%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Agnes W. Spring http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/agnes-w-spring <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Agnes W. Spring</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-07-06T16:07:51-06:00" title="Monday, July 6, 2020 - 16:07" class="datetime">Mon, 07/06/2020 - 16:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/agnes-w-spring" data-a2a-title="Agnes W. Spring"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fagnes-w-spring&amp;title=Agnes%20W.%20Spring"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Agnes Wright Spring (1894­–1988) was the first Wyoming state historian (1918–19) and the first female Colorado <strong>state historian</strong> (1950­–51 and 1954–63), making her the only person to serve as state historian of more than one state. She contributed to Wyoming and Colorado history through research, publications, collections management, and educational programming. As Colorado state historian, she advocated for women’s inclusion in historical narratives and women’s involvement in the professional study of history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Agnes Wright was born on January 5, 1894, in <strong>Delta</strong>, Colorado, where her father worked as a wholesale fruit shipper. She was the second of four daughters. In 1903 her family moved to Little Laramie River, Wyoming, where they operated a stagecoach stop at their ten-room log house. Her duties consisted of washing laundry for her family and cutting tobacco into ten-cent pieces to sell to travelers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wright attended Laramie Preparatory School, where she excelled, before continuing to the University of Wyoming in 1909, at the age of fifteen. As a student, she was hired to work in the university library under suffragist Grace Raymond Hebard. This connection helped her get a job as assistant librarian to the Supreme Court of Wyoming after she graduated in 1913.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Fighting for Inclusion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After saving money for three years, Wright moved to New York City in 1916 to study at Columbia University’s School of Journalism. As a woman who grew up in Colorado and Wyoming, states where women had been able to vote for decades, Wright understood that she was the legal equal to any man. Yet when she arrived in New York, women there (and in many other states) were still petitioning for their right to vote. While at Columbia, Wright advocated for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> by handing out pamphlets and canvassing neighborhoods, contributing to a state suffrage campaign that succeeded in 1917.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Appalled at the level of social and legal discrimination that women in New York faced, Wright requested permission to take a constitutional law class at Columbia, where women were not usually allowed to study law. When her request was denied, she protested by leaving the journalism school without graduating. Wright’s experiences in the New York suffrage movement were formative, and she carried what she learned about women’s inclusion with her throughout her career.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Wright Person for the Job</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After leaving Columbia, Wright returned to the West and began her career as an author. She spent 1917 as a freelance writer for many magazines and newspapers, including the <em>Wyoming Stockman-Farmer</em> and the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>. In 1918 her connection to the Wyoming Supreme Court Library helped her be named to the new position of state historian. As part of the growth of professional disciplines and government bureaucracy during the Progressive era, states across the country started similar official historian positions. In her joint role as state librarian and state historian, she was responsible for managing the state’s libraries and recording state history. As <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> took its toll, she recorded the names of Wyoming servicemen. Because of her diligent research, she was named director of Library War Services in 1919, while continuing to serve as state librarian and state historian.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1920 Agnes left her three positions to marry Archer T. Spring and move to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, where he took a job at an oil company and she resumed her freelance writing. The couple never had children. They both stayed focused on their careers, with Agnes publishing her first book, <em>Caspar Collins: The Life and Exploits of an Indian Fighter of the Sixties</em>, in 1921<em>. </em>She became a regular contributor of book reviews, historical pieces, and in-person lectures.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When writing opportunities dried up during the <strong>Great Depression</strong>, Agnes Spring proposed comprehensive histories of Colorado and Wyoming to the states’ Works Progress Administration (WPA) offices. In Colorado, Spring’s proposal was rejected despite the support of the state’s Federal Writers’ Project director, <strong>LeRoy Hafen</strong>, because no funding was available. In Wyoming, however, the WPA offered to make Spring the state’s Federal Writers’ Project director if she would adapt her book proposal, which focused on women’s perspectives, to fit the agency’s state-by-state guidebook series. She accepted and moved with her husband to Cheyenne to research women’s histories and pioneer legends from across the state. Going beyond the national guidelines for the project, Spring and her team also collected indigenous and Latino histories that many at the time would not have considered properly “historic.” They were asked for two guidebooks, but the couple collected so much material that by 1941 they had produced three: <em>The WPA Guide to Wyoming</em>; <em>Wyoming: A Guide to Its History, Highways, and People</em>; and <em>Wyoming Folklore</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Returning to Denver after completing the Wyoming project, Spring devoted her time to researching and writing western histories and stories. She published two weekly columns in the <em>Wyoming-Stockman Farmer</em> and monthly articles in several western journals. Her typical subjects were early settler families, who at the time were considered “pioneers” of the West. In story-like fashion, Spring retold their adventures, mishaps, and crimes. Unlike many who focused on “pioneers,” however, Spring also wrote about women, indigenous groups, and African Americans. Her terminology for these groups was rooted in her time, but these groups were not erased from her writing as they were from others’. This is especially true of her works after 1930.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1940s, Spring published three more books while working part-time at the <a href="/article/denver-public-library"><strong>Denver Public Library</strong></a>. By the end of the decade, she was known and respected in historical and literary circles in Colorado and Wyoming.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado State Historian</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In January 1950, Colorado State Historian LeRoy Hafen temporarily left his position to take a yearlong fellowship in California. The former director of the state’s Federal Writers’ Project, Hafen respected Spring’s hard work and detailed research and asked her to fill in while he was away. As interim state historian, she supervised the Colorado State Museum, edited and published <strong><em>Colorado Magazine</em></strong> (now <em>Colorado Heritage</em>), and helped run the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>). She also designed new educational programs that included more female students and scholars. These efforts included public television programs, rentable films, radio broadcasts, and exhibit tours. She was just getting these new programs started when Hafen returned in 1951.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Spring’s work had impressed the board of the Colorado Historical Society, which named her Colorado state historian when Hafen retired in 1954. During her nine-year tenure (1954–63), she worked tirelessly to make history more accessible to the state’s students and residents. Not only did she collect historical artifacts and photographs for the state museum, for example, but she also worked with the Department of Transportation to add bus lanes next to the museum in order to allow schoolchildren to safely unload. Spring continued to advocate for expanding the history curriculum in Colorado schools and oversaw a program called Junior Historians, which encouraged students to write about anything historical they had studied, whether it be a topic in school or an artifact at the museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Spring believed in the power of technology to expand access to and interest in history. As state historian, she helped fund a project that created dozens of filmstrips of Colorado artifacts from the museum. These filmstrips and accompanying lesson plans were available to schools across the state for a small rental fee. This was just one way Spring shared history with students who could not come to the museum in person. She also participated in several educational television programs that took viewers on a special tour of exhibits in the Colorado State Museum, and she was featured in dozens of radio interviews about new exhibits, museum events, and magazine articles. She informed teachers about these broadcasts in the hope that they would assign listening or watching as homework. This was another way that she worked to include more history in the average school’s curriculum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At a time when history was a predominantly male field, Spring encouraged women to become historians and writers, with her own life serving as proof that it was possible. During her long career, she wrote a total of 22 books while also contributing more than 500 articles to a wide range of literary and historical publications. After retiring from her role as Colorado state historian in 1963, she remained on advisory boards for the Colorado Historical Society. In 1973 she was inducted into the Cowgirl Hall of Fame for her work on the history of the American West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When Spring passed away in 1988, the <em>Cheyenne Eagle</em> called her “one of the human landmarks of the Rocky Mountain Region.” Her legacy lives on through the histories she shared, especially of previously neglected groups, her tireless efforts to make history more accessible to the public, and in opening the historical profession to women in the Rocky Mountain west.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/flowers-kaylyn-mercuri" hreflang="und">Flowers, Kaylyn Mercuri</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/agnes-wright-spring" hreflang="en">Agnes Wright Spring</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-historical-society" hreflang="en">Colorado Historical Society</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming" hreflang="en">Wyoming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming-history" hreflang="en">Wyoming history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leroy-hafen" hreflang="en">leroy hafen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-magazine" hreflang="en">Colorado Magazine</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Olga Curtis, “The Beloved Historian,” <em>Empire Magazine </em>(October 1979).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Films and Filmstrips,”<em> Colorado Magazine</em> 50, no. 4 (1973).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mike Mackey, “Grace Raymond Hebard: Shaping Wyoming's Past,” Wyoming State Historical Society (November 9, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agnes Wright Spring, interview by Carl McWilliams, April 29, 1986, OH 1267 A Side 1, Wyoming State Archives, Cheyenne, WY.Agnes Wright Spring, “My Background,” Historical Collection Box 702, Folder H2007-101, Wyoming State Archives, Cheyenne, WY.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Agnes Wright Spring: She Made History Herself,” Wyoming State Archives, Cheyenne, WY.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agnes Wright Spring, “Stage Stop on the Little Laramie,” <em>Persimmon Hill</em>, 1974.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agnes Wright Spring Collection, Mss. #2092, Stephen H. Hart Research Center, History Colorado Center, Denver, CO.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agnes Wright Spring Papers, Mss. #115, American Heritage Center at the University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>The WPA Guide to Wyoming: The Cowboy State</em> (New York: Hastings House, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Wyoming: A Guide to Its History, Highways, and People </em>(New York: Hastings House, 1941).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Wyoming Folklore:</em> <em>Reminiscences, Folktales, Beliefs, Customs, and Folk Speech</em> (New York: Hastings House, 1941).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Agnes Wright Spring, <em>Caspar Collins: The Life and Exploits of an Indian Fighter of the Sixties</em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1921).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Agnes Wright Spring, <em>Near the Greats</em> (Frederick, CO: Platte ’N Press, 1981).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 06 Jul 2020 22:07:51 +0000 yongli 3361 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Fort Laramie http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Fort Laramie</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3288--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3288.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-laramie-wyoming"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Treaty-of-Fort-Laramie-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=Ab8PwQd-" width="1000" height="671" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-laramie-wyoming" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Laramie, Wyoming</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A fur trade post-turned military fort, Fort Laramie in southern Wyoming was the site of two major treaties with Native Americans, one in 1851 (Arapaho, Cheyenne, Sioux) and another in 1868 (Sioux and Arapaho).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:50:09-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:50" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Fort Laramie"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-fort-laramie&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Fort%20Laramie"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Signed in 1851, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was made between the US government and several Indigenous nations of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>—including the <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Lakota</strong>—who occupied parts of present southern Wyoming and northern Colorado. The treaty was part of the government’s efforts to protect a growing stream of whites heading west and to establish a military presence in the region. The treaty gave the Cheyenne and Arapaho sovereignty over the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>Platte River</strong></a> basin as long as the Indians allowed free passage of white migrants and allowed the government to build roads and forts on their land. However, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 made the treaty obsolete, as whites moved onto Cheyenne and Arapaho land that was supposedly protected.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the eighteenth century, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease outbreaks</strong></a> and conflicts over the fur trade disrupted the Indian nations of the upper Midwest, prompting some to abandon the region in search of a better life. The Arapaho and Cheyenne people moved from a relatively settled life in western Minnesota to a more nomadic life in pursuit of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> on the Great Plains. They reached present-day Colorado by the early nineteenth century, after being pushed westward by the Sioux, who also came to occupy the plains of Wyoming and Colorado around the same time.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1834, during the height of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the American West, American traders William Sublette and Robert Campbell established what became Fort Laramie in present-day Wyoming, at the confluence of the Laramie and <strong>North Platte</strong> Rivers. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Sioux often gathered there to trade bison robes for weapons, iron cookware, coffee, and other American goods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1840s, increasing numbers of white migrants began traveling west to settle in the newly acquired territories of Oregon and California. Fort Laramie, then known as Fort John, became a popular waystation for migrants traveling the <strong>Great Platte River Road</strong>. Their wagon trains drove away game, trampled grazing grasses for bison, and consumed timber and other important resources on the Great Plains. This put the migrants in competition with the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other local Indians.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Initially, Plains Indians attacked the wagon trains, but after intentional shows of force by the US military, Indian leaders took a more diplomatic stance, allowing white travelers passage in exchange for food and gifts. Firearms, for instance, were a valuable gift because they allowed the Indians to more effectively battle their rivals and more efficiently hunt smaller game, as the bison herds were rapidly diminishing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1849, with white migration ramping up during the California Gold Rush, the US government saw the need to establish treaties with Indian Nations across the Plains in order to secure peaceful passage for its citizens and set the stage for the American colonization of the interior West. That year, anticipating the need for a more robust military presence in the region, the government bought Fort John from the American Fur Company and renamed it Fort Laramie; it also pursued <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>negotiations with the Utes</strong></a>, another Indian nation in what became Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Negotiations at Horse Creek</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the direction of superintendent of Indian Affairs D. D. Mitchell, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a> Thomas Fitzpatrick spent most of 1850 traveling among the various Indian Nations along the Platte Rivers, delivering gifts and inviting leaders to a peace treaty council. The next year, on August 31, more than 9,000 Plains Indians representing nine nations came to the designated treaty campground on Horse Creek, about thirty-five miles east of Fort Laramie.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Negotiations began once Mitchell and Fitzpatrick arrived. Each Indian nation was asked to designate a federally recognized “chief” who would negotiate and sign treaties on behalf of his people. On September 17, the final Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed by leaders of the Arapaho, Arikara, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ventre, Mandan, Shoshone, and Lakota nations. Each nation was assigned a territory that generally overlapped with where its people already lived and hunted, though all nations were permitted to hunt on each other’s land. In exchange for their continued sovereignty over their own affairs, Indian nations agreed to keep the peace between themselves and with Americans, and to allow the government to build forts and roads in their territories. As compensation for previous intrusions on Indian land, the government promised to distribute $50,000 in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> among all nine nations for ten years, provided they adhere to the terms of the treaty. Each nation then selected delegates to tour the eastern United States; these trips were designed to showcase the wealth and power of the United States so that Indian nations would abide by the treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After issuing a hefty parting gift of food and supplies to each Indian nation in attendance, Fitzpatrick and Mitchell must have thought that the Treaty of Fort Laramie would indeed bring, as the treaty promised, “effective and lasting peace” to the Great Plains. But whatever peace it did bring quickly unraveled over the ensuing decade. As more whites joined the westward migrations during the 1850s, bison and other Plains resources became even scarcer. The Plains Indians grew increasingly dependent upon annuity payments that often failed to materialize or were unevenly distributed among the nations, resulting in starvation and hostility.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The government’s failure to deliver the promised annuities undercut the treaty’s two fundamental goals: to preserve peace between Indian nations and between Indians and whites. As their food sources diminished and government annuities failed to supplement the loss, the Indian nations began to fight each other for the best hunting grounds and raid more wagon trains for supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Gold Rush and Treaty of Fort Wise</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, the discovery of gold near present-day <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> in 1858 set off a new stream of white migrants to Cheyenne and Arapaho land at the feet of the Rockies. The Colorado Gold Rush brought fresh outbreaks of disease to both Indian nations and increased the stress on local resources. It also made the Treaty of Fort Laramie obsolete, as Americans now coveted territory that was supposedly protected under its terms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To secure the gold fields and the routes leading to and between them, the US government renegotiated with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> in 1861. Unlike the Treaty of Fort Laramie, which allowed Indian nations to retain some measure of sovereignty over extensive territory, the Treaty of Fort Wise relegated the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a much smaller tract in eastern Colorado, where they lived under government supervision.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The new arrangements caused a division within both tribes between those who wanted to fight for control of their land and those who preferred peace through negotiations, however unfair. This split contributed to the increase in hostilities between both tribes and the US military during the 1860s and to atrocities such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-laramie" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american" hreflang="en">native american</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/north-platte-river" hreflang="en">north platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wise-treaty" hreflang="en">fort wise treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/medicine-lodge-treaty" hreflang="en">medicine lodge treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-platte-river-road" hreflang="en">great platte river road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agents" hreflang="en">indian agents</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming" hreflang="en">Wyoming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakota" hreflang="en">lakota</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fola/learn/historyculture/index.htm">Fort Laramie: Crossroads of a Nation Moving West</a>,” updated March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>State Historical Society of North Dakota, “<a href="https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-1-changing-landscapes/topic-4-reservation-boundaries/section-2-treaty-fort-laramie-1851">Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Loretta Fowler, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AR002">Arapaho, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Cheyenne, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://indians.org/articles/plains-indians.html">Plains Indians</a>,” Indians.org, American Indian Heritage Foundation.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:50:09 +0000 yongli 3269 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Teenokuhu (Friday) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Teenokuhu (Friday) </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:44:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:44" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday" data-a2a-title="Teenokuhu (Friday) "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fteenokuhu-friday&amp;title=Teenokuhu%20%28Friday%29%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Teenokuhu (ca. 1822–81), known to English speakers as “Friday” or “Friday Fitzpatrick,” was a nineteenth-century Northern Arapaho leader. As a boy, Teenokuhu (Arapaho for “sits meekly”) was separated from his band and adopted by Thomas Fitzpatrick, a white trapper who took him to St. Louis. After receiving an American education, he returned to his people and became leader of a band that lived along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>, near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>. Among his people, Teenokuhu was recognized as a great hunter and warrior. For Americans, he frequently served as a translator and intermediary in treaty councils and other interactions. He generally favored peace with Americans, so his fellow Arapaho reportedly called him the “Arapaho American.”</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Teenokuhu was probably born in 1822 or 1823. In 1831, when he was said to be around eight or nine years old, the Arapaho boy was separated from his band when a fight broke out at a gathering of Arapaho, Blackfeet, and Atsina people along the Cimarron River in what is now southeast Colorado. Thomas Fitzpatrick, an American fur trapper, found him and two other boys on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and decided to take Teenokuhu back with him to St. Louis. He named the boy “Friday” after the day of the week he found him. In St. Louis, Friday attended school for two years. Friday learned English and frequently traveled with Fitzpatrick on his trips west, impressing one of the trapper’s colleagues with his “astonishing memory, his minute observation and amusing inquiries.”</p> <p>On one of these trips—likely in 1838—Fitzpatrick’s party encountered an Arapaho band, and one of the women recognized Teenokuhu, claiming him as her son. With Fitzpatrick’s approval, Friday opted to return to his people. He soon gained a reputation as a great <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunter and warrior, earning praise in battles against the Pawnee, Shoshone, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Interpreter and Intermediary</h2> <p>According to fellow Arapaho Sun Road, Friday played an important diplomatic role during the 1840s and 1850s. In July 1843, he translated for the party of American explorer <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> in what is now northern Colorado, and the next spring he performed a similar duty for Rufus Sage on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a>. In September 1851, Friday was at the council in Kansas that eventually produced the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>, but he and several other Arapaho and Cheyenne leaders left early to serve as delegates to Washington, DC. The US government hoped the Indian leaders would be impressed enough by American military power to adhere to the terms of the treaty, signed in October while Friday was on his way to Washington.</p> <p>Friday continued his role as intermediary throughout the 1850s, interpreting for an Arapaho-Mormon encounter in Wyoming in 1857 and for Little Owl’s band during a visit to <strong>Ferdinand V. Hayden</strong>’s surveying party in 1859. His consistent calls for peace with whites, even as they grew more hostile toward his people during the 1860s, drew the ire of other Northern Arapaho leaders. By that time, the Northern Arapaho had been mostly forced out of Colorado by political campaigns that sought land for whites to mine or farm. These campaigns were punctuated with violent acts, such as the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864. By the late 1860s, only Friday’s band of Northern Arapaho remained in Colorado, numbering about 175 along the Cache la Poudre.</p> <h2>The Council Tree</h2> <p>Standing in a meadow near the confluence of the Cache la Poudre and Boxelder Creek in what is now southeast Fort Collins, a massive <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> tree served as a meeting place for Friday’s Arapaho band. The tree was remarked upon by early white residents of the valley, including the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteader</strong></a> Robert Strauss, who arrived in 1860. Strauss claimed the land where the tree stood, but he did not interrupt its use by the local Arapaho. They continued to meet under the tree until the late 1860s, when territorial governor <strong>Alexander Hunt</strong> forced Friday to move his band north of the Platte River. There, they rejoined the two other Northern Arapaho bands under Medicine Man and Black Bear.</p> <h2>Displacement</h2> <p>By the time Friday’s band moved north to Wyoming, the Northern Arapaho were in dire straits. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>Disease outbreaks</strong></a>, the loss of hunting territory to whites, and war with the US Army had thinned their numbers to the point where they needed help from other Indian nations to survive. In his customary role of interpreter, Friday helped Northern Arapaho efforts to retain their lands in Wyoming during the late 1860s and 1870s. Eventually, most of the Northern Arapaho attached themselves to Red Cloud’s <strong>Lakota</strong>, who lived on a reservation in Montana.</p> <p>During the late 1870s, partly to improve their own lot and partly to increase their people’s leverage with the government, some young Arapaho men became scouts for the US Army, including Friday’s son Bill.</p> <h2>Wind River Reservation</h2> <p>In September 1877, Friday made his last trip to Washington, DC, where he and other Northern Arapaho persuaded President Rutherford B. Hayes to let their people remain in Wyoming. In October the Northern Arapaho returned to Wyoming to live alongside the Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation. Friday lived on the reservation with his people until his death in May 1881.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/friday" hreflang="en">friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/teenokuhu" hreflang="en">teenokuhu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-arapaho" hreflang="en">northern arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-history" hreflang="en">arapaho history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-friday" hreflang="en">chief friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre" hreflang="en">cache la poudre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/camp-collins" hreflang="en">camp collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/council-tree" hreflang="en">council tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone" hreflang="en">shoshone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wind-river" hreflang="en">wind river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming" hreflang="en">Wyoming</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin Duggan, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/08/29/arapaho-tribal-history-honored-fort-collins-site/89550934/">Tribal History Honored at Fort Collins’ Council Tree Site</a>,” <em>Coloradoan</em> (Fort Collins), August 29, 2016.</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, “Arapaho and Cheyenne Perspectives: From the 1851 Treaty to the Sand Creek Massacre,” <em>American Indian Quarterly </em>39, no. 4 (Fall 2015).</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, <a href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;rgn=full%20text;idno=heb03666.0001.001;didno=heb03666.0001.001;view=pdf;seq=89;node=heb03666.0001.001:8.2;page=root;size=100"><em>Arapaho Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority</em></a> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> <p>Kansas Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/arapaho-reservations/19272">Arapaho—Reservations</a>,” <em>Kansapedia</em>, updated December 2017.</p> <p>Diane Merkel and Dietmar Schulte-Möhring, “<a href="https://american-tribes.com/Articles/ART/1851Delegation.htm">Delegation of 1851/1852</a>,” American-Tribes.com, n.d.</p> <p>WyoHistory.org, “<a href="https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/arapaho-arrive-two-nations-one-reservation">The Arapaho Arrive: Two Nations on One Reservation</a>,” June 23, 2018.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://windriver.org/destinations/wind-river-indian-reservation/">Wind River Reservation</a>.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:44:52 +0000 yongli 3268 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Bill Tremblay http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bill-tremblay <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bill Tremblay </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2019-01-28T10:57:47-07:00" title="Monday, January 28, 2019 - 10:57" class="datetime">Mon, 01/28/2019 - 10:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bill-tremblay" data-a2a-title="Bill Tremblay "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbill-tremblay&amp;title=Bill%20Tremblay%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p class="rtecenter"><img src="/sites/default/files/Bill_Tremblay.jpg" alt="Poet: Bill Tremblay" width="550" height="844"></p><p>Bill Tremblay is a poet and novelist. His work has appeared in nine full-length volumes including <em>Crying in the Cheap Seats</em> (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971), <em>The Anarchist Heart</em> (New York: New Rivers Press, 1977). <em>Home Front</em> (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 1978), <em>Second Sun: New &amp; Selected Poems</em> (L’Epervier Press, 1985), <em>Duhamel: Ideas of Order in Little Canada </em>(BOA Editions, 2016), <em>Rainstorm Over the Alphabet</em> (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2011), <em>Shooting Script: Door of Fire</em> (Cheney, WA: Eastern Washington University Press, 2003) which won the Colorado Book Award, as wells as <em>Magician’s Hat: Poems on the Life and Art of David Alfaro Siqueiros </em>(Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2013), and most recently <em>Walks Along the Ditch: Poems</em> (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).</p><p>He has received fellowships and awards from the NEA, the NEH, the Fulbright Commission, and the Corporation at Yaddo. His work has been featured in many anthologies, including Pushcart Prize, <em>Best American Poetry</em>, and <em>Poets of the New American West</em>. He directed the MFA in Creative Writing Program at Colorado State University, founded the <em>Colorado Review</em> and served as its chief editor for fifteen years. He received the John F. Stern Distinguished Professor Award in 2004. He is the author of a novel, <em>The June Rise</em> (Logan: Utah State University Press, 1994/Fulcrum Publishing, 2002), which received a star review on NPR’s “All Things Considered.” A video of him reading poetry with Yusef Komunyakaa is available at: <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir2c5r0XRP0.">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir2c5r0XRP0.</a></p><h2>Poems</h2><h3>Janis Joplin &amp; the Invention of Barbed Wire</h3><p>All morning gray flints of wind shoot down from the foothills across the horse pasture behind my house. Tumbleweed hard as coral bangs against the lapboard, scratching at window-panes with the quilled fingers of caged men.&nbsp;</p><p>I see them on porches after supper listening to wind pour over the grasslands, their minds spinning and creaking like windmills drawing waters up from underground.&nbsp;</p><p>This range full of unsettling music and they, bright wingtips of sinful kisses, sagebrush burning on lips of prairie night waiting for avenging thunderheads.&nbsp;</p><p>They will string wire on cottonwood stakes, draw squares on the land’s pure curve and at dusk return, asking nothing of their wives but to bank fires and lay down in cactus beds while they go dying, meteors in the whiskey town.&nbsp;</p><p>A woman stomps rhythm there in gold shoes shouting ‘get it while you can’ through the fence that owns her voice. She dies giving birth, flowers of Texas darkness still pinned to her dress.&nbsp;</p><p>I pluck barbed wire, singing with the wind. Clouds rush by like herds of ghost buffalo. First published in Delirium # &nbsp;1 (Spring, 1976); subsequently in The Anarchist Heart (New York: New Rivers Press, 1977).</p><h3>THE LOST BOY</h3><p>Across the Poudre River bridge stands a stone monument to a lost boy. Carved words fix the mystery. Did he wander off, or was he carried off by tooth or talon? Family, friends, searched the mountainside calling his name. The weather turned. Sleet, wind, snow in slants across the ponderosas. He blacked out under the canyon’s Milky Way. I hear his cries in echoing arroyos. Though his bones mouldered in cold drizzle he comes crashing through wild plum thickets clutching at my shirt, asking where I was in his sagebrush hours. Through his ripped jacket a flash of bone. I dare not touch his skeletal shoulder. He’s forgotten how to be alive. The climb is no relief, his weight dogs my knees. Breezes sough through purple yarrow aspen groves, dry waterfalls. I reach the cloud meadows, hairpin switchback until Mount Grayrock juts its granite forehead into one hard thought: what remains unfinished in the soul keeps doubling back until earth and sky are balanced aches like the cliff swallow’s swift flight.</p><p>First published in Luna #4; subsequently in Best American Poems: 2003, Ed. Yusef Komunyakaa (New York: Scribner, 2003). Collected in Rainstorm Over the Alphabet (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2001).</p><h3>Streetlamp</h3><p>To be a street lamp giving off a globe of cold cadmium light to a cul-de-sac​ is to make an opening in the sleepless dark through which comfort pours like a fountain, inviting those who enter to imagine underground cables connecting to the Rawhide Flats power plant twenty miles north which turns black coal into this sentinel that only wants to shine on the flat brows of houses held in the winter murk of what passers-by feel is locked, yet promising, a dream that leaves them reaching into the tense within, that lets them go past this made thing of glass and incandescing wire, this tree of light with the face of a small god standing between dusk and dawn, weary from making another false day, blotting out the stars and the spindrift darkness inside.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in The Ohio Review (Spring 1992); subsequently in Rainstorm Over the Alphabet (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2001).</p><h3>Brief Encounter</h3><p>I crunch through crusted snow west on snowshoes along the ditch. Winged clouds stand pearl white above the foothills ridged in lodge pole pine that summers ago blazed orange in swirling dragons from tree to tree. The sky shifts from silence to chartreuse. A breeze in flocked box elders shimmers flakes down on a hump of crystal, a frosted apparition the size of a yearling sheep. We look at one another a long moment. I can’t tell if she’s afraid or hungry. What do I look like to her? A walking stump? I turn east where the ditch divides into stubble cornfields. A minute passes before her black nose sticks out from a juniper bush. She must’ve crossed ice, run behind and past me, quiet as fog, calm yet curious about another animal abroad in the same winter hunting different sustenance. She and I fade inside blizzard / winds so cold my lips crack. She writes herself in my breath. I hold her like part of myself I hardly ever see.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in Stringtown (Spring 2016); subsequently in Walks Along the Ditch: Poems. (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press:, 2016).</p><h3>The Larimer-Weld Ditch</h3><p>You hand in your keys, and it’s over. Thirty-three years and a gold watch. You walk outside and all is green shade against the immense wrinkles of foothills crowned with blue reflected in water, an hour-glass running out so smooth you wonder if there’s time to clear your soul of debris before the ditch rider lowers the sluice-gate to release the spring flow. A narrow sparkling in sun and moon split off into a canal that runs on like a sentence to rolling plains, yet pooled where black clouds of catfish spawn shift shape like a bluebird flock into peaches or whales, flexing and relaxing its soft current caressed by dragonflies in July with Japanese fans serenaded on a mother-of-pearl concertina in the hands of a poet flush with warm beer. It can be walked along and sat beside and read as its surface gets clawed by bear| clouds that make muscles bloom, sinews stretch, the world and the earth it lives on. No breeze in still August yet the water is dimpled with swirling whirlpools like a long row of Sufis spinning light from their balance. Time to open up and let heaven through. You are alone with your memories carrying every regret you don’t forgive yourself for beside this water course that curves in wildflower banks. You walk all afternoon watching darkness rise to devour the trees and things go on— cities of people, their flashes and flaws, the many things they make that own them, the burden of what comes next. Nail-guns fasten; wrecking balls swing. Nations find provocations for drums. It’s a miracle you don’t stumble down a banking into the drink.&nbsp;</p><p>You imagine yourself drawn through a flaming womb, a coffee can filled with your ashes buried by an apple tree with the Medal of Worthy Owls you lusted for stamped on your memorial bench posthumously, but you are beyond victory or defeat. You are flecks of carbon settling on branches and leaves, lifting and falling in the dark beside a soft trickling from low falls, the ditch as tongue, as film stock, as Milky Way. Time to ponder what is of the earth, what is of the world, what is of heaven. Perhaps the Sumerians learned to write from trenching ditches in the earth with picks and shovels and white-lathered horses, the song of it a struck tuning-fork in the mind that reminds us that change is hard, change takes time.&nbsp;</p><p>Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).</p><h3>Water Gazing</h3><p>Sitting in an afternoon mountain meadow, rabbit brush at my feet, floating in a lake of purple bee balm, 6000 feet. I’m reading the syntax of wild plum bushes, angel-wing cactus opening canary-yellow waxed flowers, white asters. 86 June 1st degrees. These waters are not for telling the future. They are for plumbing the deep silence, except for three Stellar-jays calling, keeping touch across a deep arroyo tumbling down to a five-mile reservoir blue as a piece of sky fallen between the hogbacks. Like a long white streak on a mask the creek bubbles down to where a rattlesnake lisps on its banks. Water is life for snakes to sip. They know every animal must go there not just to drink. A spirit lives there. I spell out words to the pool, stones and trees. Tall weeds with nine yellow mullein stalks rock in a breeze local as shadows from passing clouds with grey sandals, sunlight, the holy thistle fields. What does not come with the air? It stretches the ponderosas into its cycle, dropping seeds, the seam between seasons. Whoever eats these seeds inherits the earth.&nbsp;</p><p>Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).</p><h3>What I Learned About Wyoming</h3><p>That a broken robin’s egg contains more archeology than a petroglyph. That nurses learn to tell which relative won’t let the dying die. That when the lake surface is the same color as the sky is the right time to fish. That thunderstorms iron dusty roads. That deer know when it’s hunting season. That as we kill off species we name streets after them. That living in Wyoming in winter is a form of meditation. That its open steppes give everywhere to run and nowhere to hide from the things we do when cabin fever drives us loopy. That clouds reflected in a horse’s eyes are like smoke boiling from a borrow-pit fire. That everything you need to know is right there out your back kitchen window. That blood and death are the sun’s two eyes. That love is a kind of fear when night skies bleed over rooftops like octopus ink. That the reintroduction of wolves has stirred the wildness of married women.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in Louisiana Review (Summer 2005). Subsequently in Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).</p><h3>Extended Family</h3><p>Evening brings news of families turned to dust by something called a drone. We see it speed through air from its point-of-view— people dancing at an open-air wedding— a quick, final slip and then the black plume. I walk along the ditch trying to divine what tempts a man to trigger such a weapon. Small eddies dimple the water’s clear depths. Sharp rocks litter the bottom and make these swirls into bomb craters where once a wedding party danced. Mirrored on this surface, &nbsp;shark- toothed clouds linger over the invisible line where foothills spring into hogbacks, bristling with pine.&nbsp;</p><p>On the bank a goose stands sentinel. He has seen me before I him. Another, half-way down the banking strips grass seed, one eye peeled for crouching foxes. A flotilla of Canada geese drifts east where dark comes first, masters of the ditch in whose wings six fuzzy yellow goslings float, one of whom, caught in current, is far wide of the flock. Three mothers pump webbed feet until they form a line past which the prodigal cannot go. All tolled maybe forty geese. Forty years. Maybe forty days. No matter the dispensation, they are stars in the dark rift.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016). Subsequently in Relative Wild, Ed. Arron A. Abeyta (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, forthcoming).</p><h3>A Day Without Ambition</h3><p>Gray-white gulls, green-necked mallards. armadas of Canada geese bob in the swells, then wing their dozens into blue skies above Long Pond, each to its mission among bare cottonwoods or turquoise water. My eye traces the horizon down Bonner Peak. Everything visible and invisible, each moment passing through me.&nbsp;</p><p>Must I give up ambition to align myself with this radiance? Can I hollow myself out so heaven can charge through my body? And what if I should be deluding myself? A rising breeze ripples my surface. The soul lives in everything that sees us as fact. Nothing lacking, no props needed on such a day.&nbsp;</p><p>Sure, the freight train horn is horrid as it slams northward toward Cheyenne, but a sumac’s crimson fruit hangs above the water’s face like someone leaning down from sky to kiss me. Shadows re-knit what is broken. I don’t need to get somewhere. I need to stay awhile and watch birds launch themselves out of my chest into the air.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).</p><h3>Where The Ashes Go</h3><p>Gold light enters through a line of cottonwoods winking as leaves shiver in rising breezes. Snow that frosted Long’s Peak this morning has disappeared from mid-October sun just as now a sunset darkening shadow turns the ditch water the color of wild plums. A boy on a bicycle pumps along the dirt road, his red dog wags its tail, and soon they pass out of sight heading east toward coming moonrise, the heron’s slow wings lifting it west where along the trail to Arthur’s Rock a meadow of blown bee balm waits for me.&nbsp;</p><p>First published in New Poets of the American West, ed. Lowell Jaegar. (Kalispel, MT: Many Voices Press, 2010). Subsequently in Walks Along the Ditch: Poems (Spokane, WA: Lynx House Press, 2016).&nbsp;</p><p>Copyright 2018 by Bill Tremblay</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/literature" hreflang="en">Literature</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geography" hreflang="en">Geography</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/music" hreflang="en">Music</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/janis-joplin" hreflang="en">Janis Joplin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/windmills" hreflang="en">windmills</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-landscapes" hreflang="en">Colorado landscapes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-herds" hreflang="en">buffalo herds</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-herds-elegy" hreflang="en">buffalo herds. elegy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mt-grayrock" hreflang="en">Mt. 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