%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Prohibition http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prohibition</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3296--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3296.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prohibition-still-near-greeley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prohibition-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=nrzmLm-W" width="1000" height="592" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prohibition-still-near-greeley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prohibition, still near Greeley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A group of men wearing suits and hats stand near a large still and barrels of liquor near Greeley (Weld County), Colorado. One man leans his arm on a pile of sacks with labels reading: "100 lbs, Cerelose, Product Refining Co., New York, U.S.A."</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T14:51:18-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 14:51" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 14:51</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition" data-a2a-title="Prohibition"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprohibition&amp;title=Prohibition"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Alcohol prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) was a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a> experiment, based on reform-minded and religious sentiments, to completely ban the sale and transport of alcohol. While the intention of reformers was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime, outlawing alcohol instead created more issues than had been anticipated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prohibition in Colorado predated national prohibition by four years, and ended only months before national prohibition was also repealed. As it was elsewhere, the prohibition era in Colorado was marked by a sharp increase in organized crime, public flouting of laws, black markets, law enforcement and government corruption, and a growing distrust of Progressive politics. Despite the failure of prohibition as a movement, it introduced the state to new social and economic opportunities for women and fundamentally changed the way the public drank alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government, suppliers, grocers, and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings, money caches, and places where immigrant miners could buy foreign-language newspapers. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene was a feature of its early communities, Colorado soon saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s, when Colorado was still a territory. Conscious of the region’s saloon culture, some towns were established as totally dry from the get-go, including the agrarian communities of <a href="/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> (<strong>Union Colony</strong>) and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a> (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chicago-colorado-colony"><strong>Chicago-Colorado Colony</strong></a>) in the early 1870s. However, the idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed this precedent and often corresponded with antiurban, anti-immigrant sentiments.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives often saw alcohol as the source of many problems. There was a popular belief among prohibitionists that alcohol was a slippery slope: one sip could lead to a lifetime of physical and financial ruin. They believed that alcohol consumption led to labor unrest and moral degeneracy. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of urbanization and immigration, and hoped to keep Colorado free from what they called “un-American” activities. Several leaders of the <strong>Women’s Christian Temperance Union</strong> (WCTU) were also prominent members of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> (KKK), and their stance on banning alcohol was based in strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments. They felt as if their frontier state were being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous and unsettled.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights, and they were especially concerned with drinkers and gamblers who left their families impoverished. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> out of fear that women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance and had taken up the cause of prohibition as a quick fix for society’s ills. It was no longer a gendered issue but, rather, a unifying Progressive issue.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As a step toward full prohibition, antialcohol Progressive voters first worked to make drinking a male-only activity, reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. These sentiments led to a 1901 law that prohibited women from entering saloons, working in areas that served alcohol, or purchasing alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, arguing that it was at odds with women’s suffrage, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907 the antiliquor campaigns of the WCTU and the <strong>Anti-Saloon League</strong> led to a state local-option law for prohibition, allowing cities to vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, <strong>Aurora</strong>, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over the legality of alcohol was between rural towns and urban areas (including mining camps). Besides <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, the strongest antiprohibition counties included <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teller-county"><strong>Teller</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, <a href="/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/garfield-county"><strong>Garfield</strong></a>. All of these counties were home to major industrial centers, especially mining and <strong>smelting</strong> operations. They were also home to larger numbers of non-Protestants as well as higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League held several public demonstrations, toured the state with their campaign, spoke directly with lawmakers, campaigned door to door, and maintained a strong public presence to demand the banning of any and all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who gave large contributions to the WCTU and the Anti-Saloon League, aided the prohibitionist campaign, while a rise in anti-immigrant sentiment at the start of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> stoked suspicions that German American brewers were leading an anti-American conspiracy. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado, but there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal, and it was instead overpowered by the famous Progressive drive to “organize and agitate.” Called Measure 2, the prohibition referendum passed on November 3 with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect, four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the earlier Colorado prohibition referendum. For example, both defined “intoxicating liquor” as any beverage containing more than 0.5 percent alcohol. Both laws also banned the sale and transport of all alcohol, even for religious purposes. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado, and many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As in most states during prohibition, the problems of enforcing an alcohol ban became obvious within the first year of the law. Aside from closing cultural hot spots and other businesses that served and sold alcohol, dry laws quickly proved difficult to enforce, especially on individual citizens. Early on, Governor <strong>William Ellery Sweet</strong> appointed “dry agents” who routinely broke civil liberty laws in order to enforce prohibition. Colorado also became home to corrupt law enforcement practices. For example, many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol and simply gave free liquor to officers to stay in business. In addition, caches of liquor taken in raids on speakeasies and stills would often disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an ambiguous legal status. These squads were often made up of men not formally trained as police officers. According to various newspaper reports, they viewed themselves as “crusaders” seeking to destroy the “demon drink.” These moral enforcers were known to frequently bust down the doors of people’s houses without warrants and arrest anyone on the premises, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten, or otherwise publicly humiliated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, <strong>John R. Smith</strong>, and his vigilante groups (often composed of members of the KKK). Smith was frequently sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force, specifically against the Italian American and Mexican American communities. Progressive judge <strong>Benjamin Lindsey</strong>, who originally supported prohibition, openly expressed his disdain for how marginalized communities were targeted with brutal enforcement and given unfair trials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lindsey also lamented that wealthy Coloradans seemed immune to the dry laws. Indeed, the wealthy drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to ensure that they always had as much liquor as they wanted. Newspapers gawked at various instances of police eagerly partying with rich people, often sipping on liquor seized from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of alcohol prohibition, Colorado saw the rapid growth of organized <strong>crime families</strong> in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters appeared all around Colorado—including Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and <strong>Pete Carlino</strong>—each of whom made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of prohibition sweeps in the Italian American community of <strong>Globeville</strong>, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested over the course of a week, and more than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having previously been barred from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of new opportunities in black-market booze. They participated in both the consumption and creation of alcohol at unprecedented rates. During prohibition, Coloradans experienced a new diversity within spaces where people drank alcohol. Women and men of all ages now enjoyed an activity that had been primarily male.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job pertaining to booze during prohibition, from running kitchen stills to peddling booze, tallying sales records, and smuggling alcohol within and beyond borders. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens, a traditionally acceptable realm for women that served as a convenient cover.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also benefited from new opportunities in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments throughout the state benefited from hiring their first female officers. <strong>Edith Barker</strong>, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first accredited female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed as eager to end prohibition as they had been to start it. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a referendum calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The referendum failed. <strong><em>The Denver Post</em></strong> hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition,” in which the newspaper printed its own ballots asking readers whether they were for or against the continuation of prohibition. The consensus from 110,000 newspaper ballots was that Coloradans favored repeal. Because anyone could send in a newspaper ballot, <em>The</em> <em>Post </em>did not account for people who could not vote. This factor suggests that there was a strong sentiment to repeal prohibition in the state but that eligible voters still supported temperance after rejecting the official referendum.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Colorado’s referendum, several other states, mainly in New England, began to agitate for repeal of prohibition. Soon several western states—including Arizona, New Mexico, and California—joined the call for repeal. Raymond Humphreys, chief investigator for the state district attorney’s office in Colorado, opined that “prohibition spawned corruption in law enforcement that undermined public confidence in the law as a whole.” By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts, but only half of them had been heard. Clearly, the law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted once more on the repeal of prohibition, and this time repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state, though federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This loophole meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado, but it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved a constitutional amendment to repeal prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing national prohibition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>, beer sales alone made the newly revived alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment manufacturers, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The <em>News </em>anticipated that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the industry revived, alcohol quickly became a part of the public lives of Coloradans again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production, including the <strong>Tivoli Brewing Company</strong> in Denver and <strong>Coors</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, which had relied on producing other products (such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages) until prohibition was repealed. Meanwhile, mobsters who had profited from the illegal status of alcohol had the rug ripped out from under them. They were eliminated by legal and regulated competition within a few months. No longer did the law prevent women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol, as the Twenty-first Amendment also removed prohibitive laws that targeted individual groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition took legal hold on the state between 1916 and 1933, Colorado has thoroughly reclaimed its saloon roots through the tradition of crafting and imbibing alcoholic beverages. As a state, Colorado currently hosts more than 400 established breweries, including famous national brands such as Coors, <strong>New Belgium</strong>, <strong>Left Hand</strong>, <strong>O’Dell</strong>, and <strong>Breckenridge</strong>. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita, and in 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry (including Stranahan’s, Montoya, Woody Creek, and Laws), as well as a celebrated wine industry based largely in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Valley</strong></a>.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/richthofen-ted" hreflang="und">Richthofen, Ted</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prohibition" hreflang="en">prohibition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prohibition-colorado" hreflang="en">prohibition in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alcohol" hreflang="en">alcohol</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/saloons" hreflang="en">saloons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-christian-temperance-union" hreflang="en">womens christian temperance union</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/temperance" hreflang="en">temperance</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cannabis" hreflang="en">cannabis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edith-barker" hreflang="en">edith barker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-police" hreflang="en">denver police</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ku-klux-klan" hreflang="en">Ku Klux Klan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/crime-families" hreflang="en">crime families</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/carlino" hreflang="en">carlino</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bootlegging" hreflang="en">bootlegging</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bootleggers" hreflang="en">bootleggers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/speakeasies" hreflang="en">speakeasies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1920s" hreflang="en">1920s</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beer" hreflang="en">beer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wine" hreflang="en">wine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spirits" hreflang="en">spirits</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/craft-beer" hreflang="en">craft beer</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Annand, <em>A Study of the Prohibition Situation in Denver</em> (MA thesis, University of Denver, 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CF&amp;I Industrial Bulletin, “The End of the Saloon at CF&amp;I Properties”, vol. 1, no. 2 (December 22, 1915).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Whiteclay Chambers II, <em>The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920</em> (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ernest Hurst Cherrington, <em>Standard Encyclopedia of the Alcohol Problem</em> (Westerville, OH: American Issue Publishing Company, 1925).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rick Clyne, <em>Coal People: Life in Southern Colorado’s Company Towns, 1890–1930</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stanley Coben, <em>Rebellion Against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 1920s America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado General Assembly, “<a href="http://www.leg.state.co.us/lcs/ballothistory.nsf/">Ballot Issue History</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Colorado National Guard, <em>The Military Occupation of the Coal Strike Zone of Colorado, 1913–1914</em> (Denver: Smith-Brooks Printing Company, 1914).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Colorado Springs Gazette</em>, “Rum Runners, in Jail Here, Profess Innocence of Crime,” October 13, 1924; “Olsen Sent to Prison on Rum Conviction,” January 22, 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-breweries-defining-craft">Colorado Breweries: Defining the Craft</a>,” updated June 17, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cornell University Law Library, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/192/108"><em>DANIEL CRONIN v. FRANK ADAMS</em></a>, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Cripple Creek Times-Record</em>, “Four Stills and Hundred Gallons of Whiskey Seized by State Prohibition Men,” September 22, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Daily Times (Longmont)</em>, “Woman Arrested in Booze Raid at Boulder Will Be Tried, Says J. E. Kirkbride,” vol. 33, no. 217, August 26, 1927.<br />&#13; <em>Denver Express,</em> “Job in Question: Status of Dry Agent in Dispute,” December 27, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Denver News,</em> “Three Are Arrested in State Dry Raid: Prohibition Charge Faces Owner of Italian Gardens Following Liquor Seizure,” December 10, 1923; “State Dry Agent Rapped by Judge for Alleged Raid Without Warrant,” January 9, 1924; “State Officers Jail Seven in Rum Raids: Hotel Proprietress and Clerk Arrested After Alleged Wild Party in Room,” January 10, 1924; “Anti-Rum Societies Aid State Officers Destroying Liquor,” March 19, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>The Denver Post</em>, “Liquor Sales Under New Law,” March 3, 1915; “Denver Policewoman Uses Jiu Jitsu to Rout Mashers,” March 6, 1921; “Woman Arrested as Bootlegger,” January 22, 1923; “Booze Raid Disturbs Revel of 200 Youths and Girls,” August 6, 1923; “Pocket Still Discovered by Agents in Raid on Home of Denver Woman,” July 10, 1924; “Wild Parties of Police With Women and Liquor Are Learned of by May,” April 21, 1925; “Wets Are Victorious In Posts Referendum,” February 23, 1926; “Pete Carlino Is Found Murdered on Lonely Road Near Pueblo,” September 14, 1931; “Denver Beer Drinkers on 3.2 Spree With Old-Time Saloons Open Again,” April 7, 1933; “National Prohibition Repealed,” November 8, 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Denver Times</em>, “Women Barred From Saloons”, July 27, 1901.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Durango Herald</em>, “Hardboiled Methods at Law Enforcement at Silverton Breeds No One Any Good,” July 24, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Fort Collins Courier</em>, “Judge Lindsey Urges Prosecution of Rich Booze Law Violators,” October 8, 1921; “Five Seeking Smith’s Post as Dry Agent,” July 6, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phil Goodstein, <em>Robert Speer’s Denver, 1904–1920</em> (Denver: New Social Publications, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Hansen, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine_v50n1_Winter1973.pdf">Moonshine and Murder</a>,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> (Winter 1973).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hangovercure.org, “<a href="https://hangovercure.org/guides/most-popular-drink-by-state/">America’s Favorite Iconic State Drink</a>,” December 17, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katherine Harris, “Feminism and Temperance Reform in the Boulder WCTU”, <em>Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies</em> 4, no. 2 (Summer 1979).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Herald Democrat (Leadville)</em>, “Women’s Rights: To Drink in Saloon to Be Heard Before U.S. Supreme Court,” July 31, 1902; “Their Life Belts Loaded With Booze,” August 1, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Todd Laugen, <em>The Gospel of Progressivism: Moral Reform and Labor War in Colorado, 1900–1930</em>, (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, “From Prohibition to Regulation: Lessons From Alcohol Policy for Drug Policy,” <em>Milbank Quarterly</em> 69, no. 3 (1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Mattingly, <em>Well-Tempered Women: Nineteenth-Century Temperance Rhetoric</em> (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Montrose Daily Press</em>, “Sheriff Ducray Arrests Bootlegger Who Sought Protection by Bribery,” vol. 12, no. 206, March 4, 1921.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Noel, <em>The City and the Saloon: Denver 1858–191</em>6, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Pueblo Star Journal</em>, “They All Love Publicity; Even State Dry Law Director Will Stage a Raid For the Movies,” July 25, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Richthofen, “<a href="http://digital.auraria.edu/IR00000098/00001">A People’s History of Alcohol Prohibition in Colorado: Labor, Class, Gender, and Moral Reform, 1916–1933</a>” (BA honors thesis, Metropolitan State University of Denver, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, April 7, 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>San Juan Prospector</em>, “Women Whiskey Merchants,” March 15, 1918.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Clark Secrest, <em>Hell’s Belles: Prostitution, Vice, and Crime in Early Denver: With a Biography of Sam Howe, Frontier Lawman</em>, rev. ed. (Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Trinidad Chronicle, </em>“State Dry Officers May Be Charged with Violence by Two Local Attorneys,” September 10, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>United Labor Bulletin, October 10, 1914, CSFL Collection, Colorado Historical Society, Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Up-to-the-Minute Bulletin of the International Reform Bureau,” July 9, 1918, Shafroth Family Papers, Western History Collection, Denver Public Library.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Dinan Wake and Jac C. Heckelman, “Support for Repealing Prohibition: An Analysis of Statewide Referenda on Ratifying the 21st Amendment,” <em>Social Science Quarterly </em>95, no. 3 (September 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliot West, “Cleansing the Queen City: Prohibition and Urban Reform in Denver,” <em>Journal of the Southwest</em> 14, no. 4 (Winter, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Women Named Deputy Sheriffs,” <em>Brush Tribune</em>, June 8, 1923.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Betty L. Alt and Sandra K. Wells, <em>Ban the Booze: Prohibition in the Rockies </em>(N.p.: Dog Ear Publishing, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lisa McGirr, <em>The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State</em> (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel Okrent, <em>Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition</em> (New York: Scribner, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Richthofen, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/story/womens-history/2020/03/12/openly-and-gusto-how-women-moonshiners-led-denvers-first-female-cop">Openly and With Gusto: How Women Moonshiners Led to Denver’s First Female Cop</a>” (History Colorado, March 12, 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbJtXMa0ZAQ">Colorado Experience: The Smaldones, Family of Crime</a>” (YouTube).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erin Turner, <em>Rotgut Rustlers: Whiskey, Women, and Wild Times in the West </em>(Kearney, NE: Morris, 2009).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) banned the sale of alcohol. The goal was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. The prohibition era in Colorado saw an increase in organized crime and corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling and boxing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s. Some towns were founded as dry. These included Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. The idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of immigration. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly gained voting rights. The women were concerned about drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue. It was a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. They passed a law that kept women from entering saloons or buying alcohol. The law was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural and urban areas. Denver, Teller, and Alamosa counties were against prohibition. All were home to major industrial centers. They were also home to higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke with lawmakers. The groups demanded a ban on all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. helped their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado. However, there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. The prohibition referendum passed with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. Both laws banned the sale and transport of all alcohol. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Others changed to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing the alcohol ban started within the first year. The governor appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws to enforce prohibition. Many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to police officers to stay in business. Liquor from speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were made up of men not formally trained as police officers. They would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. Anyone at the home would be arrested, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith. Smith was sued for violating civil liberties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how certain communities were targeted. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't obey dry laws. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people while drinking liquor taken from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of prohibition, Colorado saw the growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Gangsters emerged all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, and Joe Varra made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. During a 1924 sweep in Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been banned from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of black-market booze. They drank and made alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job related to booze. They ran kitchen stills, sold liquor, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off, they found women operating moonshine stills from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also got new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were made deputy sheriffs as part of the crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed eager to end prohibition. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a vote calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The vote failed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on repeal again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. However, federal prohibition was still in effect. This meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado.  However, it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment. National prohibition was repealed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alcohol became a part of Coloradan's lives again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production. This included the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. Mobsters who had profited from prohibition were gone within a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. There is also a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) banned the sale and transport of alcohol. The goal was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. The prohibition era in Colorado saw a sharp increase in organized crime and corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s. Some towns were founded as dry. These included Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. The idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of immigration. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings. They felt the state was being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights. The women were concerned about drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue. It was a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. The idea was reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. Progressives passed a law that kept women from entering saloons or buying alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural and urban areas. Denver, Teller, and Alamosa counties were against prohibition. All were home to major industrial centers. They were also home to higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke with lawmakers. The groups demanded a ban on all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. helped their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado. However, there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. The prohibition referendum passed with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. Both laws banned the sale and transport of all alcohol. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing the alcohol ban started within the first year. The governor appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws to enforce prohibition. Many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to police officers to stay in business. Liquor from speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were made up of men not formally trained as police officers. They would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. Anyone at the home would be arrested, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith. Smith was sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressive judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how certain communities were targeted. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't obey dry laws. The well-off drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to make sure they had liquor. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people while drinking liquor taken from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of prohibition, Colorado saw the growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters emerged all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and Pete Carlino made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of sweeps in the Italian American community of Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been banned from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of black-market booze. They drank and made alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job related to booze during prohibition. They ran kitchen stills, sold liquor, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also got new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed eager to end prohibition. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a vote calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The vote failed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver Post hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition.” The newspaper printed ballots asking readers whether they were for or against prohibition. Based on the 110,000 newspaper ballots, Coloradans favored repeal. However, eligible voters still supported temperance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on repeal again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state. However, federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado.  However, it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment. National prohibition was repealed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the Rocky Mountain News, beer sales alone made the alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment builders, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The News guessed that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alcohol quickly became a part of Coloradan's lives again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production. This included the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. They had produced products such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages during prohibition. Mobsters who had profited from prohibition were gone within a few months. The law no longer prevented women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment removed alcohol laws that targeted groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita. In 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry. There is also a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Alcohol prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) was a Progressive Era experiment. It was based on reform-minded and religious ideas. Prohibition banned the sale and transport of alcohol. The goal of reformers was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. However, outlawing alcohol created more issues than first thought.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prohibition in Colorado predated national prohibition by four years. It ended only months before national prohibition was also repealed. The prohibition era in Colorado was marked by a sharp increase in organized crime, black markets, and government corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado soon saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s, when Colorado was still a territory. Conscious of the region’s saloon culture, some towns were founded as dry. These included the communities of Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. However, the idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to labor unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of urbanization and immigration. They hoped to keep Colorado free from what they called “un-American” activities. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings. They felt as if the state was being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights. They were concerned with drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue but, rather, a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As a step toward full prohibition, antialcohol Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. The idea was reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. Progressives passed a law that kept women from entering saloons, working in areas that served alcohol, or buying alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural towns and urban areas. The strongest antiprohibition counties included Denver, Teller, Mineral, La Plata, Ouray, Chaffee, Alamosa, and Garfield. All of these counties were home to major industrial centers, especially mining and smelting operations. They were also home to larger numbers of non-Protestants and higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke directly with lawmakers. The groups also publicly demanded the banning of any and all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. aided their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado, but there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. Called Measure 2, the prohibition referendum passed on November 3 with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. For example, both defined “intoxicating liquor” as any beverage containing more than 0.5 percent alcohol. Both laws also banned the sale and transport of all alcohol, even for religious purposes. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing an alcohol ban became obvious within the first year of the law. Governor William Ellery Sweet appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws in order to enforce prohibition. Colorado also became home to corrupt law enforcement practices. For example, many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to officers to stay in business. In addition, liquor taken in raids on speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were often made up of men not formally trained as police officers. According to newspaper reports, they viewed themselves as “crusaders” seeking to destroy the “demon drink.” These moral enforcers would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. They would arrest anyone on the premises, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith, and his vigilante groups (often composed of members of the KKK). Smith was sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force against the Italian American and Mexican American communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressive judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how marginalized communities were targeted and given unfair trials. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't comply with dry laws. The well-off drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to ensure that they had as much liquor as they wanted. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people, often sipping on liquor seized from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of prohibition, Colorado saw the rapid growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters appeared all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and Pete Carlino made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of prohibition sweeps in the Italian American community of Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been barred from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of new opportunities in black-market booze. They took part in drinking and creating alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job pertaining to booze during prohibition. They ran kitchen stills, sold booze, tallied sales records, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also benefited from new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first accredited female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed as eager to end prohibition as they had been to start it. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a referendum calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The referendum failed. The Denver Post hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition.” The newspaper printed ballots asking readers whether they were for or against prohibition. The consensus from 110,000 newspaper ballots was that Coloradans favored repeal. However, eligible voters still supported temperance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Colorado’s referendum, several states in New England began to call for repeal of prohibition. Soon several western states—including Arizona, New Mexico, and California—joined the call.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on the repeal of prohibition again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state. However, federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This loophole meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado, but it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing national prohibition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the Rocky Mountain News, beer sales alone made the newly revived alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment builders, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The News guessed that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the industry revived, alcohol quickly became a part of the public lives of Coloradans again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production, including the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. They had relied on producing other products such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages until repeal. Meanwhile, mobsters who had profited from prohibition had the rug ripped out from under them. They were gone within a few months. The law no longer prevented women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment removed prohibitive laws that targeted groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition took legal hold on the state between 1916 and 1933, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita. In 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry, as well as a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 20:51:18 +0000 yongli 3274 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fort Collins http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Collins</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2741--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2741.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-collins-1865"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CO_Fort_Collins_1865_0.jpg?itok=AhxSKtDc" width="1090" height="614" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-collins-1865" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Collins, 1865</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Drawing of Camp Collins along the Cache la Poudre River (foreground), c. 1865. The camp was named after Lt. William O. Collins, an Ohio cavalry officer.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-09-13T14:46:43-06:00" title="Wednesday, September 13, 2017 - 14:46" class="datetime">Wed, 09/13/2017 - 14:46</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins" data-a2a-title="Fort Collins"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffort-collins&amp;title=Fort%20Collins"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Fort Collins, the fourth-most populous city in Colorado, lies along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a> near the foothills of the northern <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. The seat of <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, Fort Collins was founded as an Army camp in 1864 and has since developed into a regional hub for education, business, culture, and recreation. The city currently has a population of 161,000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fort Collins, nicknamed “Choice City,” is the home of <strong>Colorado State University</strong>, Colorado’s first land-grant college, as well as a host of popular craft beer breweries and several major technology companies. Cycling, craft beer, and music are all elements of the local culture, and the town lies close to a number of natural attractions, including the Cache la Poudre River and the Poudre Canyon, <strong>Horsetooth Mountain </strong>and<strong> <a href="/article/horsetooth-reservoir">Horsetooth Reservoir</a></strong>, and <strong>Estes Park</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Council Tree</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Prior to the arrival of white settlers in the mid-nineteenth century, the Cache la Poudre valley was the home of the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Cheyenne</strong> people. In 1820 Major <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/stephen-h-long"><strong>Stephen H. Long</strong></a> led the first official US expedition through the valley. In the ensuing decades he was followed by fur trappers, emigrants, and homesteaders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>Cottonwood trees</strong></a> grow in the hundreds in the river bottoms along the Cache la Poudre River. However, one tree several miles east of present-day Fort Collins towered over the rest. At more than 100 feet tall and with a trunk reportedly 16 feet wide, this ancient cottonwood had been adopted by the Arapaho people as a council tree—a communal place to camp, fish, and hold council over important issues.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In May 1860 rancher Robert Strauss arrived near present-day Fort Collins and established his home on land that held the council tree. Strauss had an amiable relationship with a local Arapaho leader known to English speakers as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday"><strong>Friday</strong></a> (his Arapaho name translates to “The Man Who Sits Thinking”). Even though Strauss considered himself owner of the land, he did not dispute the Arapaho presence on it.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Arapaho continued to convene at the council tree without much trouble until 1861, when the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> attempted to remove several groups of Cheyenne and Arapaho to a small area in southeastern Colorado. A handful of Arapaho leaders signed the treaty, though they later said they did not fully understand its terms and did not agree to cede tribal lands. Friday continued to camp near the council tree.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On May 20, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed the first <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a>, opening a new era of westward expansion and conquest in American history. Between 1862 and 1864 more than 1 million homesteads were granted to settlers who traveled west on the <a href="/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a> and other wagon routes. Those migrating across the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and beyond came into direct and sometimes violent competition with Native Americans for land, food, fuel, and other resources, which gave way to numerous conflicts throughout the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Camp to Fort</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To protect goods and people moving along the Overland Trail, the US government dispatched cavalry units in strategic locations. Camp Collins, on the Cache la Poudre River near <strong>LaPorte</strong>, was one of these locations. It was named after Lt. Col.<strong> William O. Collins</strong> of the Eleventh Ohio Volunteer Cavalry. In its first location,  the camp was vulnerable to seasonal <a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a>. On June 12, 1864, the camp flooded, and a majority of its equipment was lost. To meet the needs of the cavalry, a new encampment had to be built at a different site. On August 20, 1864, Collins wrote out a special order calling for a permanent post to be built on the Cache la Poudre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In late October 1864, the Fort Collins Military Post was established on what is now the northeast edge of the city’s Old Town district. It was given the name “Fort Collins” to distinguish it from the earlier camp. The small fort was surrounded by a military reservation of more than 6,000 acres and housed many different military units.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1864, US cavalry slaughtered more than 150 peaceful Arapaho and Cheyenne camped near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>, igniting wide-open conflict between the United States and the two Native American nations. Amidst these growing hostilities, Friday fled the Fort Collins area, rejoining his Northern Arapaho people in Wyoming.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fort Collins was only garrisoned for another two-and-a-half years before local conflicts with Native Americans subsided, expiring its purpose. The fort was decommissioned in March 1867 by order of General William T. Sherman.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Fort to City</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the fort’s brief tenure as a cavalry garrison, a small community was commissioned around the post shortly after it was opened. Lewis Stone and his wife, the colorful Elizabeth “Auntie” Stone, received permission to build a cabin on the grounds of the fort. Finished in 1864, their two-story cabin at the present corner of Mountain Avenue and Jefferson Street was the first permanent, private dwelling in Fort Collins. “Auntie Stone’s Cabin,” as it came to be known, also operated as the city’s first hotel, initially for military officers and then for the public in 1867.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Stone family continued efforts to develop Fort Collins from a frontier settlement to a full-fledged community. For example, Elizabeth Stone’s philanthropy included the founding of the Fort Collins <strong>Women’s Christian Temperance Union</strong>. But the Stones were not the only enterprising settlers to capitalize on the military personnel stationed along the Overland Trail.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To provide basic goods for soldiers and travelers, Joseph Mason, another early Fort Collins resident, built the first permanent storefront at the corner of Jefferson and Linden Streets in 1865. By 1866 the town had both a church and a schoolhouse. In 1867, following the closing of the military post, Fort Collins was surveyed and platted. In 1870 it was chosen as the site of Colorado’s first and only land grant college—<strong>Colorado Agricultural College</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Agricultural College</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the country recovered from the <strong>Civil War</strong>, the small community of Fort Collins faced a situation similar to that of most other newly established western communities: it lacked the necessary transportation and institutional infrastructure necessary to support large-scale agriculture. Without capital investments and access to a railroad, Fort Collins would wither. Harris Stratton, who came to Fort Collins in 1865, sought to address this problem. Stratton served in the territorial legislature during 1868–69, and he was intrigued by the prospects of the 1862 <strong>Morrill Act</strong>, which provided land for the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges. Recognizing that a land-grant college would benefit Fort Collins, Stratton and fellow Fort Collins legislator Mathew S. Taylor, introduced the bill in 1870 that established the <strong>Agricultural College of Colorado</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1874 the Larimer County Land Improvement Company built an agricultural colony near LaPorte to complement the founding of Colorado Agricultural College. The colony provided 3,000 acres of land for farm plots to encourage experimental high-desert farming. It was not long before Fort Collins earned a reputation as the agricultural hub of northern Colorado. The position of the city as the preeminent agricultural community in northern Colorado was only elevated after its integration into the growing network of western railroads.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Railroads and Sugar Beets</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first railroad to reach Fort Collins was <a href="/article/william-ah-loveland"><strong>William A.H. Loveland</strong></a>’s <strong>Colorado Central</strong> <strong>Railroad</strong> in 1877, followed by the Greeley, Salt Lake &amp; Pacific (GSL&amp;P) in 1882. The arrival of railroads allowed farmers in the Cache la Poudre valley to ship their produce to regional and national markets, connected Fort Collins to larger economic centers such as <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, and allowed the importation of building materials from the East.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The declining economy of the United States during the 1890s—highlighted by the <a href="/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a>—resulted in part from the decline in the western mining industry and unexpected agricultural setbacks. One enterprise, however, held promise for the Fort Collins agricultural community—the <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar industry</strong></a>. The environmental conditions of the Front Range were suitable for the widespread cultivation of sugar beets, and the plant itself was ideally suited for the region’s unpredictable <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agricultural reformers enticed northern Colorado farmers to plant sugar beets and declared that the practice would not only provide income for farmers but would also create jobs for laborers and industrial workers, as well as provide an avenue for capitalist investment and city growth. In 1901 the Denver magnates<strong> <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/charles-boettcher">Charles Boettcher</a></strong>, <strong>J. J. Brown</strong>, and <strong>John F. Campion</strong> founded the Great Western Sugar Company, and in 1903 the company built a beet processing factory in Fort Collins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a> flooded Fort Collins with wealth, and the city attracted a diverse population of agriculturalists, laborers, and capitalists. Many new residences and businesses were established during the prosperous first decade of the twentieth century, including a library, theaters, schools, recreational facilities, parks, and churches.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1920 Fort Collins had become a popular destination for Hollywood actors such as John Wayne, Olivia DeHavilland, and Vincent Price, who were drawn by the fine amenities of the iconic <strong>Northern Hotel</strong> and the rugged backdrop of the Front Range. Then Vice-Presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt, who romanticized Fort Collins as an emblematic western city, even campaigned from the steps of the Fort Collins courthouse during his 1920 bid for the White House. Three years later, students at Colorado Agricultural College climbed a hogback overlooking the western edge of town and painted a white letter “A” for “Aggies,” the school’s mascot. The white “A” has been a signature landmark in Fort Collins ever since, maintained by successive generations of students.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Just west of that hogback in 1949, the federal <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> built Horsetooth Reservoir as part of the massive <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado–Big Thompson Project</strong></a>. The reservoir continues to serve as both the city’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> source and a hub for outdoor recreation, while the surrounding hills are popular grounds for hiking, camping, and cycling.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1935 Colorado Agricultural College was renamed Colorado State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (Colorado A&amp;M). During <strong>World War II,</strong> American soldiers were sent to Colorado A&amp;M to undergo officer training before being sent overseas. In 1957 Colorado A&amp;M was renamed Colorado State University (CSU), and its mascot changed from “Aggies” to “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>Rams</strong></a>.” CSU remains one of the cornerstones of the city’s economy and culture. Craft beer is another, in part because of the high quality and availability of local water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A dry city until 1969, Fort Collins is today nationally known for its breweries. Anheuser-Busch was the first beer company to set up shop in Fort Collins, opening a brewery in 1988. But Fort Collins’s now-legendary craft beer industry began in 1989, when Scott Smith founded <strong>CooperSmith’s</strong> brewpub in the city’s Old Town district. That same year, West Coast brewers Doug and Wynne O’Dell set up <strong>O’Dell</strong> brewery in an old grain elevator on the outskirts of town. Then, inspired by the quality of small-scale beer brewers as he bicycled through Belgian towns, Fort Collins resident Jeff Lebesch founded <strong>New Belgium Brewing</strong> in 1991. The company quickly moved out of Lebesch’s basement and into its own brewery at 500 Linden Street. Today, New Belgium ships beer all across the country, while O’Dell retains a smaller-scale distribution network. CooperSmith’s is one of the nation’s most successful brewpubs, selling more than 2,000 barrels of beer each year. Committed to its founder’s love for cycling, New Belgium promotes both its beer and cycling through the annual <strong>Tour de Fat</strong>, a festival that combines beer, costumes, and bicycles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Craft brewing has since been a mainstay of the local culture and economy in Fort Collins. The Fort Collins Brewery opened in 2003, followed by Funkwerks in 2007, and the city has since added a number of smaller breweries and brewpubs, including Pateros Creek (2008), Equinox (2010), Black Bottle (2012), and several others.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the present site of the city was considered safer than the original Camp Collins, Fort Collins has remained vulnerable to flooding. The city has endured eleven flood events since 1864, with the worst being the <a href="/article/spring-creek-flood-1997"><strong>Spring Creek Flood</strong></a> of 1997. The flood inundated much of western Fort Collins, including the CSU campus, killing five people and causing about $200 million in damage. Afterward, the city spent $5 million on recovery and an advanced flood warning system. Regional <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods"><strong>flooding in September 2013</strong></a> narrowly missed the main part of the city, serving as another reminder to residents that living in such a scenic place does not come without risks.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Fort Collins remains one of the fastest-growing and most popular cities in Colorado. The well-preserved <strong>Old Town Historic District</strong> serves as a hub for shopping, restaurants, and nightlife, as well as a reminder of the city’s agricultural and frontier history. The city continues to attract a multitude of tourists annually, and Colorado State University is recognized as one of the nation’s preeminent research institutions. Several technology companies, including Hewlett Packard, Intel, and AMD, maintain large facilities in Fort Collins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To help improve transportation between the expanding residential developments south of downtown and the old heart of the city, Fort Collins established the MAX Bus system in 2014. As it grows, Fort Collins will continue to face challenges related to water availability, flood control, and transportation, but its status as one of the premier cities along Colorado’s Front Range is unlikely to change anytime soon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-state-university" hreflang="en">Colorado State University</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-fort-collins" hreflang="en">history of fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county-history" hreflang="en">larimer county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins-history" hreflang="en">fort collins history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-belgium-brewing" hreflang="en">new belgium brewing</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/odell-brewing" hreflang="en">o&#039;dell brewing</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/craft-beer" hreflang="en">craft beer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anheuser-busch" hreflang="en">anheuser-busch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsetooth" hreflang="en">horsetooth</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/old-town-fort-collins" hreflang="en">old town fort collins</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin Duggan, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/05/17/fort-collins-celebrate-max-anniversary/84507750/">Fort Collins to celebrate MAX anniversary</a>,” <em>The Coloradoan </em>(Fort Collins), May 18, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara Fleming, “A Walk Through History: Council tree, Strauss cabin long gone,” <em>The Coloradoan </em>(Fort Collins)<em>, </em>March 2, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fort Collins Community Service Collaborative, “The Railroad Era, Colorado Agricultural College, and the Growth of the City, 1877–1900,” <em>Fort Collins History Connection: An Online Collaboration of the Fort Collins Museum and the Poudre River Public Library District</em>, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Fort Collins - A Growing Town in a Growing Country” <em>Fort Collins Courier</em>, November 16, 1878.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Fort Collins Agricultural Colony of Colorado” <em>Fort Collins Standard</em>, March 25, 1874.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Teresa Funke, “Elizabeth Stone: Chronology of the ‘Founding Mother of Fort Collins,” brochure, Fort Collins Museum, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Adrian D. Garcia and Pat Ferrier, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/money/2015/12/18/fort-collins-largest-primary-employers/77496904/">9K work at Fort Collins’ 25 largest companies</a>,” <em>Fort Collins Coloradoan</em>, December 18, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kenneth Jessen, “<a href="https://www.reporterherald.com/2016/04/14/historic-strauss-cabin-destroyed-by-arsonists/">Historic Strauss cabin destroyed by arsonists</a>,” <em>Reporter-Herald </em>(Loveland), April 16, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kristin Mastre, “<a href="https://www.julieknows.com/1345/equinox-brewing">Equinox Brewing</a>,” Feasting Fort Collins (blog), May 10, 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>New Belgium Brewing, “<a href="https://www.newbelgium.com/Brewery/company/history">History</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>O’Dell Brewing, “<a href="https://www.odellbrewing.com/our-story/">Our Story</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dean Shamblen, “<a href="http://www.arapaholegends.com/friday-the-arapaho-interpreter/">Friday, the Arapaho Interpreter</a>,” Arapaho Legends (blog), March 3, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wayne C. Sundberg, “City Celebrates Rich Heritage,” <em>The Coloradoan</em> (Fort Collins), August 19, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wayne C. Sundberg, <em>Fort Collins at 150: A Sesquicentennial History, </em>(San Antonio, TX: HPN Books, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin Torres, “<a href="https://kdvr.com/news/unique-2-colorado/budweisers-big-claim-to-small-colorado-town/">Budweiser’s big claim to Fort Collins</a>,” <em>Fox 31 Denver</em>, October 31, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Twitty, <em>Silver Wedge: The Sugar Beet Industry in Fort Collins</em> (Fort Collins, CO: SWCA Environmental Consultants, 2003).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kevin Duggan, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/08/29/arapaho-tribal-history-honored-fort-collins-site/89550934/">Arapaho tribal history honored at Fort Collins site</a>,” <em>The Coloradoan </em>(Fort Collins), August 29, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Evadene Burris Swanson, <em>Fort Collins Yesterdays </em>(Fort Collins, CO: George and Hildegarde Morgan, 1976, 1993).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 13 Sep 2017 20:46:43 +0000 yongli 2739 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org