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools</em> (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 21:37:34 +0000 yongli 3089 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Clovis http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2820--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2820.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/PitbladoFig-1-Clovis-Folsom-pts_0.jpg?itok=KcsTjws6" width="1000" height="1194" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis and Folsom projectile points</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Clovis (left) and Folsom (right) fluted projectile points from the Dent and Lindenmeier sites, northern Colorado Plains.&nbsp; The “flute” on each is the large flake scar that begins at the bottom of the spear point and travels up toward the tip.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2821--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2821.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pitblado-Fig-3-CO-Clovis-FINAL_0.jpg?itok=Kt-vJf9A" width="1000" height="833" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado Clovis site locations</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map includes Clovis isolated finds and lithic scatters as coded in the the Colorado COMPASS prehistoric site database, together with Colorado Clovis sites mentioned by name in the text but not entered into COMPASS.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- 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BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-06T13:59:20-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 6, 2017 - 13:59" class="datetime">Wed, 12/06/2017 - 13:59</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis" data-a2a-title="Clovis"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fclovis&amp;title=Clovis"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The term <em>Clovis</em> refers to the earliest widespread archaeological culture to have occupied North and Central America, ca. 13,250–12,800 years ago. Since the discovery of the first Clovis artifacts in the 1930s, debate has raged over such fundamental issues as whether people who left behind Clovis materials were, in fact, the first Americans; where in the Old World Clovis ancestors originated; and whether Clovis people disproportionately killed megafauna (such as mammoths and mastodons) and avoided smaller game. From the time the term <em>Clovis</em> emerged to describe first Americans, Colorado’s Clovis record has played a central role in these discussions.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>In 1932 <strong>Regis College</strong> geology professor Father Conrad Bilgery began excavating the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> located just south of <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley">Greeley</a>,</strong> recovering numerous mammoth bones and a large fluted projectile point. The following year, Colorado Museum of Natural History (today’s <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature &amp; Science</strong></a>) paleontology curator Jesse Figgins agreed to continue Bilgery’s work. About five years before, Figgins had overseen paradigm-shifting field research at the ancient <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> site in northeastern New Mexico, where he discovered small, thin, <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a> amidst the bones of now extinct giant <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. This work resolved a debate that had flummoxed archaeologists and the public since the mid-1800s: whether humans had lived in the Americas during the Ice Age. They clearly had, and they hunted mammals.</p> <p>The Dent spearpoints reminded Figgins of Folsom projectiles writ large. He therefore referred to them as “Folsomoid” and surmised that they were simply hefty Folsom points, engineered to better penetrate thick-skinned mammoths. This interpretation changed some years later, however, after excavations at the Blackwater Draw site in east-central New Mexico exposed mammoth bones and Dent-like spearpoints below Ice Age bison bones and Folsom points. This indicated that the more robust fluted points were older than finely flaked Folsom and should be distinguished as such with distinct terminology. Because Blackwater Draw is located near the town of Clovis, New Mexico, an archaeological culture by that name—long thought to be North America’s oldest—was born.</p> <p>Had Figgins recovered evidence for the greater antiquity of the large spearpoints observed at Dent, he would doubtless have named the new artifact type accordingly, and what have been known for eight decades as Clovis points would have been named for their Colorado site instead. But Clovis it was, and the debates raged on. As of this writing, most archaeologists agree that humans occupied at least parts of the Americas no less than a thousand years or so before Clovis time; Clovis ancestors occupied northeast Asia prior to immigrating to the New World; Clovis technology developed in the New World (rather than having been transported from the Old World); and Clovis people ate more than just mammoths.</p> <h2>Clovis Tool Kit</h2> <p>Although the distinctive Clovis projectile point is the most commonly recovered and best-known component of the Clovis tool kit, Clovis hunter-gatherers manufactured a wide variety of implements. These include other chipped stone artifacts, such as massive bifaces and other more specialized stone tools (e.g., scrapers, blades and blade cores, perforators, and gravers). Clovis sites have also yielded occasional bone and ivory cylindrical rods—often interpreted as the parts of composite spear-throwing devices, or atlatls, to which Clovis hunters affixed Clovis points—and in one case, an ivory shaft straightener.</p> <p>Although it is virtually impossible not to appreciate the functionality and sheer beauty of the Clovis tools, it is crucial to keep in mind that after 13,000 years of exposure to the ravages of geologic and geochemical processes, the vast majority of objects they made have disintegrated. All known hunter-gatherers manufacture a wide array of perishable items (e.g., clothing, blankets, and baskets), but the more time passes, the less likely such materials will survive.</p> <p>The disproportionate preservation of material culture has also prompted many archaeologists to interpret Clovis people as specialized big-game hunters. Today we find almost exclusively stone, bone, and ivory hunting tools dating to Clovis time; therefore, it follows that Clovis people must have emphasized hunting at the expense of other pursuits. That is not necessarily or even likely true, although this perspective persists in some archaeological literature and many museum exhibits.</p> <h2>Clovis Sites</h2> <p>Clovis-era sites include kill sites, camps, caches, a human burial, and many isolated occurrences of Clovis projectile points. The sites occur across North America and as far south as parts of Central America, although it remains unclear whether the thousands of isolated projectile points recovered all date to precisely the same time frame; those found in the eastern United States may be a little younger than those found west of the Mississippi River. Archaeologists also debate where Clovis projectile point technology arose and whether the technology spread from north to south, east to west, or along some other trajectory.</p> <p>Unequivocal Clovis kill sites occur principally in the western United States, though a few occur elsewhere. Archaeologists identify Clovis kills by an indisputable association between Clovis projectile points and the bones of now extinct megafauna, principally mammoths and mastodons. Blackwater Draw and the Dent site are examples of only fourteen or so widely accepted Clovis kill localities in North America. Campsites are even rarer than kill sites and are identified by a wider array of artifact types and more diverse subsistence remains than single-species kills.</p> <p>Like kill sites, caches occur more frequently in western North America than elsewhere. They consist of intentionally buried collections of Clovis bifaces, projectile points, blades, flakes, and other artifacts. Roughly two dozen caches have been documented in the United States—four of them in Colorado, including the well-known <strong>Drake Cache</strong>. Drake included thirteen complete Clovis projectile points made of exquisite stone from the Alibates chert quarries in the Texas Panhandle. Archaeologists consider the Anzick site in Montana to be a cache as well because it yielded eighty-six Clovis artifacts. However, that cache, unlike the others, accompanied the burial of a one- to two-year-old child with a genome similar to that of ancient Siberians and fifty-two contemporary Native American populations.</p> <h2>Clovis in Colorado</h2> <p>Colorado is physically and historically at the heart of Clovis archaeology. The Dent mammoth kill was the first professionally excavated Clovis site, which is located at roughly the geographic center of all widely known North American Clovis kills, camps, and caches. As noted, four of the twenty-three published Clovis caches on the continent—17 percent—are located within Colorado’s borders. Although the density of isolated occurrences of Clovis points and Clovis points accompanied by scatters of chipped stone debitage (lithic scatters, or when artifact diversity is high, open camps) is lower in Colorado than in some regions, the state’s site database shows that nearly two dozen such localities have been documented to date.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pitblado-bonnie" hreflang="und">Pitblado, Bonnie</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fluted-points" hreflang="en">fluted points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David G. Anderson, D. Shane Miller, Stephen J. Yerka, J. Christopher Gillam, Erik N. Johanson, Derek T. Anderson, Albert C. Goodyear, and Ashley M. Smallwood, “PIDBA (Paleoindian Database of the Americas) 2010: Current Status and Findings,” <em>Archaeology of Eastern North America</em> 38 (2010).</p> <p>Bruce B. Huckell and J. David Kilby, <em>Clovis Caches: Recent Discoveries and New Research</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “How Many Elephant Kills Are 14? Clovis Mammoth and Mastodon Kills in Context,” <em>Quaternary International</em> 191 (2008).</p> <p>Kenneth B. Tankersley, “The Concept of Clovis and the Peopling of North America,” in <em>The Settlement of the American Continents, A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography</em>, ed. C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2004).</p> <p>Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., “Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>Science</em> 315 (2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James Adovasio, with Jake Page, <em>The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology’s Greatest Mystery</em> (New York: Modern Library Paperbacks, 2003).</p> <p>Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters, eds., <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> <p>Gary Haynes, <em>The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era</em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” University of Tennessee, Knoxville, last modified October 4, 2015.</p> <p>Ashley M. Smallwood and Thomas A. Jennings, eds., <em>Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 06 Dec 2017 20:59:20 +0000 yongli 2819 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Folsom People http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Folsom People</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1477--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1477.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/original-folsom-point"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Folsom_0.jpg?itok=B9f1fGJf" width="1000" height="1282" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/original-folsom-point" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Original Folsom point</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Preserved original discovery of the Folsom point near Folsom, New Mexico. The removed matrix with bison bone and point are at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1479--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1479.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fluted-point-2"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/barger2FolsomArnold%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=YTfFYEI0" width="1000" height="1023" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fluted-point-2" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fluted point 2</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Clovis points from the Drake Cache site, Logan County, Colorado</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-22T14:59:07-06:00" title="Wednesday, June 22, 2016 - 14:59" class="datetime">Wed, 06/22/2016 - 14:59</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people" data-a2a-title="Folsom People"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffolsom-people&amp;title=Folsom%20People"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Folsom groups, also called Folsom peoples or<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong> Folsom culture</strong></a>, occupied all of Colorado between about 13,000 and 12,000 years ago. They were not the first people in these areas, although they might have been the first in some newly unglaciated portions of the high Rockies. Nevertheless, Folsom peoples were widespread throughout Colorado and beyond, and in some places they were apparently quite numerous.</p> <h2>Discovery</h2> <p>The Folsom culture was first discovered near Folsom, New Mexico, in 1926, just over Colorado’s southern border. The discovery is a fascinating story of a former slave, a self-educated naturalist, and his quest for knowledge. The Denver Museum of Natural History (now <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>) played a significant role in the Folsom investigations and still holds the first documented association of humans and Pleistocene fauna in its collections, which are usually on display. The investigation marks a major change in the understanding of American prehistory: the realization that the ancestors of Native Americans have been on the continent since the <strong>Pleistocene</strong> (Ice Ages).</p> <p>The discovery of other Folsom sites followed throughout Colorado, but with the exception of the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a> site in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, few finds were accompanied by major excavations. Notable investigations at several places in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> expanded the geographic range of Folsom groups into the mountains, but the sites remained underinvestigated until the later part of the twentieth century, when their true value was realized. A major expansion of the Folsom database in Colorado occurred at the end of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first. This showed the extensive use of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> by one of the earliest inhabitants of North America. On the continental scale these studies changed perceptions of Folsom people from plains <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunters to perhaps much more broad-based foragers—people who subsisted on a wide variety of plants and animals—occupying various niches of the continent.</p> <h2>Points</h2> <p>Folsom sites are identified by Folsom projectile points, which include the following:</p> <p><strong>Projectile point preforms.</strong> This is a stage in the manufacturing sequence of most projectile points.</p> <p><strong>Channel flakes or flutes. </strong>A flute is the groove created when a thin piece of stone is removed from the point longitudinally; the thin piece is the channel flake.</p> <p><strong>Ultrathin bifaces. </strong>A biface is a chipped stone tool worked on both faces; when that work involves thinning the center of the face more than the edges, the biface is termed an ultrathin.</p> <p>The manufacturing of Folsom projectile points has fascinated archaeologists, the public, and flint knappers—replicators of ancient stone tool technologies—since the earliest days of their discovery.</p> <p>The finished Folsom projectile point is characterized by two longitudinal flakes (flutes) removed from each face of the point, followed by finishing flakes between the point edge and the flute ridge. Both the flutes and in many instances the finishing flakes constitute much of the fascination—the flutes because they often result in breakage of the point and cause high failure rates, and the finishing flaking because it is occasionally so fine and regular that it appears to be machine-made.</p> <p>Of course, machines did not exist until recently, so how did Folsom people perform such <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="craftsmanship" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lgw2qmx9bxoj9b9ef" data-wsc-lang="en_US">craftsmanship</span>? This has yet to be answered. Folsom ultrathin bifaces or knives are also distinct in that the manufacturing process results in extremely thin forms that archaeologists argue were specialized tools for preparing dry meat.</p> <h2>Mountain People</h2> <p>The fascinating new data from the Colorado high country suggest that the Rocky Mountains may have had an especially heavy human occupation during Folsom times. Site density estimates for <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a> are comparable to or even higher than other high-density Folsom sites in the Central Rio Grande Valley and Llano Estacado (the so-called staked plains of west Texas). This is even more stunning considering that the Colorado parks with heavy Folsom occupations are high-altitude, montane environments where human physiology is affected by lower oxygen levels.</p> <p>At least some of the cultural responses to these conditions seem to be intensification of resource extraction and heat conservation, the latter accomplished through manufacture of heavy tailored clothing and construction of insulated structures. Archaeologists Mark Stiger at the <strong>Tenderfoot</strong> site in the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Basin and Todd Surovell and Nicole Waguespack at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site"><strong>Barger Gulch site</strong></a> in Middle Park have shown that Folsom people regularly built structures at these high-altitude sites that were most likely used in the winter.</p> <p>In summary, while Folsom people are known to have occupied all the states adjacent to Colorado as well as much of North America, in Colorado they likely practiced a variety of subsistence pursuits, relied more heavily on clothing and structures, and seem to have been especially fond of mountain basins, where their sites are particularly common.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kornfeld-marcel" hreflang="und">Kornfeld, Marcel</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fluted-points" hreflang="en">fluted points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lindenmeier" hreflang="en">lindenmeier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>C. Vance Haynes, Jr., “Clovis-Folsom Geochronology and Climatic Change,” in <em>From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic–Paleo-Indian Adaptations</em>, ed. Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov (New York: Plenum Press, 1993).</p> <p>James J. Hester and James Grady, “Paleoindian Social Patterns on the Llano Estacado,” <em>Museum Journal</em> 17 (1977).</p> <p>Margaret A. Jodry and Dennis J. Stanford, “Stewart’s Cattle Guard Site: An Analysis of Bison Remains in a Folsom Kill-Butchery Campsite,” in <em>Ice Age Hunters of the Rockies</em>, ed. Dennis J. Stanford and Jane S. Day (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1992).</p> <p>Mark Stiger, “A Folsom Structure in the Colorado Mountains,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 71 (April 2006).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Barger Gulch Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George Agogino, “The Amateur Involvement in the Discovery of the Folsom Type Site,” <em>Chesopiean</em> 23, no. 4 (1985).</p> <p>George A. Agogino and Al Parrish, “Fowler-Parrish Site: A Folsom Campsite in Eastern Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 16 (May 1971).</p> <p>Brian N. Andrews, “<a href="http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;amp;res_dat=xri:pqdiss&amp;amp;rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&amp;amp;rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3403864">Folsom Adaptive Systems in the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado: An Analysis of the Mountaineer Site</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Sloan Emery and Dennis Stanford, “Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Investigations at the Cattle Guard Site, Alamosa County, Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 48 (March 1982).</p> <p>Jesse D. Figgins, “The Antiquity of Man in America,” <em>Natural History</em> 27, no. 3 (1927).</p> <p>C. T. Hurst, “A Folsom Location in the San Luis Valley, Colorado: A Preliminary Report,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 7 (September 1941).</p> <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Jason LaBelle and Cody Newton, “<a href="https://www.academia.edu/8773465/Red_Ocher_Endscrapers_and_the_Folsom_Occupation_of_the_Lindenmeier_Site_Colorado_with_Cody_Newton_">Red Ocher, Endscrapers, and the Folsom Occupation of the Lindenmeier Site, Colorado</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Lithic Casting Lab, “<a href="http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2012marchlindenmeiersitepage1.htm">The Lindenmeier Folsom Site</a>,” February 29, 2012.</p> <p>David J. Meltzer, <em>Folsom: New Archaeological Investigations of a Classic Paleoindian Bison Kill</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).</p> <p>Brian S. Naze, “The Folsom Occupation of Middle Park, Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 52 (December 1986).</p> <p>Bonnie L. Pitblado, “Paleoindian Presence in Southwest Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 60 (winter 1994).</p> <p>Frank H. H. Roberts, “Additional Information on the Folsom Complex: Report on the Second Season’s Investigations at the Lindenmeier Site in Northern Colorado (with 12 plates),” <em>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</em> 95, no. 10 (1936).</p> <p>Southern Methodist University, “<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php">Folsom Site, NM</a>,” updated June 10, 2011.</p> <p>University of California Museum of Paleontology, “<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/pleistocene.php">The Pleistocene Epoch</a>,” updated June 10, 2011.</p> <p>University of Oklahoma, “<a href="https://www.ou.edu/cas/archsur/game/pdffiles/paleo.pdf">Folsom Culture</a>.”</p> <p>Western State Colorado University, “<a href="https://western.edu/academics/undergraduate/anthropology/folsom-points">Folsom Points</a>.”</p> <p>Western State Colorado University, “<a href="https://western.edu/academics/undergraduate/anthropology/folsom-tools">Folsom Tools</a>.”</p> <p>Hannah Marie Wormington, <em>Ancient Man in North America</em>, 4th ed., Popular Series No. 4 (Denver: Denver Museum of Natural History, 1957).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 22 Jun 2016 20:59:07 +0000 yongli 1475 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Yucca House National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1311--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1311.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Yucca-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=NE1Hfvsp" width="1000" height="631" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jackson&#039;s View of the Upper House at &quot;Aztec Spring&quot;</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>William H. Jackson's famous photo taken in 1874 is one of the earliest known images of the Yucca House site, showing more extensive standing walls than now exist. The view is to the southeast with Mesa Verde in the background and Capt. John T. Moss standing in front of a wall near the center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1312--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1312.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_0343_2_0.jpg?itok=KelZ2fJJ" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View from the Upper House looking east at the Lower House</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1313--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1313.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/yucca_house_past_3-D_0.jpg?itok=b3UpYb6x" width="1000" height="666" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cyber-Montage of Yucca House Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This "virtual reality" reconstruction of Yucca House by Dennis R. Holloway, Architect, looks east with the Mesa Verde escarpment in the background. It is based on mapping by Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and photography by Adriel Heisey.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T15:29:48-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 15:29" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 15:29</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Yucca House National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fyucca-house-national-monument&amp;title=Yucca%20House%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Yucca House National Monument was established to protect and preserve a large <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>village south of <strong>Cortez</strong> in the southwestern corner of Colorado. Yucca House is an important Ancestral Pueblo village based on its size, unique configurations, and prominent, highly visible location in the Montezuma Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Location</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The monument is situated along the western edge of the Montezuma Valley on the lower, eastern slope of <strong>Ute Mountain</strong>, at an elevation of approximately 5,800 feet and with an average rainfall of 11–15 inches and average frost-free period of 100 to 135 days. This area is geologically diverse with access to Mancos Shale, igneous rock cobbles (diorite), both Dakota and Point Lookout sandstones, and gravel and alluvium terraces. All these geological materials were used in the construction of Yucca House.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description and Importance</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Yucca House has two distinct architectural complexes: the Lower House and the West Complex (also called the Upper House by Holmes in 1878). The Lower House is an L-shaped, rectangular room block containing eight first-story rooms and possibly second-story rooms given the amount of rubble. South of the L-shaped room block is a plaza that is defined by a low masonry enclosing wall on the west and south, and an earthen berm along the southeast edge. In the middle of the plaza is a great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The West Complex is a D- or horseshoe-shaped pueblo bisected by a spring that includes the Upper House, a prominent building with two enclosed kivas. This layout is strikingly similar to that of Sand Canyon Pueblo and other late Pueblo III period (post-AD 1200) villages. The West Complex contains multiple room blocks, as many as 100 kivas, several towers, a great kiva, and a circular bi-walled structure. Based on the number of kivas, there are probably 450 to 600 rooms. Most of the residential architecture is north of the spring and Upper House, and the public architecture is on the south side.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A critical issue for understanding its regional significance is determining when Ancestral Pueblo people constructed and lived in the village. Yucca House has long been thought of as a Chacoan <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great house</strong></a> due to the distinctiveness of the Upper House, which has architectural characteristics typical of great houses. However, the limited data available points to Yucca House being a Pueblo III period village (AD 1150–1290) with a strong post-1250s occupation. There are only three <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dates</strong></a> for the site and they all come from the southeast corner of the Upper House. These samples, collected by Al Lancaster, date to the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Much of the data regarding chronology comes from the West Complex, and there is little data about the construction, occupation, and use of the Lower House. Thus, until further testing is done, we do not know if the Lower House was built during the Pueblo II period or earlier, and then used until the late AD 1200s, or if it was exclusively built and occupied during the Pueblo III period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History of the Monument</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On August 19, 1892, Henry [Harry] Van Kleek purchased Aztec Springs from George W. Stafford, likely because he wanted the reliable water source for ranching and was intrigued by the large Pueblo site as a potential tourist destination. Jesse Walter Fewkes, an early archaeologist who worked at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, visited the site in 1918 and was so impressed with its size and preservation that he convinced Van Kleek to deed a 9.6 acre parcel that included most of Yucca House to the government on July 2, 1919. Because of the significance of Yucca House as an intact example of a valley pueblo, President Woodrow Wilson declared it a National Monument, issuing Presidential Proclamation No. 1549 on December 19, 1919. It was at this time that the name of the site was changed from Aztec Springs to Yucca House. This was Fewkes’ suggestion, on account of its location on the slopes of Ute Mountain, which is referred to by the Ute and other local groups as the “mountain with lots of yucca growing on it.” Fewkes noted that Yucca Mountain is a place name that Tewa Pueblo people used to refer to this area and that they also consider Yucca House an ancestral village.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1919, Yucca House National Monument has been managed by Mesa Verde National Park. In May 1990, the monument was expanded to thirty-four acres when Hallie Ismay donated an additional twenty-four acres to provide access to Yucca House from the south and to preserve several sites on the ridge near the main village. Among these sites is Snider’s Well, which is situated on a gravel topped ridge of Mancos Shale that runs south from Yucca House. Snider’s Well is an isolated <strong>Chacoan</strong> period kiva containing a mass burial that was excavated by the <strong>Wetherills</strong> during the spring and early summer of 1894. Recent survey on adjacent lands has determined there were a series of several isolated kivas along this same ridge.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaeological Research at Yucca House</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Relatively little formal archaeological investigation has occurred at Yucca House. Although <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>W. H. Jackson</strong></a> was the first to describe the site as part of the 1874 <strong>Hayden Expedition</strong>, it was W. H. Holmes who drew the first sketch map of Yucca House when he returned to the site the following year. Fewkes also published a description and a schematic map (not to scale) in his Bureau of American Ethnology report. In 1964, Al Schroeder and Al Lancaster conducted the only archaeological testing and stabilization at Yucca House to date. Schroeder excavated five test trenches to the north of the Upper House in the West Complex, which uncovered structures with both adobe and masonry wall construction, and a portion of a room with a flagstone floor. Lancaster excavated in the Lower House where he tested the great kiva and did limited excavation and stabilization of the north wall of the Lower House room block.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Bob Powers and his colleagues included Yucca House in their inventory of Chacoan outliers in the northern Southwest. Most recently, in 2000, Donna Glowacki directed the Yucca House Mapping Project, a joint effort between Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and Mesa Verde National Park to produce the first detailed and systematic map of the site, conduct an analysis of surface pottery, and use remote sensing, resistivity, and magnetometry to map sub-surface features. Although we now have a better sense of layout and spatial relationships among the architectural features at Yucca House, we still know relatively little about the length of the Yucca House occupation, the role of public architecture in the village, and the extent of social interaction and other relationships with nearby large villages.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/glowacki-donna-m" hreflang="und">Glowacki, Donna M. </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/blackburn-fred-m" hreflang="und">Blackburn, Fred M. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sniders-well" hreflang="en">Snider&#039;s Well</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred M. Blackburn, <em>The Wetherills: Friends of Mesa Verde</em> (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Whitman Cross, <em>The Laccolithic Mountain Groups of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona</em>, Department of Interior, US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1895).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, Letter to Mr. Albright Regarding the Origins of the Name Yucca House, letter on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, <em>Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 70 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1919).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donna M. Glowacki, “Yucca House (5MT5006) Mapping Project Report,” unpublished manuscript on file, Mesa Verde National Park and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Holmes, <em>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Examined During the Summer of 1875</em>, extracted from Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. II, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Jackson, “Report of W. H. Jackson on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado,” in <em>Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Embracing Colorado and Parts of Adjacent Territories; Being a Report of Progress of the Exploration for the Year 1874</em>, F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William D. Lipe and Mark D. Varien, “Pueblo III (A.D. 1150–1300),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em>, eds. William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and R. H. Wilshusen (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert C. McBride and Diane E. McBride, “Cultural Resource Survey of the Bernard and Nancy Karwick Property, Montezuma County, Colorado: A Study of the Greater Yucca House Community,” unpublished paper submitted to History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frank McNitt, <em>Richard Wetherill: Anasazi, Pioneer Explorer of the Southwestern Ruins </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde National Park, “Management Plan, Statement for Management, Yucca House National Monument,” unpublished report on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1987.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert P. Powers, William B. Gillespie, and Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Outlier Survey: A Regional View of Settlement in the San Juan Basin</em>, Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service (Albuquerque: US Department of the Interior, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas Ramsey, A. Price, and D. Curtis, “Preliminary Information from the Cortez Soil Survey Area,” United States Department of Agriculture (Cortez, CO: Soil Conservation Service, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis R. Holloway, “<a href="http://www.dennisrhollowayarchitect.com/YuccaHouse.html">Yucca House, Four Corners Ancestral Puebloan, A.D. 1150-1300, near Towaoc, Colorado</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yuho/index.htm">Yucca House National Monument, Colorado</a>,” National Park Service, last modified November 17, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 21:29:48 +0000 yongli 1308 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Plains Woodland http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/plains-woodland <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plains Woodland</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1627--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1627.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plains-woodland-pot"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Plains-Woodland-Culture-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=faVRbayd" width="1000" height="1049" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plains-woodland-pot" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plains Woodland pot</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Nearly complete Plains Woodland pot from Franktown Cave.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1629--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1629.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plains-woodland-artifacts"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Plains-Woodland-Culture-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=R7rMW719" width="1000" height="773" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plains-woodland-artifacts" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plains Woodland artifacts</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arrowheads, stone tools and part of a pot from the Rainbow Creek site, Douglas County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-02-25T14:13:07-07:00" title="Thursday, February 25, 2016 - 14:13" class="datetime">Thu, 02/25/2016 - 14:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/plains-woodland" data-a2a-title="Plains Woodland"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fplains-woodland&amp;title=Plains%20Woodland"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Plains Woodland period covers approximately a thousand years of Colorado prehistory across a large portion of the state. Plains Woodland describes the groups of people occupying much of the western plains from present-day Nebraska and Kansas, west of the Missouri River, to the eastern plains of Colorado in the period of approximately AD 150 to AD 1150. In Colorado, most of the sites recorded are in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> drainage, along the Hogback and foothills of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>, and along the Palmer Divide.</p> <p>In the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> Basin in southeastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico, several sites assigned to the <strong>Developmental period</strong> have been called Plains Woodland sites by some researchers. These sites date to the same period as those in northeastern Colorado and have similar artifacts and features, though they also show influences from other cultures in the region.</p> <p>Why do some archaeologists use “Plains Woodland” while others prefer “Developmental period”? In northeastern Colorado “Plains Woodland” has been used for many decades. The term came into use because archaeologists identified similarities in the material culture of these sites and those of Woodland sites to the east. More recently other archaeologists, especially those studying sites in southeastern Colorado, have disputed the use of “Plains Woodland,” arguing that the term is used too broadly over too large a geographical area and places too much emphasis on a connection to cultural groups considerably further east.</p> <p>Although many archaeologists feel the term is no longer useful, the name “Plains Woodland” is still commonly used in northeastern Colorado and refers to the fact that the technology seen during this period, notably in ceramics, shows similar traits to that of the Woodland culture to the east.</p> <p>Regardless of its name, new technologies such as the introduction of pottery and the bow-and-arrow differentiate this period from the preceding <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>. Archaeological evidence from a number of the sites occupied during the Plains Woodland period suggests that people lived in small groups in structures ranging from simple lean-tos to shallow pithouses, the floors and lower walls of which were sometimes lined with slabs of rock. Archaeologists have found post holes in these pithouses, which suggest the superstructure would have consisted of poles most likely covered in skins and branches. These homes also contained storage pits and hearths for cooking.</p> <p>People subsisted primarily by hunting and gathering. Hunters used spears and, as the period progressed, the bow and arrow, as is shown by the increased use of smaller projectile points. Game included deer, bison, and elk, depending on seasonal availability. Smaller animals such as rabbits and prairie dogs were also trapped for food.</p> <p>Evidence at archaeological sites suggests that people in this period gathered many plant species and had the ground stone milling tools needed to process them. In addition to wild plants, maize has been found at some sites. It is not clear if the maize was cultivated at camps, but it is possible that some Plains Woodlands groups practiced limited horticulture.</p> <p>Pottery is a new technology during this period in Colorado. Although only very few complete or nearly complete pots have been found, they generally have wide mouths and cone-shaped bases. The pots were built using the paddle and anvil technique in which pots formed with slabs or pieces of clay were beaten with a paddle on one side of the pot wall while a stone was held on the other side. This was done prior to firing to further shape the pot. Plains Woodlands pots were often shaped with cord-wrapped paddles, which left visible cord impressions on the outside of the pots.</p> <p>Animals were not just hunted for food. Plains Woodlands groups used skins and sinew to produce clothing and moccasins, an example of which was found at the <strong><a href="/article/franktown-cave">Franktown Cave</a>,</strong> a large rockshelter site along the Palmer Divide. They may have also woven sandals and baskets from yucca.</p> <p>Burials during this period vary in nature. In some cases individuals are found buried in pits, or crevices in cliffs. They are generally in a flexed position, with legs bent up toward the chest. In some cases groups of individuals are buried at the same location. There are also examples of secondary burials, where one or more individuals were reburied. Archaeologists in Kansas and Nebraska have excavated some ossuaries, or pits containing the often disarticulated remains of a number of individuals. Burials during the Plains Woodland period can contain grave goods. These may consist of tools the individuals used during their lives, freshwater shell pendants, shell beads and pendants from Pacific Coast sources, or ocher.</p> <p>Some of the most important sites in Colorado that date to the Plains Woodland period include the <strong>Franktown Cave</strong>, <a href="/article/magic-mountain-archaeological-site"><strong>Magic Mountain</strong></a>, and Bradford House II and III sites.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/rothwell-sarah" hreflang="und">Rothwell, Sarah</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-period" hreflang="en">Formative Period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-farming" hreflang="en">Prehistoric farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/early-ceramic-period" hreflang="en">Early Ceramic period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/developmental-period" hreflang="en">Developmental period</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>John R. Bozell, “Plains Woodland Complexes of Western Kansas and Adjacent Portions of Nebraska and Colorado,” in <em>Kansas Archaeology</em>, ed. Robert J. Hoard and William E. Banks (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> <p>Kevin Gilmore, “Late Prehistoric Stage (A.D. 150–1540),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Platte River Basin</em>, ed. Kevin Gilmore et al. (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>Kevin Gilmore, “<a href="https://portfolio.du.edu/downloadItem/150209">National Register Nomination Form, Franktown Cave (5DA272), Douglas County, Colorado</a>” (Denver: Archaeological Research Institute, University of Denver, 2005). &nbsp;</p> <p>Ann Mary Johnson and Alfred E. Johnson, “The Plains Woodland,” in <em>Archaeology on the Great Plains</em>, ed. W. Raymond Wood (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> <p>Stephen Kalasz, Mark Mitchell, and Christian J. Zier, “Late Prehistoric Stage,” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Arkansas River Basin</em>, ed. Christian J. Zier and Stephen M. Kalasz (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, “The Post-Archaic of Eastern Colorado,” in <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1997).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, “The Plains Woodland Hunters and Gatherers,” in <em>Central Plains Prehistory: Holocene Environments and Culture Change in the Republican River Basin</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 25 Feb 2016 21:13:07 +0000 yongli 1137 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mantle's Cave http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mantles-cave <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mantle&#039;s Cave</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--913--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--913.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mantles-cave"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Photo%25201_0.jpg?itok=dkyL5A9E" width="1000" height="703" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mantles-cave" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mantle&#039;s Cave</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p align="left">Mantle’s Cave, located in Dinosaur National Monument, is an important archaeological site containing well-preserved artifacts from the Fremont period, about 1,000 years ago.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--914--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--914.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/storage-cists"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Photo%25203_0.jpg?itok=ywawuNpC" width="1000" height="712" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/storage-cists" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Storage cists</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Central portion of Mantle’s Cave showing four storage cists built against rocks in the foreground.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--915--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--915.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/earthen-cists"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Photo%25206_0.jpg?itok=aN5gjweY" width="1000" height="698" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/earthen-cists" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Earthen cists</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cluster of twenty-six earthen cists on the western end of Mantle's Cave.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--916--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--916.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/earthen-cist-and-cover"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Photo%25207%20%282%29.jpg?itok=dETCab5D" width="1000" height="705" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/earthen-cist-and-cover" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Earthen cist and cover</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Typical earthen cist with its sandstone slab cover adjacent.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--917--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--917.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/masonry-cist"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Photo%252010_0.jpg?itok=vOjZTVOr" width="1000" height="689" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/masonry-cist" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Masonry cist</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Coursed masonry cist built on a large slab fallen from the cave roof.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-16T11:17:32-07:00" title="Monday, November 16, 2015 - 11:17" class="datetime">Mon, 11/16/2015 - 11:17</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mantles-cave" data-a2a-title="Mantle&#039;s Cave"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmantles-cave&amp;title=Mantle%27s%20Cave"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Mantle’s Cave is the most important <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong> </a>period archaeological site excavated in northwestern Colorado. Artifacts recovered from the cave were instrumental in defining the Fremont culture. Because the cave is dry, artifacts that are not usually seen at archaeological sites were preserved and show the great diversity of tools, food, and clothing items used by these prehistoric people.</p> <p>Mantle’s Cave is a large rock shelter about 400 feet above the <a href="/article/yampa-river"><strong>Yampa River</strong></a> in the Castle Park area of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dinosaur-national-monument"><strong>Dinosaur National Monument</strong></a> in northwestern Colorado. The cave is about 1,000 feet wide and 130 feet deep and has a very high ceiling. It is dry inside all year and, because it faces north it remains cool during the summer months, making it ideal for the preservation of wood, bone, plant, hide, fur, and feather artifacts that typically do not survive natural decomposition. The survival of these ancient artifacts gives us a more complete picture of how the Fremont people lived nearly 1,000 years ago.</p> <h2>First Discoveries</h2> <p>The cave is named for Charles and Evelyn Mantle, who ranched nearby and discovered the cave sometime before 1921. The cave contained many visible prehistoric stone and earthen storage pits, some of which Evelyn Mantle excavated. Archaeologists first got to know the cave in 1933, when it was visited during the Penrose-Taylor Expedition from Colorado College and the Fountain Valley School. They mapped the site and uncovered pottery, basketry, buckskin, corn, and squash. A few year later, fishhooks, snares, and netting were found in the cave. Mantle’s Cave became part of Dinosaur National Monument when the monument was enlarged in 1938.</p> <p>In 1939 and 1940, the University of Colorado Museum did extensive excavations under the direction of Charles Scoggin. They excavated storage pits and a large amount of the cave floor. Most of the storage pits were empty, but a wide variety of artifacts were found in some of the pits and in other places throughout the cave. Scoggin was killed during World War II before he was able to complete his excavation report. Robert Burgh, also with the University of Colorado Museum, took up Scoggin’s work. Burgh returned to the cave to do additional excavations in 1947 and 1948.</p> <p>As is typical of prehistoric sites, chipped stone flakes and some stone tools were found, including blades, a drill, and projectile points. Manos, or stones used for grinding, and what could have been either a metate or stone paint palette were also found, indicating food processing and possible paint decoration, which was further indicated by red and yellow ochre. A small amount of plain grayware pottery was also found. These artifacts indicated that the site was used only for brief camping episodes, probably when items were cached in or retrieved from the storage pits.</p> <h2>Food, Clothing, and Tools</h2> <p>Other items found in the cave were fragile, perishable items that typically do not survive and give a fuller picture of the dynamic nature of the region’s prehistoric residents’ way of life. Food items included grass seeds, dried and pulverized insects, bison and other animal bones, pinyon nuts, fruit seeds, digging sticks, squash and pumpkin rinds, beans, and corncobs, kernels, and husks, indicating consumption of both gathered and cultivated plant foods. Fishhooks, arrow points and wooden arrow shafts, as well as snares and nets, demonstrated the range of hunting techniques used by Fremont-era people. Portable containers included a burden basket and other basketry fragments, buckskin pouches, a grass medicine bag, and a twine bag; lumps of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pine</strong></a> resin were found that might have been melted to provide weatherproofing.</p> <p>Clothing items included buckskin sandals or moccasins, rabbit-fur cloth, and a juniper-bark robe; bone awls used to manufacture clothing or bags from hides were also found. Matting of all sorts was found, made from juniper bark, reeds, grass, and willow; human hair may have also been used as a weaving material. Juniper bark was used to make rope, and a piece of a cradle made from reeds was also found. Bone and juniper berry beads, porcupine quills, and feathers may have been used for adornment or decoration. Gaming pieces and slate dice are representative of recreation.</p> <p>Other tools included a rodent tail brush, a deer antler gouge, and a wrench made from a <a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a> horn that was used to straighten arrow shafts. A large bird talon may have had ceremonial use. The most spectacular find was a bag containing ceremonial items. These were a headdress made of orange and black tail feathers from the red-shafted flicker and lined with ermine fur as well as a butterfly pendant, slate beads, a quartzite blade, feather bundles, grass twine, a buckskin thong, an obsidian flake, a corn kernel, and a bean.</p> <h2>Conclusions</h2> <p>In examining the artifacts from Mantle’s Cave, archaeologists recognized that many came from a culture that made baskets, had limited pottery, and had a well-developed agricultural tradition. Familiar with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> (agricultural) cultures of the Four Corners area farther south, archaeologists were convinced that the people were part of what is known as the <strong>Basketmaker</strong> tradition. In the 1960s, enough information had been gathered about the Formative period in northwestern Colorado and north-central Utah to conclude that a culture similar to the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a>, but very different in many respects, was present in the region that archaeologists named the Fremont.</p> <p>The artifacts from Mantle’s Cave were very important in defining the Fremont culture. Mantle’s Cave was excavated before <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dating</strong></a> came into use. In recent years, radiocarbon samples have been processed that confirm the Formative age of most of the artifacts, with dates ranging from AD 530 to AD 1255. In addition, an earlier hunter-and-gatherer period known as the Late <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, is also represented in the cave, dating between about 1771and 1410 BC.</p> <p>In 1988 and 1989, the storage pits were mapped and stabilized so that they could continue to be enjoyed by visitors. At that time, it was found that thirty-six of the fifty-three storage pits excavated in the cave could still be seen. Mantle’s Cave was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994 because of its importance to our understanding of the Fremont culture.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-culture" hreflang="en">Fremont culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dinosaur-national-monument" hreflang="en">Dinosaur National Monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/yampa-river" hreflang="en">Yampa River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-shelter" hreflang="en">rock shelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cave" hreflang="en">cave</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/storage-cist" hreflang="en">storage cist</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mantles-cave" hreflang="en">Mantle&#039;s Cave</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert F. Burgh, “University of Colorado Museum, Dinosaur National Monument Expedition, 1948,” unpublished manuscript (Jensen, UT: Dinosaur National Monument, 1948).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, “The Fremont Culture,” <em>Papers of the Peabody Museum</em> 59, no. 2 (Cambridge, MA, 1969).</p> <p>Gordon W. Hewes, “California Flicker-Quill Headbands in Light of an Ancient Colorado Cave Specimen,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 18 (October 1952).</p> <p>Jonathon C. Horn and Alan D. Reed, National Register of Historic Places Registration Form, Mantle’s Cave, 5MF1 (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., 1989).</p> <p>Jonathon C. Horn and Alan D. Reed, Structural Stabilization of Mantle’s Cave (5MF1), Dinosaur National Monument, Moffat County, Colorado (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 1989).</p> <p>Charles Scoggin, “Preliminary Report of the Archaeological Field Work of the University of Colorado Museum in Yampa Canyon, 1939–40,” unpublished manuscript (Jensen, UT: Dinosaur National Monument, 1941).</p> <p>James A. Truesdale, “Radiocarbon Age for the Flicker-Feather-Headdress from Mantle’s Cave (5MF1), Dinosaur National Monument,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 59 (Fall 1993).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/research/anthropology/collections/mantles-cave.">Mantle’s Cave Archaeological Collection</a>,” University of Colorado Museum of Natural History.</p> <p>“<a href="https://collectioncare.auraria.edu/content/mantles-cave-collection">Mantle’s Cave Collection</a>,” Colorado Connecting to Collections, Center for Colorado &amp; the West at Auraria Library.</p> <p>Queeda Mantle Walker, <em>The Mantle Ranch</em> (Boulder: Fred Pruett Books, 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 16 Nov 2015 18:17:32 +0000 yongli 912 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org The Archaic Period in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Archaic Period in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--595--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--595.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/draper-cave-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/5CR_1-d_001_Draper_Cave_by_Ivol_Hagar_05_1972_0.jpg?itok=Bjwp-FUj" width="1090" height="788" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/draper-cave-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Draper Cave, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even">Natural rockshelters such as Draper Cave in Custer County were popular camp site locations during the Archaic period.</div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-21T14:07:01-06:00" title="Friday, August 21, 2015 - 14:07" class="datetime">Fri, 08/21/2015 - 14:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado" data-a2a-title="The Archaic Period in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Farchaic-period-colorado&amp;title=The%20Archaic%20Period%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Archaic period is an era in the human history of Colorado dating from ca. 6500 BC–AD 200. It is one of the three prehistoric periods used by archaeologists to characterize broad cultural changes that occurred throughout the Americas. It was preceded by the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> (ca. 11,500–7000 BC), extending back into the late Ice Age, and was followed by the <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong></a> (1000 BC–AD 1450), when horticulture based on corn first took place on a broad scale. Throughout the state and region, the lifeways of human populations involved nomadic to semi-nomadic hunting-and-gathering activities that varied depending on local environmental conditions. By any measure, the Archaic period represents a highly successful and long-lived cultural era in Colorado’s history, although it may also be the most obscure in the public eye.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because Colorado’s inhabitants never established permanent settlements during the Archaic period, the physical evidence for their presence is commonly subtle and difficult to spot by the untrained eye. Temporary campsites, sometimes occurring in natural cliff-side alcoves or rock shelters, are common throughout the state and most often recognized by hearths associated with scatters of stone tools and tool-making debris. Longer-term seasonal dwellings also have been found and collectively preserve a surprisingly diverse architectural record. <strong><a href="/article/tipi-0">Tipis</a>,</strong> <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a>, walled rock shelters, pithouses, and log-framed, mud-covered surface huts are among the house types recorded thus far. Abstract and representational forms of <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> are important resources that provide significant insights into ritual systems and beliefs and are locally abundant in southern and western Colorado. Other documented types of sites include material <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado"><strong>quarries</strong></a> and manufacturing areas for stone tools, hunting-related lookouts, game animal kill sites, and vegetal processing stations. Although uncommon, human burial sites are typically isolated graves containing artifacts associated with gender-specific activities, such as hunting gear or seed-milling equipment.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Generally speaking, Archaic populations operated at a Stone Age level of technology. There were no metal or manufactured glass artifacts, and the only beasts of burden were domestic dogs. The spear thrown with a wood tool called an atlatl was the hunting weapon of choice; the bow and arrow did not appear until the end of the period. The flaked stone spear tips were made in a wide variety of styles. Containers were made from baskets or animal skins, as ceramic technology was not yet known. Milling implements made from abrasive rock such as sandstone were used to grind seeds into flour. Wild plants most favored for this purpose included lambsquarter and native grasses. Jewelry and other ornamentation are seldom preserved, but simple beads and pendants of bone and tooth have been found.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Several regional expressions of Archaic lifeways have been defined in Colorado and adjacent states based on patterned differences in artifact styles, architectural forms, campsite preferences, dietary emphases, and other cultural practices. Such cultural variation is recognized on the western plains, in the mountains, on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>, and in the southwestern canyon country. However, it is clear that the similarities in Archaic period archaeology across Colorado are far more important than the differences.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike Formative period localities such as <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> and, to a lesser degree, Paleo-Indian sites such as <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a>, there are no prominent Archaic period sites where public interpretation is available. Perhaps the most heavily trafficked Archaic site is <strong>Vail Pass Camp</strong>, where the Colorado Department of Transportation maintains a rest stop along <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a>. However, few visitors to the rest stop likely realize that the CDOT facility co-occurs with a campsite containing an 8,000-year-long record of intermittent human use, including an exceptional Archaic period record. Indeed, many of the places where modern Coloradans enjoy visiting or camping were the sites of repeated use by Archaic period groups. These highly successful groups set the stage for the much better publicized peoples of the Formative period.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaic" hreflang="en">Archaic</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nomads" hreflang="en">nomads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado,</em> 2<sup>nd</sup> ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John D. Gooding, <em>The Archaeology of Vail Pass Camp: A Multi-Component Base Camp below Tree Limit in the Southern Rockies. </em>Highway Salvage Report 35 (Denver: Colorado Department of Highways, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958; reprint ed., Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.na.006">Archaic Period Sites</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia of the Great Plains</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, “<a href="https://lcontent.crowcanyon.org/EducationProducts/peoples_mesa_verde/archaic_overview.php">Archaic: 6000 to 500 B.C., Peoples of the Mesa Verde Region</a>” (Cortez, CO, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>Ancient Colorado: An Archaeological Perspective</em> (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tammy Stone, <em>The Prehistory of Colorado and Adjacent Areas</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 21 Aug 2015 20:07:01 +0000 yongli 594 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org