%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Squirrel Creek Recreation District http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/squirrel-creek-recreation-district <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Squirrel Creek Recreation District</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-06-02T14:41:18-06:00" title="Friday, June 2, 2017 - 14:41" class="datetime">Fri, 06/02/2017 - 14:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/squirrel-creek-recreation-district" data-a2a-title="Squirrel Creek Recreation District"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsquirrel-creek-recreation-district&amp;title=Squirrel%20Creek%20Recreation%20District"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Developed primarily between 1919 and 1924, the Squirrel Creek Recreation District in the San Isabel National Forest near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> was one of the earliest recreational developments in a national forest and served as a model for many others to come. The recreation district is also notable for its association with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a>’s first Recreation Engineer, <a href="/article/arthur-carhart">Arthur Carhart</a> (1892–1978), who is known for the idea of recreation zoning in the national forests and is often credited with the concept of wilderness protection. The district served recreation users until 1947, when a flood destroyed parts of the road leading to the area.</p> <h2>Recreation in the National Forests</h2> <p>When the United States established its first forest reserves in 1891 and later created the national forest system in 1907, the primary purpose of the forests was resource management and conservation, not recreation. In the early decades of the twentieth century, however, a series of social and economic changes—including the rise of automobiles and networks of good roads, the spread of the forty-hour workweek, and a growing emphasis on the physical and moral benefits of outdoor recreation—led to a rapid increase in their recreational use. Between 1917 and 1924 national forest visitation nearly quadrupled.</p> <p>Recognizing these changes and spurred by its rivalry with the new National Park Service, established in 1916, the <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado">Forest Service</a> hired landscape architect Frank A. Waugh in 1917 to make a recreational survey of the national forests. Waugh’s 1918 report, <em>Recreation Uses on the National Forests</em>, demonstrated the popularity of recreation in the national forests and recommended hiring landscape architects to plan their development as recreational resources. As a result, the Forest Service hired Arthur Carhart, a trained landscape architect, as its first Recreation Engineer. Carhart started work in March 1919 in the Forest Service’s <a href="/article/denver">Denver</a> regional office and began to look for a good place to apply his ideas about recreational planning.</p> <h2>San Isabel National Forest</h2> <p>Recreation in the national forests along Colorado’s <a href="/article/front-range">Front Range</a> followed nationwide patterns. Recreational pressure on the public lands near Pueblo was especially intense. By the early twentieth century, Pueblo had grown into an industrial center known as the “Pittsburgh of the West,” home to thousands of <a href="/article/colorado-fuel-iron">Colorado Fuel and Iron Company</a> employees. With the 1914 <a href="/article/ludlow-massacre">Ludlow Massacre</a> still a fresh memory, reformers and city leaders hoped that access to outdoor recreation would help stave off worker unrest.</p> <p>In 1918 the Commerce Club of Pueblo asked San Isabel National Forest supervisor Al Hamel to install campground and picnic facilities just inside the forest boundary near Pueblo and Beulah. Hamel recognized the need for such facilities but had no funds to build them. In response, the Commerce Club and the city of Pueblo worked together in 1919 to acquire land and develop basic recreational facilities in Squirrel Creek Canyon near the forest boundary. They built ten campsites, two shelters, twelve fireplaces, and a few toilets to help manage the demands users were placing on the landscape.</p> <p>Hamel became friends with Carhart and believed his expertise could be applied well in the Pueblo area, where there was a clear demand for outdoor recreation and need to develop a plan for public access. Soon after Carhart started working for the Forest Service, Hamel took him on a tour of the San Isabel National Forest. Carhart began to think about plans for recreational development in the forest.</p> <h2>Carhart’s Regional Plan</h2> <p>Carhart believed forests needed a comprehensive plan to ensure good access and dispersed use. He outlined his ideas in a sixty-four-page document called <em>General Working Plan, Recreational Development of the San Isabel National Forest, Colorado</em> (1919), which he enlarged the next year into a 110-page report. It was the first regional plan for a national forest, and he envisioned it as a model for others to follow.</p> <p>Essentially, Carhart’s approach involved zoning forests the same way an urban planner might zone a city for different types of development and land use. Recreation in the national forests might range from intensive use to primitive backpacking, and Carhart believed that each part of the forests should be zoned for the type of recreation that suited it best. Areas near cities would naturally see more traffic and different kinds of use than areas that were farther away and harder to access.</p> <p>For example, Carhart designated the Squirrel Creek area in San Isabel National Forest for “semi-suburban picnic-resort, campground-cottage use” because it was located near Pueblo, had some roads and parcels of private property, and featured rounded mountains with scenery that was good but not spectacular. Places like <strong>Trappers Lake</strong> in Colorado and parts of the Superior National Forest in Minnesota, both of which Carhart visited in 1919, stood on the opposite end of the spectrum, as areas that deserved to be maintained as primitive areas without roads.</p> <h2>Squirrel Creek</h2> <p>Carhart and Hamel supported recreational development in the national forests, but the Forest Service as a whole had little money for recreational improvements. So, in November 1919, locals in Pueblo established the nonprofit San Isabel Public Recreation Association (SIPRA) to help fund construction in the forest.</p> <p>Between 1919 and 1924, SIPRA and the Forest Service worked together to develop the Squirrel Creek Recreation District, which consisted of several different features. Perhaps the most important piece was Squirrel Creek Road, which provided automobile access to the area from Beulah. A campground along the road provided twelve clusters of campsites with fire rings, wells, and belowground garbage units. The last and largest development in the recreation district was the Squirrel Creek Community House (later the Squirrel Creek Lodge), which SIPRA built in 1923–24, after working with Carhart to find an appropriate location along the road. A three-quarter-mile walking path called the Cascade Trail connected the lodge to the campground.</p> <p>Carhart left the Forest Service in December 1922, when it became clear that he could not expect much support for his work from Congress or from the Forest Service itself, which maintained an ambivalent attitude toward recreation until the late 1930s. Few changes were made to the Squirrel Creek facilities after its initial development under Carhart’s supervision in the early 1920s. SIPRA widened the road in 1925 and enlarged the picnic shelter in 1927. In the 1930s the <a href="/article/civilian-conservation-corps-colorado">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> added picnic tables in the campground and two rental cabins near the lodge.</p> <p>SIPRA continued to watch over the Squirrel Creek Recreation District but made no improvements in the 1930s because of a lack of funds during the <strong>Great Depression</strong>. After <strong>World War II</strong>, SIPRA considered making improvements to the Squirrel Creek facilities, but in August 1947 a major flood rendered those plans moot.</p> <p>The flood swept through the Squirrel Creek Recreation District, destroying all of the bridges on Squirrel Creek Road and washing out parts of the road, rendering the campground and lodge inaccessible. The flood also washed away part of the campground and the middle section of the Cascade Trail. The flood was not the only natural calamity to befall the district; in 1979 a <strong>fire</strong> burned the Squirrel Creek Lodge down to its foundation.</p> <h2>Significance</h2> <p>The Squirrel Creek Recreation District was developed as part of the first regional plan ever devised for the national forests. Its campground was one of the earliest recreational campgrounds in a national forest and probably the first national forest campground planned for automobile-based recreation. Squirrel Creek Road was one of the first Forest Service roads built primarily for its recreational and scenic value. The Cascade Trail may have been the first national forest trail designed specifically for recreation. In short, by 1922 the San Isabel National Forest had become the first “recreational” forest in the United States. It served as a model for later plans to manage recreational use in national forests across the country, attracting visits from Forest Service administrators as well as landscape engineers.</p> <p>The means by which the Squirrel Creek Recreation District was developed also proved to be a harbinger of things to come. At the time, a partnership between the Forest Service and a local nonprofit like the SIPRA to develop forest recreational resources was new and innovative. Carhart encouraged the establishment of similar groups to support recreational development in other forests along the Front Range and around the country. Today such “Friends” of a national forest often play a key role in maintaining trails and other improvements in parks and public lands.</p> <p>In addition, the ideas about recreation planning and zoning that Carhart developed at Squirrel Creek influenced later conservation and environmentalist programs. Most notably, Carhart’s idea of recreation zoning guided the federal Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC), which started its work in 1958 and released its final report in 1962. The ORRRC’s report emphasized that all Americans should have easy access to outdoor recreation and promoted the idea that outdoor spaces should be zoned for different types of recreation, from high-density recreation in or near cities to wilderness areas kept free of roads and development.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>As part of its 100th anniversary in the early 2000s, the Forest Service adopted Squirrel Creek as one of its “New Century of Service” projects. The Forest Service successfully placed the recreation district on the National Register of Historic Sites in 2004 and restored Davenport Campground, higher up in Squirrel Creek Canyon, to the look of a 1920s campground in order to highlight the area’s importance to the history of recreation in the national forests.</p> <p>One historic 1920s road sign and some portions of retaining walls remain along Squirrel Creek Road, which is now known as the Squirrel Creek Trail. Thirty-eight campsites are still identifiable in the Squirrel Creek campground, but they are mostly covered in trees and undergrowth.</p> <p>In 2005 Volunteers for Outdoor Colorado worked to restore several Squirrel Creek campsites as well as a section of the Cascade Trail.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-isabel-national-forest" hreflang="en">San Isabel National Forest</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wilderness" hreflang="en">wilderness</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arthur-carhart" hreflang="en">arthur carhart</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/outdoor-recreation" hreflang="en">outdoor recreation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donald N. Baldwin, <em>The Quiet Revolution: Grass Roots of Today’s Wilderness Preservation Movement</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1972).</p> <p>Robert W. Cermak, “In the Beginning: The First National Forest Recreation Plan,” <em>Parks and Recreation</em> 9.11 (November 1974).</p> <p>R. Scott Rappold, “<a href="https://gazette.com/colorado-campground-is-the-oldest-in-u.s.-national-forests/article/500077/">Colorado Campground is the Oldest in U.S. National Forests</a>,” <em>Colorado Springs Gazette</em>, June 4, 2013.</p> <p>Steve Segin, Jennifer Cordova, and Jack McCrory, “Squirrel Creek Recreational Unit,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (August 30, 2004).</p> <p>Tom Wolf, <em>Arthur Carhart: Wilderness Prophet</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Arthur H. Carhart, <em>Planning for America’s Wildlands</em> (Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press, 1961).</p> <p>James G. Lewis, <em>The Forest Service and the Greatest Good: A Centennial History</em> (Durham, NC: Forest History Society, 2005).</p> <p>William Philpott, <em>Vacationland: Tourism and Environment in the Colorado High Country</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013).</p> <p>Paul S. Sutter, <em>Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 02 Jun 2017 20:41:18 +0000 yongli 2669 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lincoln Home http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lincoln-home <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lincoln Home</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-12-20T09:21:24-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 20, 2016 - 09:21" class="datetime">Tue, 12/20/2016 - 09:21</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lincoln-home" data-a2a-title="Lincoln Home"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flincoln-home&amp;title=Lincoln%20Home"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Lincoln Home in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> was started by the city’s Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs and became the only known Black orphanage in Colorado. Established in 1906, the home moved in 1914 to two connected brick houses on North Grand Avenue, where it remained until the city’s segregated orphanage system ended in 1963. In 1997 the Lincoln Home building on North Grand Avenue was listed on the State Register of Historic Properties, and in the early 2000s, the building housed the Martin Luther King Jr. Cultural Center.</p> <h2>The Colored Orphanage</h2> <p>Pueblo’s Black community traces its roots to the diverse residents of <a href="/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a>, the early trading post that was built near the present city in the 1840s. After the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>, new Black residents arrived from border states such as Kentucky and Missouri. Between 1870 and 1880 <a href="/article/pueblo-county"><strong>Pueblo County</strong></a>’s Black population grew from 27 to 141. The area’s black population continued to grow over the next two decades. By the early 1900s, Pueblo’s Black community was developing its own institutions, including the city’s first black newspaper.</p> <p>At the time Black and white women’s social clubs across the country played a crucial role in promoting social and civic improvement in their local communities. Using money raised through bake sales, dances, and card parties, they tried to eliminate gambling and drinking and started a wide variety of social welfare institutions such as orphanages. In Pueblo, white women’s groups started two orphanages in the early 1900s, but those homes did not accept black children. As it became clear that neither the existing orphanages nor any city agencies would care for orphaned Black children, the Pueblo Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs decided to open its own home for seniors and orphaned children.</p> <p>The Pueblo Colored Orphanage and Old Folks Home—later known as the Lincoln Home—started in late 1906 at 306 East First Street. Its trustees came from among the most prominent members of the city’s black community. Initially the home was operated by the Pueblo Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs, but within a year the federation incorporated the orphanage as a separate organization. By September 1907 the home was caring for eleven children and two seniors.</p> <h2>Larger Quarters</h2> <p>The Lincoln Home stayed on East First Street for more than seven years, but by 1914 its growing enrollment made a larger building necessary. That June the orphanage paid $3,300 for two adjacent brick houses at 2713 and 2715 North Grand Avenue. At the time, the property was still well north of the city limits. The house at 2713 was probably built in 1889–90. The one-and-a-half-story building was a rectangular Queen Anne with red brick walls on a rhyolite stone foundation. The similar house next door was built sometime before 1904.</p> <p>When the Lincoln Home bought the houses in 1914, it connected the adjacent buildings to make one large facility that shared a kitchen, dining room, and parlor on the main floor. Boys and men lived on the upper floor of 2713; girls and women on the upper floor of 2715. At the time of the move, the Lincoln Home had nineteen children between ages six and sixteen plus five adults, which was about as many people as the new building could hold. In 1920 it had fifteen children—who came from Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and New Mexico—and six adults. The institution remained at roughly maximum capacity through at least the first half of the 1920s.</p> <p>Because it was the only Black orphanage in Colorado, the Lincoln Home received financial support from more than a dozen federations of black women’s clubs across the state. The Pueblo Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs, for example, sold small American flags on Abraham Lincoln’s birthday to raise money for the home. In 1923 the home became part of the newly organized Pueblo Community Chest, a joint fundraising effort for twelve social welfare agencies in the city. The Community Chest made fundraising easier, but the Lincoln Home received only about a quarter as much money from the chest as the city’s two other orphanages. One reason for this disparity was that the Lincoln Home was a smaller facility, but racial discrimination almost certainly played a role as well.</p> <h2>Closure</h2> <p>The Lincoln Home began to decline during the <strong>Great Depression</strong>. By the late 1940s it housed only seven children and one adult. When the Pueblo Community Chest campaign failed to raise enough money in 1950, the home cut services and staff and deferred building maintenance. The home’s board decided to start offering day care and foster care as a way to generate extra revenue, and for the next decade it functioned primarily as a foster home.</p> <p>In the 1960s orphanages were transformed by the growing role of government agencies in child welfare and by the civil rights movement, which made a segregated system of orphanages obsolete. The Lincoln Home closed in 1963.</p> <h2>Heritage Center and Museum</h2> <p>Over the next thirty years the Lincoln Home building gradually deteriorated. By the 1980s, however, historical interest in the old Black orphanage was starting to revive as Ruth Steele of the Pueblo Martin Luther King Jr. Holiday Commission led an effort to raise money to restore the building. In February 1992, more than seventy surviving black Pueblo residents who had lived at the Lincoln Home held a reunion. In 1994 the E. M. Christmas Foundation donated the former Lincoln Home building to the Martin Luther King Jr. Holiday Commission. The building was listed on the State Register of Historic Properties in 1997 and restored as a cultural center and museum of Black history in southern Colorado, which opened in 1999.</p> <p>In June 2014 the Martin Luther King Jr. Cultural Center lost its nonprofit status and was evicted from the building. A separate Martin Luther King Jr. organization soon formed with the goal of buying the building and opening a heritage center and museum. In July 2016 the new organization opened the Martin Luther King Jr. Heritage Center and Museum, but it was in a downtown building rather than in the former Lincoln Home building. The future of the Lincoln Home building was unclear.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/orphanages" hreflang="en">orphanages</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/african-americans" hreflang="en">African Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-community-pueblo" hreflang="en">black community pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-history-pueblo" hreflang="en">black history pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-history-colorado" hreflang="en">black history colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joanne West Dodds, <em>They All Came to Pueblo: A Social History</em> (Virginia Beach, VA: Donning, 1994).</p> <p>Lena Howland, <a href="https://www.koaa.com/story/27777444/two-organizations-dispute-over-martin-luther-king-museum">“Two Organizations Dispute Over Martin Luther King Museum,”</a> KOAA.com, January 6, 2015.</p> <p>Kerry Kramer, “Pueblo Colored Orphanage and Old Folks Home,” Colorado State Register of Historic Properties Nomination Form (August 1997).</p> <p>Jenny Paulson, <a href="http://www.southerncoloradoindependent.com/martin-luther-king-heritage-center-and-museum-and-the-lincoln-house-has-colorful-history/">“Martin Luther King Heritage Center and Museum and the Lincoln House Has Colorful History,”</a> <em>Southern Colorado Independent Magazine</em>, January 19, 2016.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Joanne West Dodds, <em>Pueblo at a Glance</em> (Pueblo, CO: Focal Plain, 2003).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 20 Dec 2016 16:21:24 +0000 yongli 2147 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org El Pueblo http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2067--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2067.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-replica"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/EL%20Pueblo%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=78OGOE2e" width="800" height="362" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-replica" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Replica</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the early 2000s, History Colorado constructed a replica of El Pueblo near the site of the original trading post. Located near the confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River, it consisted of a rough square of rooms arranged around a central courtyard.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2070--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2070.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/city-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El-Pueblo-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=XEjzqiAR" width="1000" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/city-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">City of Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>El Pueblo was largely abandoned after 1854. By 1860, the city of Pueblo was taking shape at the same site. Pueblo's development buried all evidence of El Pueblo in the 1880s.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2071--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2071.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-excavation"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El%20Pueblo%20Media%203_0.jpg?itok=rL_7VqSC" width="800" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-excavation" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Excavation</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the late 1980s, William G. Buckles and students at the University of Southern Colorado (now CSU–Pueblo) successfully identified the site of the original El Pueblo and began to excavate the structure's ruins. The dig is now protected by the William G. Buckles Archaeological Pavilion.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2072--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2072.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-museum-complex"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El%20Pueblo%20Media%204_0.jpg?itok=nDjq7fUj" width="800" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-museum-complex" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Museum Complex</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The William G. Buckles Archaeological Pavilion (pictured) is part of the larger El Pueblo Museum complex built in the early 2000s, which includes the museum, the pavilion, and a replica of the original trading post.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-18T16:09:14-07:00" title="Friday, November 18, 2016 - 16:09" class="datetime">Fri, 11/18/2016 - 16:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo" data-a2a-title="El Pueblo"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fel-pueblo&amp;title=El%20Pueblo"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Established in 1842, El Pueblo (301 N Union Ave, Pueblo, CO 81003) was an independent adobe <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> that operated at the site of the present-day city of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and was used by a diverse, multi-ethnic group of trappers, traders, women, and mountain men. Largely abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes, the post gradually disappeared over the next three decades as the city was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, anthropology professor William G. Buckles and students at the University of Southern Colorado (now <strong>Colorado State University–Pueblo</strong>) discovered the site, which is now home to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo grew out of shifts that occurred in the Western <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the 1830s and 1840s, as established trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the annual rendezvous. In 1833 Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. built <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> east of what is now <strong>La Junta</strong>. It became an important trading post on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> between Missouri and New Mexico. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from nearby bands of <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> and sold the hides in St. Louis.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1841–42, Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. failed to deliver a shipment of hides, creating a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw that the shortage created an opportunity for him to establish a new trading post independent of a large company like Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. Other traders who joined him at the new post probably included Francisco Conn, Mathew Kinkead, and Joseph Mantz as well as the Bent employees Joseph Doyle, Robert Fisher, and Alexander Barclay.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1842, the group decided to build its independent post where the Arkansas River was joined by <strong>Fountain Creek</strong>, a spot about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort. At the time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico, and the post’s location would make it the closest US settlement to Taos. The location offered several additional advantages as a trading center. Trading routes such as the <strong>Cherokee Trail</strong> and the <strong>Taos (or Trappers) Trail</strong> ran along the nearby rivers, providing easy access to multiple markets and trading partners, and Native American groups often passed through the area to use a well-known crossing of the Arkansas. In addition, the valley where Fountain Creek joined the Arkansas was at a relatively low elevation with a temperate climate, and the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From about May to September 1842, Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River west of Fountain Creek. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown, but surviving accounts indicate that it was probably an adobe plaza similar in appearance to a New Mexico country house, with a series of rooms arranged in a rough square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza and had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Called <em>El Pueblo</em> (Spanish for “town” or “people”), the post was distinctive in that it was neither a military fort nor owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base of operations for a diverse group of traders with Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American roots. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents. Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, <strong>Richens Lacy Wootton</strong>, and <strong>James Beckwourth</strong> stayed there at times while the post was active. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval provided the essential infrastructure for the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. Each trader who stayed there had a few rooms for himself and his family and used the central plaza as a common trading area, with goods laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farming and ranching enterprises that developed in the area, many of them started by people who had first operated as traders at the post. They sold their produce at El Pueblo and marketed their livestock to wagon trains along the emigrant and trading trails. In 1846–47, a colony of several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo during the migration that eventually led them to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to decline. The <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> suppressed trade between the United States and Mexico. When the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848, it also transformed the trade dynamics of the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest, which now included El Pueblo. Meanwhile, the discovery of gold in California attracted fortune-seekers from across the continent. As a result of these changes, the population of El Pueblo dwindled, supplemented only by occasional wagon trains of migrants or traders passing through the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War, an influx of European Americans moving to and through the plains and Rocky Mountains began to place new pressures on Native Americans in the region. Hispanos from New Mexico started to establish permanent settlements in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and the Arkansas River valley, while settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers in what is now southern Colorado. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Only about fifteen or twenty people were there at the time, and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. Over the next several years it was occasionally used by travelers and others in the area as a temporary shelter, but it never had any long-term occupants. As the adobe walls crumbled, a small town called Fountain City took shape on the opposite side of Fountain Creek during the gold rush of 1858–59. By 1860, a rival settlement was established on the west side of Fountain Creek near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures and adopted the name of Pueblo for their town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo soon overtook Fountain City and became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. The city succeeded for many of the same reasons that El Pueblo was originally established there, and it proved so successful that by the 1880s El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado) opened the El Pueblo History Museum, which included a full-scale replica of El Pueblo, in an old airplane hangar near the city’s Municipal Airport. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been a subject of debate for decades. The question was complicated by the movements of the Arkansas River, whose course through downtown Pueblo had shifted about one-quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado started a project to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of the adobe trading post helped them settle on a possible location under the Fariss Hotel, which was built in the early 1880s on Union Avenue south of First Street. In 1989 University of Southern Colorado anthropology professor William G. Buckles initiated a survey of the Fariss Hotel’s basement. The work yielded promising evidence, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for more extensive archaeological excavations. Buckles and his team discovered signs of the El Pueblo structure, as well as hundreds of related artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. The city and the Colorado Historical Society worked on a plan to bring the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the rediscovered El Pueblo site, and in 1992 the museum moved to a building on the same block. In 1996 the rediscovered El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the same time, Pueblo was developing the <strong>Historic Arkansas Riverwalk</strong> for its downtown area and included a new El Pueblo museum complex in the master plan. With the help of a gift from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the museum complex went forward and was completed in 2003. The complex occupies the block where El Pueblo was discovered and includes the El Pueblo History Museum, the William G. Buckles Archaeology Pavilion at the excavation site, and a reconstruction that resembles the original trading post.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort" hreflang="en">Bent’s Fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts" hreflang="en">trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/el-pueblo-museum" hreflang="en">El Pueblo Museum</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-pueblo" hreflang="en">Fort Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-g-buckles" hreflang="en">William G. Buckles</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Edward Broadhead, <em>Fort Pueblo</em> (Pueblo, CO: Pueblo County Historical Society, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William G. Buckles, “El Pueblo,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (November 17, 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Janet Lecompte, <em>Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn: The Upper Arkansas, 1832–1856</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dianna Litvak, <em>El Pueblo History Museum: A Capsule History and Guide</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/museums/el-pueblo-history-museum">El Pueblo History Museum</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS_EL_PUEBLO.docx">El Pueblo Teacher Resource Set - Word</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS_EL_PUEBLO.pdf">El Pueblo Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts">trading post</a>. It was started in 1842 where the town of Pueblo is today. Trappers, traders, mountain men, and pioneers used the trading post to exchange goods. El Pueblo was attacked by Native Americans in 1854. Then it was deserted. The city of Pueblo was built over the site. In the 1980s, anthropology students discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Trading posts were built along wagon trails in the 1830s. They were places for people to meet and exchange goods. Before trading posts were built, trappers and traders met at an annual rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail. Buffalo hides and other furs were popular items. Traders at the fort traded goods for buffalo hides from Native Americans and other trappers. They sold the hides to people in the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>George Simpson was a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort. In 1842 he and some friends decided to build another trading post. They chose a spot along the Arkansas River. It was seventy miles from Bent’s Fort. At that time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The location was a good one for a trading post. The Cherokee Trail and the Taos/Trappers Trail went by the post. Native American groups passed through the area. The weather in the valley was mild. The river provided water for the post.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 Hispano workers built the trading post. It was an adobe plaza, with rooms around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto a central plaza. It had no doors on the outside, so it was easier to defend. A large gate led into the central plaza.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The trading post was named El Pueblo. It means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was unusual. It was not a military fort and was not owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post. Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders all used the post. One hundred people could live at El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many traders, trappers, and mountain men stayed at El Pueblo. Some included Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped with the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. Each trader had rooms at the post. The central plaza was used as the trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farming and ranching. Crops and animals were traded and sold. Wagon trains heading west needed supplies. In 1847 several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo on their way to Salt Lake City.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo was used less often. There was a war between Mexico and the United States. People were going to California for the Gold Rush in 1849. Fewer wagon trains were coming by El Pueblo. The population of El Pueblo declined.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The United States won the Mexican-American War in 1848. Settlers started moving to Colorado. Hispanos from New Mexico moved to the area. They started towns in the San Luis and Arkansas River Valleys. Anglo-Americans from the East streamed across the wagon trails heading west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Native American peoples had lived on the land for centuries. They were angry about broken treaties and the number of settlers who were arriving. They began to fight the settlers. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. About twenty people were there at the time. Most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. The adobe walls crumbled. In 1860 a town was started near El Pueblo. Some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks were used to build the town. They named their new town “Pueblo.” Pueblo became the largest city along the Arkansas River. By the 1880s, El Pueblo had disappeared under the new city.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society opened the El Pueblo History Museum in Pueblo. It was located in an old airplane hangar. They named it El Pueblo to honor the trading post that once stood in the area. No one knew where the original El Pueblo was located.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at Colorado State University in Pueblo wanted to find the original site of El Pueblo. They found an old photo showing ruins of the trading post. They believed El Pueblo might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in the early 1880s. They dug into the basement of the hotel. They discovered the ruins of El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to find more of what remained of El Pueblo. The students and professors discovered parts of the El Pueblo trading post. They also found hundreds of related items like trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1992 the Colorado Historical Society moved the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the El Pueblo site. In 1996 the El Pueblo site was given a special honor. It was put on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The El Pueblo Museum moved one more time. The town of Pueblo was making the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk near the El Pueblo site. As part of the project, they built a new El Pueblo History Museum in 2003. The museum is next to the El Pueblo site. People can visit the El Pueblo History Museum and the El Pueblo site. The museum has rebuilt the original trading post so people can know what El Pueblo was like.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important trading post established in 1842. It was located where the city of Pueblo is today. The trading post was used by a diverse group of trappers, traders, and mountain men. El Pueblo was abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes. The post gradually disappeared and the city of Pueblo was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, students at Colorado State University-Pueblo discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Trading posts were built along wagon trails in the 1830s. They were established as places for people to meet and exchange goods. The trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the mountain man rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built on the Arkansas River. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail between Missouri and New Mexico. Buffalo hides and other furs were in great demand at the time. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from mountain men and Native Americans. The hides were sold to customers in the East.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 a failed delivery of buffalo hides created a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw an opportunity to establish a new trading post. Other traders joined him to build a trading post at El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 they decided to build this independent trading post where the Arkansas River joined Fountain Creek. The spot was about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort. At the time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico. The post’s location made it the closest US settlement to Taos, which was in Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The location had many advantages as a trading center. Trading routes such as the Cherokee Trail and the Taos (or Trappers) Trail ran by the site. These provided easy access to markets and trading partners. Native American groups often passed through the area as well. In addition, the valley was at a low elevation with a temperate climate, while the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown. Surviving accounts indicate that it was an adobe plaza similar to a New Mexico country house. It likely had a series of rooms arranged in a square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza. It had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The trading post was named El Pueblo, which means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was distinctive in that it was not a military fort or owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base for a diverse group of Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth stayed there. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped run the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. The traders who stayed there had a few rooms and used the central plaza as a common trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farms and ranches that developed in the area. These were started by people who had first worked as traders at the post. They sold their produce and marketed their livestock to wagon trains. In 1846–47, several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo while traveling to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to move on to other places. The Mexican-American War from 1846–48 stopped trade between the US and Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. The war transformed the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War ended, Anglo- and European Americans started moving to the plains and Rocky Mountains. Hispanos from New Mexico established permanent settlements in the San Luis and Arkansas valleys. Settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Native American people, who had lived on the land for centuries, were incensed by this influx of people. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Twenty people were there at the time and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned and the adobe walls crumbled. By 1860 a town was established near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures. They adopted the name of Pueblo for their town. Pueblo became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. The city was successful for the same reasons that El Pueblo had been successful. By 1880 El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society opened the El Pueblo History Museum. It was named El Pueblo to honor the trading post that once stood in the area. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been debated for decades. The question was complicated by changes in the course of the Arkansas River. The river through downtown Pueblo had shifted about a quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado (now Colorado State University-Pueblo) wanted to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of El Pueblo led them to believe it might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in downtown Pueblo in the early 1880s. Anthropology professor William G. Buckles surveyed the basement of the Fariss Hotel. The work appeared promising, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for an archaeological excavation. Buckles and his team discovered evidence of the El Pueblo structure. They found hundreds of artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. In 1992 the city and the Colorado Historical Society moved the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the El Pueblo site. In 1996 the El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The El Pueblo Museum moved one more time. The town of Pueblo was making the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk near the El Pueblo site. As part of the project, they built a new El Pueblo History museum in 2003. The museum is next to the El Pueblo site. People can visit the El Pueblo History Museum and the El Pueblo site. The museum has rebuilt of the original trading post so people can know what El Pueblo was like.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important trading post established in 1842 at the site of the present-day city of Pueblo. The trading post was used by a diverse group of trappers, traders, and mountain men. El Pueblo was abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes. The post gradually disappeared and the city of Pueblo was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, anthropology professor William G. Buckles and students at Colorado State University–Pueblo discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The establishment of trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the annual mountain man rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built on the Arkansas River east of what is now La Junta. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail between Missouri and New Mexico. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from mountain men and Cheyenne and Arapaho Native Americans. The hides were transported and sold in St. Louis.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 a failed delivery of buffalo hides created a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw an opportunity to establish a new trading post. Other traders joined him to build a new trading post about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They built their post where the Arkansas River joined Fountain Creek. At the time, the river was the border between the United States and Mexico. The post’s location made it the closest US settlement to Taos, Mexico. The location had many advantages as a trading center. The Cherokee Trail and the Taos (or Trappers) Trail ran by the site. These travel routes provided easy access to markets and trading partners. Native American groups often passed through the area as well. In addition, the valley was at a low elevation with a temperate climate, while the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From May to September 1842, Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown. Surviving accounts indicate that it was likely an adobe plaza similar in appearance to a New Mexico country house. It likely had a series of rooms arranged in a rough square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza and had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>They named the trading post El Pueblo, which means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was distinctive in that it was neither a military fort nor owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base for a diverse group of Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth stayed there while the post was active. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped run the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. The traders who stayed there had a few rooms and used the central plaza as a common trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farms and ranches that developed in the area. These were started by people who had first operated as traders at the post. They marketed their produce and livestock to wagon trains along the emigrant and trading trails. In 1846–47, several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo during the migration that eventually led them to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to move on to other places. The Mexican-American War from 1846–48 suppressed trade between the United States and Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. It also transformed the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest. Meanwhile, the discovery of gold in California attracted fortune-seekers from across the continent. As a result of these changes, trade declined at El Pueblo and its population dwindled.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War ended, European Americans started moving to the plains and Rocky Mountains. Hispanos from New Mexico established permanent settlements in the San Luis and Arkansas valleys. Settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Native American people, who had lived on the land for centuries, were incensed by this influx of people. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers in what is now southern Colorado. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Only about fifteen or twenty people were there at the time, and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. Over the next several years it was occasionally used by travelers as a temporary shelter. As the adobe walls crumbled, a small town called Fountain City took shape on the opposite side of Fountain Creek during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59. By 1860 a rival settlement was established on the west side of Fountain Creek near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures and adopted the name “Pueblo” for their town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo soon overtook Fountain City and became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. By 1880 El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado) opened the El Pueblo History Museum in an old airplane hangar near the city’s airport. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been debated for decades. The question was complicated by changes in the course of the Arkansas River. The river through downtown Pueblo had shifted about a quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado (now Colorado State University-Pueblo) started a project to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of El Pueblo led them to believe it might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in downtown Pueblo in the early 1880s. In 1989 anthropology professor William G. Buckles surveyed the basement of the Fariss Hotel. The work appeared promising, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for an archaeological excavation. Buckles and his team discovered evidence of the El Pueblo structures, as well as hundreds of artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. The city and the Colorado Historical Society worked on a plan to bring the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the rediscovered El Pueblo site. In 1992 the museum moved to a building near El Pueblo. In 1996 the rediscovered El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, Pueblo was developing the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk for its downtown area. It included a new El Pueblo museum complex in the master plan. With the help of a gift from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the museum complex was completed in 2003. The museum moved to the new site. It occupies the block where El Pueblo was discovered and includes the El Pueblo History Museum, the William G. Buckles Archaeology Pavilion at the excavation site, and a reconstruction that resembles the original trading post.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 18 Nov 2016 23:09:14 +0000 yongli 2068 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Pueblo County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2054--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2054.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_County_0.png?itok=YjJU0FLG" width="1024" height="741" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pueblo County, named for an early trading post called El Pueblo, was established in 1861 as one of the original seventeen counties of the Colorado Territory.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-15T10:03:28-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 15, 2016 - 10:03" class="datetime">Tue, 11/15/2016 - 10:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county" data-a2a-title="Pueblo County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpueblo-county&amp;title=Pueblo%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Pueblo County covers 2,398 square miles in southeast Colorado, from the southern <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and <strong>Wet Mountains</strong> in the west to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley and <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> in the east. It is bordered by <a href="/article/el-paso-county"><strong>El Paso County</strong></a> to the north, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crowley-county"><strong>Crowley</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero</strong></a> Counties to the east, <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county">Las Animas</a> </strong>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano</strong></a> Counties to the south, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/custer-county"><strong>Custer</strong> </a>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-county"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> Counties to the west.</p> <p>Pueblo County has a population of 163,591. More than 106,000 people live in the county seat of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>—Spanish for “town” or “village”—at the confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River. <strong>Interstate 25</strong> bisects the county, running through Pueblo and <strong>Colorado City</strong> (pop. 2,193), and US Route 50 connects the farming communities of Vineland (pop. 251), <strong>Avondale</strong> (674), and Boone (339) on the Arkansas River east of Pueblo. To the southwest, at the foot of the Wet Mountains, is the community of Beulah Valley (556), and to the south lies the small town of <strong>Rye</strong> (202).</p> <p>The Pueblo County area was a Spanish possession from the sixteenth century until Mexican independence in 1821; it became one of the original seventeen counties of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. The city of Pueblo developed on the site of trading posts established in the 1830s and ’40s, and in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it became the industrial center of the American West.</p> <h2>Native Americans</h2> <p>Pueblo County’s earliest inhabitants included <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> peoples, as well as members of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa</strong></a> culture, which dates from 1050 to 1450. By about 1500 the Pueblo County area was home to the Nuche or Ute people, hunter-gatherers who followed game into the high country during the summer and wintered in warmer pockets along the Front Range, such as the site of present-day Pueblo. By the mid-seventeenth century the Utes had obtained horses from the Spanish, allowing them to hunt <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> on the plains. The primary Ute bands that occupied the Pueblo County area were the Tabeguache—the people of “Tava,” or Sun Mountain (<a href="/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>)—and the Muache, the “cedar bark people.” To the east, along the Arkansas River, were villages of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>, a semi-sedentary people who hunted&nbsp;bison and farmed corn, beans, squash, and other vegetables along the river and its tributaries.</p> <p>By the middle of the eighteenth century, the horse-mounted Comanche had driven through Colorado on their way to claiming the Arkansas River valley, which pressed up against the northern boundary of New Spain. The Utes and Comanche formed an alliance, raiding and trading in what is now southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. In 1779, somewhere between the present-day sites of Pueblo and Colorado City, <strong>Juan Bautista de Anza</strong>, the Spanish Governor of New Mexico, drove his troops into the Comanche heartland and killed the powerful Comanche leader <strong>Cuerno Verde</strong> (Greenhorn). <strong>Greenhorn Mountain</strong>, at the southwest corner of Pueblo County, is named for the fallen chief. Despite this loss, Native Americans continued to battle the Spanish as they encroached on indigenous land. The Comanche continued their march south, eventually claiming a huge swath of land in southeast Colorado, western Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.</p> <p>By the early nineteenth century, the Arapaho, another horse-mounted people who migrated from the Upper Midwest, laid claim to the present-day site of Pueblo and other lands along the foothills in what is now Pueblo County. They developed a fierce rivalry with the Nuche. Later, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> arrived on the Colorado plains and frequented the Pueblo County area.</p> <h2>Trade and Early Settlement</h2> <p>In 1806–7 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> led an American military expedition west to locate the headwaters of the Red and Arkansas Rivers. In November 1806 he reached the terminus of the Fountain River at the Arkansas, near present-day Pueblo. Before embarking on an unsuccessful climb of what is now known as Pikes Peak, Pike had his men build a log fortification just west of the confluence. About five feet tall on three sides, the breastwork was the first official American structure in what would become Colorado. The exact location of the breastwork remains unknown.</p> <p>After winning independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico opened trade relations with the United States along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>. Threatened by the presence of the American<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong> trading post</strong></a> at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> farther down the Arkansas, the Mexican government issued several <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>land grants</strong></a> between 1832 and 1843 to encourage Mexican settlement of what is now southern Colorado. Two of these grants, the Nolan Grant and Vigil and St. Vrain Grant, included all the land south of the Arkansas River in present-day Pueblo County. However, Native Americans—predominantly Utes—fought against Mexican attempts to occupy these lands.</p> <p>In the 1830s and ‘40s, proximity to Bent’s Fort and Taos, New Mexico made the current site of Pueblo an attractive place for those involved in the Rocky Mountain <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. American trader and ex-military man John Gantt built Fort Cass on the site in 1833, pioneering the liquor trade in the Arkansas Valley. By 1841 Teresita Sandoval, a Mexican woman, was operating a bison farm in the area with Matthew Kinkead, an Anglo-American with whom she cohabitated until she married another Anglo man, Alexander Barclay, in 1844. In 1842 the American traders George Simpson and Robert Fisher established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a>, a small trading camp dealing mostly in buffalo hides, at the present site of the city of Pueblo. The post got a boost that year when trader Charles Autobees introduced “Taos Lightning,” a popular kind of illegal liquor.</p> <p>Like other small settlements on the Arkansas at the time, El Pueblo was a preview of modern Pueblo’s cultural and ethnic diversity. Many of its approximately four dozen original residents were American men married to Mexican women, but it also attracted Utes, Arapaho, and other Native Americans. Men constantly came and went, journeying to Taos or Bent’s Fort for supplies, trading, or to repair weapons and equipment. Several large ranches, some owned by Mexicans and others by Americans, developed around the small trading nexus, and a cornfield was planted.</p> <p>American explorer <a href="/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> stopped at El Pueblo to resupply on expeditions to the Rocky Mountains in 1843 and 1845. He returned to the Pueblo County area on another expedition in 1848, purchasing supplies farther up the Arkansas at Hardscrabble before continuing on to the Wet Mountains and Sangre de Cristos.</p> <p>South of El Pueblo, the Greenhorn settlement began in 1845 when El Pueblo co-founder John Brown set up a store near Greenhorn Creek. By January 1847 the settlement consisted of little more than a few Indian lodges and an adobe building. The 1849 California Gold Rush drew most of Greenhorn’s earliest inhabitants to the West Coast. Greenhorn was not resettled until 1870, after the establishment of the Colorado Territory and the removal of the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Ute.</p> <h2>American Era</h2> <p>In 1848 the United States acquired the Pueblo County area via the Mexican Cession at the end of the Mexican-American War. By that time the fur trade had all but ceased and the settlements in the Pueblo County area fell silent; only a few residents remained at Pueblo by the summer of 1849, the year <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> set fire to his fort farther down the Arkansas. After a brief period of resettlement in 1853, a Ute-Apache attack in 1854 killed most of the population at El Pueblo. After wiping out the inhabitants of the fort in December 1854 and making off with the settlement’s cattle and corn, a Ute party under the Muache leader Blanco was ambushed by Arapaho, reflecting the contested nature of the area.</p> <p>In response to the killings at Pueblo, the United States launched a military campaign against the Utes and their Apache allies in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. The campaign pressured the Utes into peace negotiations, and in 1855 they agreed to a treaty. Congress, however, did not ratify the agreement, and hostilities between the United States and Native Americans in the Pueblo area continued.</p> <p>Three years later, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> brought thousands of white fortune-seekers across the plains to the Rockies. The confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River was once again an important crossroads—this time its important connection was not south to Taos but north, via Fountain Creek, to gold diggings at <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>. A travelers’ camp called Independence sprang up on the east side of Fountain Creek, and members of the Josiah Smith prospecting party renamed it “Fountain City” when they arrived in September 1858.</p> <p>Pueblo County was established in 1861 as one of the original seventeen counties of the Colorado Territory. East of present-day Pueblo, Boone was first settled in the early 1860s, named for Colonel Albert G. Boone, owner of a local ranch and the caretaker of William Bent’s children at West Point. Boone was also known for negotiating treaties with various Indian tribes. It was also during the early 1860s that the Beulah Valley was settled by Anglo-American ranchers and farmers; at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, the valley was used as a secret gathering place for Confederate Army recruits from Colorado.</p> <p>After a period of violent encounters with whites during the gold rush and its aftermath, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were removed to Oklahoma via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> of 1867, and the Ute were removed to Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>.</p> <p>In the wake of the destruction of the buffalo and removal of Native Americans, great cattle herds came to the Colorado plains during the 1870s. In 1869 rancher <strong>Charles Goodnight</strong>, who helped pioneer the Goodnight–Loving Trail from Texas, began grazing cattle in Pueblo County. He soon acquired a large piece of the Nolan Grant and established his ranch headquarters in Rock Canyon, west of present-day Pueblo.</p> <h2>Industrial Growth and County Development</h2> <p>The modern city of Pueblo took shape between 1872 and 1894 through the gradual merger of four separate towns: Pueblo, South Pueblo, Central Pueblo, and Bessemer. The town of Pueblo, at the site of the old trading post, was formally established in 1870. In 1872 visionary railroad builder <a href="/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a> established the town of South Pueblo along his <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad </strong>(D&amp;RG).</p> <p>Nearly every economic, cultural, and political development in Pueblo County after 1900 can be traced to one company—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a> (CF&amp;I). To provide a steady supply of rails for the D&amp;RG, Palmer’s Colorado Coal &amp; Iron Company (CC&amp;I) built the nation’s first steel mill west of the Mississippi River in South Pueblo in 1881. Branch lines of the D&amp;RG soon sprawled west from Pueblo into the mountains, reaching all the way up the Arkansas Valley to mineral-rich <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>. Pueblo’s proximity to coal fields to the south, the markets of Colorado Springs and Denver to the north, and mines to the west quickly made it into a transportation hub. The Pueblo Smelting and Refining Company built the city’s first smelter in 1882, and by 1889 Pueblo had three smelters processing 400 railroad cars’ worth of gold, silver, and carbonate ore per day. By the turn of the century the city was the smelting capital of the world.</p> <p>In 1892 CC&amp;I merged with <strong>John C. Osgood</strong>’s Colorado Fuel Company to form Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron. By the time the Rockefeller family took the reins of CF&amp;I in 1904, Pueblo was well on its way to becoming the “Pittsburgh of the West.” While smoke-belching smelters converted ore from Colorado mines into thousands of ounces of gold and silver and thousands of tons of lead, the steel mill took in coal, iron ore, and limestone, pumping out rails, structural beams, nails, railroad spikes, iron castings, and other products. By 1909 CF&amp;I’s property in Pueblo was valued at a remarkable $40 million, and the company employed some 5,000 workers.</p> <p>CF&amp;I operated as a regional monopoly, exercising extraordinary power over its workforce. As a result, labor strife, whether in the city or across the state and nation, frequently disrupted its Pueblo operations. For instance, in 1903–4 Pueblo’s smelter workers joined others in Denver, <strong>Durango</strong>, and Colorado City in a statewide strike, demanding shorter work days, safer working conditions, and better pay; strikes among CF&amp;I’s coal miners elsewhere in Colorado interrupted operations again in 1913–14 and 1927.</p> <p>Beyond labor strife, Pueblo endured its share of ups and downs in the twentieth century. The city’s industrial output increased in 1917–18 to meet <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I </strong></a>metal demands, and some 16,000 local men went off to fight. In 1921 a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood"><strong>devastating</strong> </a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood">flood</a> </strong>put some sections of Pueblo a dozen feet underwater, inundated a smelter, wrecked 600 homes, and killed hundreds of people and scores of livestock. Some 3,000 refugees had to live in tent colonies in the aftermath, but three years later the city had recovered. The Depression of the 1930s brought a lull in industrial production, but demand for metals quickly skyrocketed at the onset of World War II. With most of the city’s male population in the military, women took over many positions in the steelworks, from clerical work to manufacturing, and helped push the complex to 104 percent operating capacity. In 1942 the US government built an ordnance facility in Pueblo to receive, store, and distribute ammunition. Overall, Pueblo County’s industrial production increased from $41 million worth of materials in 1940 to more than $72 million in 1954.</p> <p>The steelworks remained busy throughout the rest of the twentieth century, although its status as the region’s most important economic engine declined with the rise of the retail trade and the collapse of the national steel industry in 1979. In 1983 the plant laid off 60 percent of its workforce, and CF&amp;I went bankrupt in 1990. Today the scaled-down steelworks are operated by Evraz Corporation as the Rocky Mountain Steel Mills.</p> <h2>Cultural Diversity</h2> <p>Pueblo’s industrial prowess in the twentieth century relied on the labor of immigrants from Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia, and Slovenia, as well as New Mexican and black workers from the United States. Among those who came from Eastern Europe were Jews fleeing the Russian pogroms of the 1880s and early twentieth century.</p> <p>With so many countries and religions represented in the same city, Pueblo became a rich cultural mosaic in the early decades of the twentieth century. But relations between and even among Pueblo’s diverse communities were not always amicable. Pueblo’s Jewish population endured a schism in the 1890s, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> organized against the city’s many Catholic residents during the 1920s. By 1923 the Klan counted nearly 1,000 local members, including Pueblo County Sheriff Samuel Thomas, who took fellow Klansmen with him on liquor raids.</p> <h2>Agriculture</h2> <p>In addition to providing water for residential and industrial developments, the Arkansas River also allowed Pueblo County to develop a strong agricultural economy, bolstered by demand from Pueblo, Denver, and other cities. Agricultural production exploded between 1910 and 1920, with crop acreage expanding from 630,114 acres to 993,226 acres and livestock value rising from $1.5 million to over $4.5 million. But such huge gains in production saturated the market with agricultural products, so the value of crops fell from $4.1 million in 1920 to $2.6 million by 1930. The value of agricultural products again dropped sharply during the Great Depression.</p> <p>By 1950 ranching had surpassed farming in the county, with livestock valued at $5.2 million compared to just over $3 million for crops. In 1975 Pueblo County agriculture—as well as industry and municipal development—received a boost with the completion of the <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a>’s Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, which dammed the Fryingpan River north of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and sent its water over the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/continental-divide"><strong>Continental<span style="color:#3366cc;"> <span style="background-color:#FFFFFF;">Divide</span></span></strong></a><span style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"> </span>to Pueblo County via the Arkansas River.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Agriculture remains an important part of the Pueblo County economy today. The county ranks in the top third of Colorado’s sixty-four counties in the value of its farm products; leading crops include the famous Pueblo <strong>chili&nbsp;peppers</strong>, dry edible beans, melons, potatoes, and other vegetables. About 33,000 cattle and several thousand horses, goats, and sheep are raised on county ranches. In 2015 Pueblo County officials and chile farmers began a marketing campaign to brand and promote the local peppers. The campaign met with immediate success when Colorado Whole Foods Markets announced that the company’s Colorado locations would be replacing New Mexico Hatch chiles with 125,000 Pueblo green chiles in August 2015. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>Cannabis</strong></a> has also become an important crop in Pueblo County, which allows the cultivation of both drug cannabis (marijuana) and hemp on agricultural and industrial properties. The county also leases water rights to cannabis producers.</p> <p>While the county’s agrarian legacy is strong among ranchers and farmers on the Arkansas, cultural diversity remains a hallmark of the city of Pueblo. About 49 percent of the city’s current residents are Latino, 2.5 percent are African American, 2.2 percent are American Indian, and another 4.1 percent are of two or more races. Between 41 and 45 percent of the population identifies as non-Hispanic whites.</p> <p>The city also continues to grapple with its industrial legacy. The defunct smelter, for instance, deposited waste rock (called slag) in a ravine between Santa Fe Avenue and the D&amp;RG tracks. These slag piles, which contain heavy concentrations of lead, remain today and pose a threat to public and environmental health. As a result, in 2014 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) declared the smelter waste area as part of a Superfund Site and began investigations to determine the contamination of the site and begin cleaning up the slag.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-county" hreflang="en">pueblo county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-history" hreflang="en">pueblo history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fuel-iron" hreflang="en">colorado fuel &amp; iron</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-steelworks" hreflang="en">pueblo steelworks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-steel-mill" hreflang="en">pueblo steel mill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/steelworks-center-west" hreflang="en">Steelworks Center of the West</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beulah-valley" hreflang="en">beulah valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1921-pueblo-flood" hreflang="en">1921 pueblo flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river-flood-1921" hreflang="en">arkansas river flood 1921</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/el-pueblo" hreflang="en">el pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bojon-town" hreflang="en">bojon town</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-jackson-palmer" hreflang="en">william jackson palmer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/avondale" hreflang="en">avondale</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boone" hreflang="en">boone</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p> <p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing For Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War </em>(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p> <p>Beulah Historical Society, <em>From Mace’s Hole, the Way it Was, to Beulah, the Way it Is: A Comprehensive History of Beulah, Colorado </em>(Colorado Springs, CO: Century One Press, 1979).</p> <p>Wade Broadhead, “<a href="https://county.pueblo.org/">History of Pueblo</a>,” Pueblo County, n.d.</p> <p>James Brooke, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/29/us/pittsburgh-of-the-west-is-made-of-more-than-steel.html">Pittsburgh of the West Is Made of More Than Steel</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, December 29, 1997.</p> <p>City of Pueblo, “<a href="http://www.pueblo.us/DocumentCenter/View/3218">Ethnicity Map</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Joanne W. Dodds and Edwin L. Dodds, <em>They All Came to Pueblo: A Social History </em>(Virginia Beach, VA: Donning Co., 1994).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>Cheryl Johnson Huban, “<a href="https://www.greenhornvalleyview.com/index.asp?linkID=63&amp;amp;itemID=9320">Before Colorado City</a>,” Greenhorn Valley View, July 28, 2014.</p> <p>Cheryl Johnson Huban, “<a href="https://www.greenhornvalleyview.com/index.asp?linkID=63&amp;amp;itemID=7212">George Sears and the Greenhorn Settlement</a>,” Greenhorn Valley View, January 23, 2012.</p> <p>Janet Lecompte, <em>Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978).</p> <p>Anthony A. Mestas, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/special/marijuana/4613593-120/pueblo-county-marijuana-measure/">Petition seeks ballot measure to ban retail pot in Pueblo County</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, April 1 2016.</p> <p>Colleen O’Connor, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2015/08/13/colorados-chile-farmers-promote-pueblo-green-chiles/">Colorado’s chile farmers promote Pueblo green chiles</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 14, 2015.</p> <p>Barry Pritzker, <em>A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples </em>(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).</p> <p>Pueblo County, “<a href="https://pueblochile.org/">The Pueblo Chile</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Ed Quillen, “<a href="https://www.csindy.com/coloradosprings/welcome-to-kolorado-klan-kountry/content/?oid=1119033">Welcome to Kolorado, Klan Kountry</a>,” <em>Colorado Springs Independent</em>, May 22, 2003.</p> <p>Martha Quillen, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2001-december/mexican-land-grants-in-colorado">Mexican Land Grants in Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, December 1, 2001.</p> <p>David A. Sandoval, <em>Spanish/Mexican Legacy of Latinos in Pueblo County </em>(Pueblo, CO: Pueblo City-Council Library District, 2012).</p> <p>Jared Orsi, <em>Citizen Explorer: The Life of Zebulon Pike </em>(New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).</p> <p>Phillip Merle Sarver, “Historical Influences on the Economy of Pueblo, Colorado” (PhD Dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1973).</p> <p>Pueblo County, “<a href="https://county.pueblo.org/government/county/department/city-county-health-department/colorado-smelter">Lead Program</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>Steve Segin and Jennifer Cordova, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/NRSR/5PE5346.pdf">Squirrel Creek Recreational Unit</a>,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Service Form 10-900 (Denver: History Colorado, 2004).</p> <p>Kelly Sommariva, “<a href="https://www.9news.com/article/story/news/2014/06/02/june-3-1921-pueblo-flood/9873227/">This week in 1921: The flood that nearly sank Pueblo</a>,” 9News, June 2, 2014.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/the-colorado-fuel-and-iron-company/cfi-timeline">CF&amp;I Timeline</a>,” updated March 16, 2016.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/immigrant-employees-of-the-cfi/chapter-1">The Mines of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company</a>,” updated July 1, 2015.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/the-colorado-fuel-and-iron-company/index-1">Women of WWII</a>,” updated April 25, 2016.</p> <p>Jim Trotter, “<a href="https://aeronauticsonline.com/">Destruction of Mustard gas Weapons in Pueblo is Said to Be Underway</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain PBS</em>, March 23, 2015.</p> <p>US Bureau of Reclamation, “<a href="http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Fryingpan-Arkansas+Project#Group468530">Fryingpan-Arkansas Project</a>,” updated April 4, 2013.</p> <p>US Census, “<a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/RHI725214/0862000,08101">Quickfacts: Pueblo city</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Pueblo County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p> <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0802700">EPA Superfund Program: Colorado Smelter, Pueblo, CO</a>,” updated April 20, 2016.</p> <p>Joel Warner, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.14/the-silicon-valley-of-marijuana">The Silicon Valley of Marijuana</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, August 17, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.pueblo.us/">City of Pueblo</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://riversofsteel.com/education/csu-pueblo-student-projects/">CSU Pueblo and Steelworks Center of the West Digital Humanities Projects</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey DeHerrera and Charlene Garcia-Sims, “<a href="https://www.pueblolibrary.org/EastsideHistoryWall">Pueblo’s East Side History</a>,” Pueblo City-County Library, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey DeHerrera and Adam Thomas, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/CLG_Survey_PuebloEastSide2009.pdf">A Place Set Apart: The History and Architecture of Pueblo’s East Side Neighborhood</a>,” Historitecture, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jordan Everhart, Gary Dixon, Stephanie Armijo, and Thomas Sloan, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/1921-the-great-flood/home">1921: The Great Pueblo Flood</a>,” Steelworks Center of the West, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://county.pueblo.org/">Pueblo County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://riversofsteel.com/">Steelworks Center of the West</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Nov 2016 17:03:28 +0000 yongli 2055 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Snake Blakeslee Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snake-blakeslee-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Snake Blakeslee Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-25T12:18:59-06:00" title="Thursday, August 25, 2016 - 12:18" class="datetime">Thu, 08/25/2016 - 12:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snake-blakeslee-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Snake Blakeslee Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsnake-blakeslee-archaeological-site&amp;title=Snake%20Blakeslee%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located in <strong>Apishapa Canyon</strong> in southeastern Colorado, the Snake Blakeslee Archaeological Site consists of two residential room clusters and several outlying structures that apparently made up a single <a href="/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa phase</strong></a> (1050–1450 CE) community. First described in the 1930s by Etienne B. Renaud, the site was later excavated in 1949 by Haldon Chase and Robert Stigler of Columbia University and in 1986 by James Gunnerson of the University of Nebraska State Museum. In the 1950s the site played a significant role in the initial formulation of the Apishapa Focus of the Panhandle Aspect (now called the Apishapa phase).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Initial Investigations</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1930s, University of Denver archaeologist <strong>Etienne B. Renaud</strong> published the first descriptions of the Snake Blakeslee site. He saw the site in 1930 when he first surveyed eastern Colorado, and a Fowler man named R. D. Mutz guided him to the Snake Blakeslee and <a href="/article/cramer-archaeological-site"><strong>Cramer</strong></a> sites near the mouth of Apishapa Canyon. Renaud returned the next year and again in 1941, when he completed new descriptions and maps of the sites, which he believed had a ceremonial function.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>High Plains Expedition</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1949, Columbia University student <strong>Haldon Chase</strong> conceived of a project to investigate early historic <strong>Apache</strong> sites on the high plains. This idea ultimately resulted in the Columbia University High Plains Expeditions of 1949, during which he and Robert Stigler (and, for a short time, Ferd Okada) spent more than five weeks excavating in Apishapa Canyon. They briefly visited the Cramer site in July, but most of their time in July and August was devoted to excavations at the Snake Blakeslee site, located on the rim of the canyon about five miles above its mouth. They named the site after the landowner’s brother, who went by the nickname “Snake.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Snake Blakeslee site was large, about 115 feet by 80 feet, and consisted of two room clusters and several outlying circular rooms. The site was built using vertical stone slabs arranged on bedrock to make rooms up to fifteen feet in diameter. The slabs formed walls about nine inches wide and several feet high, and the rooms would have had central posts about five feet high to hold the structure’s wooden roof. The western room cluster had three circular rooms, and the eastern room cluster, about sixteen feet away, had eight circular rooms. These clusters were probably expanded gradually over the years rather than built all at once. During their excavations, Chase and Stigler found hundreds of potsherds along with projectile points, stone tools, bone tools, and even a few corncob fragments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chase and Stigler spent five weeks at the site, but its large size and rich collections meant they excavated only five of the rooms. They never completed a report about their work, but their detailed notes, photographs, and collections were stored at the University of Denver. In 1950 Chase performed more excavations at the site with funding from Trinidad State Junior College. Later that decade the site influenced the definition of the Apishapa phase.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recent Research</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1985–86 <strong>James Gunnerson</strong> of the University of Nebraska State Museum led new excavations of archaeological sites in Apishapa Canyon. He focused primarily on the Cramer site but also spent several days at the Snake Blakeslee site, using Chase’s notes as a guide. He noted that there had been little vandalism since Chase’s excavation and that Chase’s notes were so thorough that it would have been possible to write a full report from them without ever visiting the site.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gunnerson proposed a date of about 1350 CE for the Snake Blakeslee site, making it roughly contemporaneous with the nearby Cramer site. In contrast to the Cramer site, which was probably used primarily for ceremonies and bone processing, the Snake Blakeslee site’s many rooms were used for habitation. Gunnerson suggested that the Snake Blakeslee and Cramer sites be considered type sites for the “Classic Apishapa” phase in the 1300s. They were built not long before the Apishapa phase ended in the early 1400s, when droughts probably caused a migration to wetter climates farther east.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cramer-site" hreflang="en">Cramer Site</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apishapa-canyon" hreflang="en">Apishapa Canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apishapa-phase" hreflang="en">Apishapa phase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/etienne-renaud" hreflang="en">Etienne Renaud</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/haldon-chase" hreflang="en">Haldon Chase</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-plains-expedition" hreflang="en">High Plains Expedition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/james-gunnerson" hreflang="en">James Gunnerson</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Apishapa Canyon Archeology: Excavations at the Cramer, Snake Blakeslee and Nearby Sites</em>, Reprints in Anthropology 41 (Lincoln, NE: J&amp;L Reprint, 1989).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Christopher Lintz, “Haldon Chase, the Snake Blakeslee Site, and the Archaeology of Southeastern Colorado: 1949 to 1955,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 65, no. 2 (1999).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resources Series 19 (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. B. Renaud, <em>Archaeological Survey of Eastern Colorado, Report 1</em> (University of Denver, Department of Anthropology, 1931).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. B. Renaud, <em>Archaeological Survey of Eastern Colorado, Report 2</em> (University of Denver,</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 25 Aug 2016 18:18:59 +0000 yongli 1778 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Damon Runyon http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/damon-runyon <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Damon Runyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T16:02:35-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 16:02" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 16:02</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/damon-runyon" data-a2a-title="Damon Runyon"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdamon-runyon&amp;title=Damon%20Runyon"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Damon Runyon (1880–1946) was a newspaperman, political reporter, author, screenwriter, and playwright in the early 1900s. Best known for his work after leaving Colorado, particularly <em>Guys and Dolls</em>, Runyon was a prolific writer during his time in Colorado, working for many of the state’s newspapers thanks to a seeming inability to hold down a job. Today, Runyon’s legacy lives on in the films and musicals he wrote and produced during his time in New York, but he remains one of Colorado’s most successful and creative individuals.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Damon Runyon was born in Manhattan, Kansas, on October 8, 1880, but spent most of his childhood in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, where his family moved in search of a healthier <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> for Runyon’s sickly mother, Elizabeth. Runyon’s father took a job as a printer for <em>The Pueblo Chieftain</em>, but the change of scenery did nothing for Elizabeth. Her bouts of diphtheria and <a href="/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tuberculosis</strong></a> finally took her life in 1887, leaving seven-year-old Damon and his three sisters in the care of their father. While the girls moved in with relatives in Kansas, Damon stayed with his father. Apparently determined to follow in his father’s footsteps, he frequented saloons, slept in flophouses, scrounged for food, and only occasionally went to school. Around the fourth or fifth grade, Runyon was formally expelled, to his everlasting relief. His career in journalism began immediately thereafter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Starting on the bottom rung as a printer’s devil and gofer, Runyon worked his way up in the newspaper world. By age fifteen, he was a hardened, chain-smoking, bar-hopping reporter for the <em>Pueblo Evening News</em>, where his father then worked. He received his first byline two years later in the <em>Pueblo Evening Post. </em>Despite his tender age, he already had some of the skills that would later make his reputation: a talent for exposing the rich detail in a story; a knack for making interesting characters come to life; and a clever, tongue-in-cheek narrative style that left readers always wanting more.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish-American War</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Eager to see the world and leave his childhood behind, in 1898 Runyon tried to join a detachment of Colorado volunteers headed for the Spanish-American War in Cuba but was turned down because of his youth. Undeterred, he shipped out for the Philippines with a group of Minnesota volunteers. While overseas he wrote for a couple of military newspapers—<em>Soldier’s Letter</em> and <em>The Manila Freedom</em>—and references to the war would appear in his articles, short stories, and poetry for years afterward. He tended to glorify battle despite witnessing very little fighting firsthand. According to his son, Damon Runyon, Jr., “the most dangerous shots he encountered were those that came at him over a bar.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Return to Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war, Runyon made his way back to Colorado by train-hopping, befriending many drifters that he met along the way. Outsiders had always intrigued him, and later in his career hoodlums, gamblers, and mobsters would play starring roles in his stories and movie scripts. Their manner of dress and speech, even the nicknames they gave each other, struck a chord with Runyon. Back in Pueblo—an industrial town known as the “Pittsburgh of the West”—he immersed himself in their world, and the experiences provided much fodder for his later work.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Once back home, Runyon put in short stints at several newspapers in Pueblo, then found jobs in Basalt Junction near <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and in <strong>Glenwood Springs</strong> with the <em>In-It Daily</em>. In 1901 he joined the staff of the <em>Gazette</em> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a> and stayed there until the new owners tired of his drinking. That pattern repeated itself several times over: Runyon bounced from the <em>Gazette</em> in Saint Joseph, Missouri, back to Pueblo and the <em>Chieftain</em> in 1903, and to the <em>Advertiser</em> in <strong>Trinidad</strong> the following year. His writing was admired but his dependability was suspect. By 1905, Runyon found himself in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, where he would live for the next five years at as many addresses. His working address was not any steadier than his residential one; he briefly wrote for <em>The</em> <em>Denver Republican</em> but soon moved on to <strong><em>The</em> <em>Denver Post</em></strong>, the popular upstart paper owned by Frederick Bonfils and Harry Tammen. Trying to make a name for himself in the business, he composed articles in between binge drinking. His talent was obvious, and he even ghostwrote some articles for Otto Floto, the <em>Post</em>’s leading sportswriter and one of the first newspapermen to recognize Runyon’s ability. However, the managing editor—Joe Ward—could not tolerate Runyon’s drinking and did not think that he could even write while sober. Ousted again, the young journalist headed west to San Francisco for an abortive stint at a newspaper there.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1906 Runyon once again returned to Colorado, signing on with the<em> Rocky Mountain News</em>, Denver’s oldest newspaper. Owned by US senator Thomas Patterson, the <a><span style="color:#000000;"><em>News</em></span></a> had a Progressive, reform-minded outlook and crusaded against big-city machine politics, particularly of the variety practiced by Denver mayor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/robert-w-speer"><strong>Robert Speer</strong></a>, his allies, and his initiatives, such as the <a href="/article/city-beautiful-movement-denver"><strong>City Beautiful</strong></a> renovations.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“Me and Mr. Finch”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Personal and political conflicts played out alongside a fierce circulation battle between the <em>Post</em> and the<em> News</em>. It was an environment tailor-made for Damon Runyon. Happy to have Runyon’s sharp tongue and brawling wit on his side, Patterson assigned his prized new correspondent a prominent role. He teamed Runyon with Frank Finch, the <em>News</em>’s talented cartoonist, for an extended tour of Colorado. The two young men traveled the state producing sketches, in words and drawings, of various festivities with the goal of attracting readers from outside the Denver area. Runyon and Finch illustrated the key players in all the cities they visited, talking up each town and making it sound as though they never wanted to leave. Every town, be it <strong>Berthoud</strong>, <strong>Montrose</strong>, Ault, or Pueblo, came across as the greatest municipality under the sun.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They sent their first dispatch from Strawberry Days at Glenwood Springs on June 21, 1907. On July 1, Runyon and Finch embarked upon their main tour of Colorado, producing an article and cartoon every day or two under the title “Me and Mr. Finch.” Finch was known as “Doc Finch” for the wide-bellied, bespectacled bird that he used in all of his cartoons. Over the next few months, Runyon and Finch traveled by train from place to place, visiting almost every town in the state, and bigger boosters for Colorado would have been difficult to find. Often the news of their visit brought travelers from Denver to the hinterlands for a festival or fair. “Me and Mr. Finch” attracted a loyal following of readers who eagerly awaited each succeeding article and cartoon in the paper.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Me and Mr. Finch” moved Runyon into the first tier of Denver newspaper writers. Ed Keating, his editor, granted Runyon increased freedom to branch out and cover the stories that most interested him. He wrote about roller rink and theater openings, penned biographies of local businessmen, and indulged his fondness for sports. He also began to test his ability as a poet and author of short stories, his true passion. Two early Runyon tales, “The Defense of Strikerville” and “The King of Kavanaugh County,” appeared in <em>McClure’s</em> <em>Magazine</em> in February and April 1907, respectively. His poetry often ran in the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> as well as in <em>Lippincott’s</em>, <em>Munsey’s</em>, and other magazines and later was collected in two books, <em>The Tents of Trouble </em>(1911) and <em>Rhymes of the Firing Line</em> (1912).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Moving Up</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>While at the <em>News</em>, Runyon began to build a reputation as a political reporter. He interviewed Vice President Charles Fairbanks when he passed through Trinidad and in August 1907 spoke to presidential candidate William Howard Taft in Denver. On the local front, Runyon turned a story about public art into a political maelstrom. The city had commissioned a monument to commemorate Colorado’s earliest pioneers. But when noted sculptor Frederick MacMonnies created the work, which featured a Native American astride a horse at the monument’s pinnacle, Denverites were outraged, especially the older pioneers still living in the city. Runyon interviewed Captain Jack Howland, an early settler, and extracted some choice comments about the design. The <em>News</em> featured the interview on the front page alongside a Finch cartoon depicting a sculpted Native American clutching a scalp and riding his horse over a helpless group of prone settlers. Public pressure forced MacMonnies to change his design, and <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> rests atop the sculpture to this day.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Runyon’s problems with alcohol persisted. Throughout his years in Colorado, his devotion to alcohol cost him jobs and diminished his success. He was a binge drunk who would indulge from three days to two weeks at a time, ending up in a heap somewhere in a semi-coma. During these bouts, he would rant and rave, spend time with prostitutes—frequently in public—and pick fights with much larger men. When he awoke, he barely remembered any of these episodes, and his body would take several days to recuperate—whereupon the next binge usually began. His campaigns with Doc Finch often ended at the Denver Press Club, where the two spent long hours soaking up card games and cocktails. Runyon’s time in Denver would mark the end of his demon days, so by the time he left for New York in 1910, he had given up the bottle, claiming in a letter to his son that “it never made me happy and bright and sparkling the way it does with some people. It made me dull and stupid and quarrelsome.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Moving to New York</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Frederick Bonfils eventually succeeded in luring Runyon and Finch to <em>The Denver Post</em>, where Runyon stayed until 1910, working on his poetry and short stories while devoting a great deal of time and attention to the Denver Press Club, even serving on its board for several years. His reputation spread back east and circulated widely, until an old Press Club friend named Charles E. Van Loan persuaded Runyon to seek out a wider audience. Runyon quickly landed a job with the <em>New York Journal-American</em>, a Hearst paper, and he sent for Ellen Egan, a society writer with <em>The Denver Post</em>, whom he married in May 1911. The couple had two children—a daughter in 1914 and a son in 1918—but the household was hardly peaceful, and the marriage eventually collapsed. Ellen died alone years later, battling alcoholism.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After spending four years as a sportswriter in New York, Runyon graduated to political reporting, receiving an assignment in 1920 to cover the Madera Revolution in Mexico. Runyon also kept himself busy writing screenplays, and by the end of his life, sixteen of them had been adapted into major Hollywood releases. According to his son, he was “an agony writer. That is, writing was heavy labor for him, and each word hit the paper bathed in sweat.” Yet he made it look easy. The plays and movies we associate with Damon Runyon—<em>Guys and Dolls</em>, <em>Little Miss Marker</em>, <em>Lady for a Day</em>, and <em>The</em> <em>Lemon Drop Kid</em>—reflect the culmination of a writing style and voice born in Colorado. His years in the Centennial State, though clouded with alcohol abuse, presaged his later success.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Mary Ann McNair, “‘Me and Mr. Finch Go Among ’Em’: Damon Runyon’s Early Years in Colorado,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 21, no. 4 (2001).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/damon" hreflang="en">Damon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/runyon" hreflang="en">Runyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/damon-runyon" hreflang="en">Damon Runyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/journalists" hreflang="en">journalists</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-journalists" hreflang="en">colorado journalists</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-post" hreflang="en">the denver post</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-news" hreflang="en">rocky mountain news</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Damon Runyon, <em>Runyon on Broadway</em> (London: Constable, 1952).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Damon Runyon, <em>Guys and Dolls: The Stories of Damon Runyon</em> (New York: Penguin, 1992).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 22:02:35 +0000 yongli 1690 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Minnequa Steelworks Office http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/minnequa-steelworks-office <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Minnequa Steelworks Office</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1294--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1294.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/minnequa-office-building"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CF%26I_Main_Office_Building_0.jpg?itok=EllF-SxY" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/minnequa-office-building" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Minnequa Office Building</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>As Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron's (CF&amp;I) Pueblo operations expanded in the early twentieth century, management had Denver architect Frederick J. Sterner design new office and medical dispensary buildings. Today the buildings, sporting the distinct Mission Style, house a museum run by the Steelworks Center of the West.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-04-20T10:48:23-06:00" title="Wednesday, April 20, 2016 - 10:48" class="datetime">Wed, 04/20/2016 - 10:48</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/minnequa-steelworks-office" data-a2a-title="Minnequa Steelworks Office"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fminnequa-steelworks-office&amp;title=Minnequa%20Steelworks%20Office"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Built by the <a href="/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel and Iron Company</strong></a> (CF&amp;I) in 1901–2, the Minnequa Steelworks office building and medical dispensary in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> are among the best examples of Mission-style architecture in Colorado. The dispensary helped provide healthcare to CF&amp;I’s thousands of workers, and the office building was where the company’s landmark Employee Representation Plan was adopted and implemented after the 1914 <a href="/article/ludlow-massacre"><strong>Ludlow Massacre</strong></a>. Today the Steelworks Center of the West operates a museum and archives in the dispensary and is renovating the office building for use as a multi-use space. In 2021 it was named a National Historic Landmark.</p> <h2>A Growing Steel Plant</h2> <p>In 1880 <a href="/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a> established Colorado Coal and Iron in Pueblo. His goal was to make Pueblo into the “Pittsburgh of the West” in order to provide coal, iron, and steel for his <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong>. The company built its first blast furnace in 1881 and produced the first steel west of the Missouri River in 1882. After Palmer left the company in 1884, it survived but did not thrive. Meanwhile, <strong>John C. Osgood</strong>’s Colorado Fuel Company, founded in 1884, became the largest coal producer in the Rocky Mountains. In 1892 Colorado Fuel merged with Colorado Coal and Iron to form Colorado Fuel and Iron.</p> <p>A major economic depression that started in 1893 slowed CF&amp;I’s growth, but once the depression passed, the combined company expanded rapidly. From 1899 to 1903 CF&amp;I acquired new mines across the West and poured $24 million into its Pueblo steel plant. The company’s coal output tripled, and its Minnequa Steelworks in south Pueblo became the largest steel and iron plant in Colorado and one of the largest in the United States.</p> <p>By the early 1900s CF&amp;I was the largest employer in Pueblo, with more than 4,000 employees. Its personnel department and medical dispensary were torn down to make space for a new blast furnace, so the company planned a new office, dispensary, and laboratory complex at the corner of Canal Street and East Abriendo Avenue, just west of the Minnequa Steelworks gate. CF&amp;I chose Denver architect <strong>Frederick J. Sterner</strong> to design the buildings in the Mission style, with stucco walls and red tile roofs, which was commonly used for civic and domestic buildings at the time but rarely for industrial structures. The style was apparently chosen with the goal of enhancing property values in the company’s nearby Minnequa Heights development, which it started to build in 1900 to house workers.</p> <p>The main office building, two and a half stories tall with a four-story tower, was finished in 1901. The laboratory was also completed in 1901 but is no longer standing. The dispensary, a one-story building with six rooms, was completed in 1902. Given the company’s large workforce and the demanding nature of steelmaking, the dispensary was one of the most important and active CF&amp;I buildings in Pueblo. In 1902, for example, the company had 5,000 workers and the dispensary treated 23,000 cases of injury or illness, or about seventy-five per day. In addition, all prospective employees had to undergo a physical at the dispensary before they could begin work.</p> <h2>Employee Representation Plan</h2> <p>The Minnequa office building is especially significant as the site where CF&amp;I’s Employee Representation Plan was adopted and implemented in the late 1910s. An early and much-imitated example of welfare capitalism, the plan was essentially a “company union” established in response to a decade of labor disputes culminating in the Ludlow Massacre on April 20, 1914.</p> <p>The road to the Employee Representation Plan can be traced to 1903, when George Jay Gould and John David Rockefeller acquired CF&amp;I, helping it escape a financial crisis and continue its growth with an injection of capital. By 1910 the company had more than 15,000 workers, including about 10 percent of Colorado’s workforce. It owned fourteen company towns and operated mines and quarries in Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.</p> <p>Disputes over mine safety and company control of workers’ lives eventually led to a major strike in 1913–14 and ultimately to the Ludlow Massacre in April 1914, in which <strong>Colorado National Guard</strong> troops opened fire on a tent colony of miners north of <strong>Trinidad</strong>. Public reaction against the company’s owner, John D. Rockefeller Jr., was swift and harsh. Rockefeller Jr. quickly hired public-relations specialist Ivy Lee and labor expert William Lyon Mackenzie King, a former Canadian labor minister, to quell the trouble.</p> <p>King recommended that Rockefeller Jr. implement an Employee Representation Plan to mediate grievances and give workers a voice on company committees. Quarterly and annual conferences between workers and employers would be held at the Minnequa office building. The plan essentially took the place of the defeated <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/united-mine-workers-america"><strong>United Mine Workers</strong></a> union, but without the right to collective bargaining and under the control of the company. Adopted by coal miners in 1915, it soon spread to all CF&amp;I employees and then to other Rockefeller-owned businesses. It served as a model for welfare capitalism programs established across the country in the late 1910s and 1920s.</p> <p>Company owners were pleased with the plan, but workers grumbled that it gave them little real power. When the National Industrial Recovery Act gave workers the right to organize in 1933, the United Mine Workers quickly recruited most miners in Colorado. The Employee Representation Plan officially ended in 1935, when the National Labor Relations Act rendered such company-controlled plans illegal.</p> <h2>Additions and Changes</h2> <p>Between the world wars CF&amp;I made significant additions to its Minnequa office and dispensary complex. In 1921 a two-story office annex, designed with Mission-style elements by Pueblo architect William Stickney, was completed north of the main office. Two additions in 1931 and 1945 expanded the annex.</p> <p>As CF&amp;I grew and added new processes for screening and hiring employees, its employment office could no longer fit in the main office building. In 1926 the company hired Pueblo architect <strong>Walter DeMordaunt</strong>, a former employee of Stickney’s, to design an addition at the west end of the dispensary to house the employment office. It continued the theme of Mission-style buildings at the complex.</p> <p>In 1944 Charles Allen &amp; Associates acquired CF&amp;I. The office and dispensary complex in Pueblo saw several changes over the next two decades. In the late 1950s the Pueblo Freeway (later <strong>Interstate 25</strong>) was built between the office and dispensary complex and the steel mill. The tunnel between the two had to be extended, and a new main gate house with Mission details was completed in 1955. In 1960, a year after the freeway was finished, the company erected a large corporate sign beside the highway.</p> <p>In 1969 Allen sold CF&amp;I to Crane Company, a New York–based conglomerate. The company streamlined CF&amp;I’s operations. In 1971 it built a large steel-frame sales office on the north side of the office annex. CF&amp;I ultimately went bankrupt when the American steel market collapsed in the early 1980s, but in the 1990s the mill and the office complex were acquired by a London-based multinational called Evraz and reopened on a smaller scale as Evraz Rocky Mountain Steel.</p> <h2>Steelworks Center</h2> <p>In 2002 the office and dispensary complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today Evraz Rocky Mountain Steel continues to manufacture steel rails, rods, bars, and pipes at the historic Minnequa Steelworks. Its sales offices are located in the former CF&amp;I sales office, but other parts of the office and dispensary complex are operated by the <strong>Steelworks Center of the West</strong> as a nonprofit educational facility. The former medical dispensary houses the Steelworks Museum and the Steelworks Archives, which include CF&amp;I’s company archives. In 2014 the organization began to build a new park, the Steelworks Park, north of the museum, and is spending $12 million to renovate the former main office building into a multi-use space called the Steelworks Center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/minnequa-steelworks" hreflang="en">minnequa steelworks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-steel-mill" hreflang="en">pueblo steel mill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fuel-iron" hreflang="en">colorado fuel &amp; iron</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cfi" hreflang="en">cf&amp;i</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rockefeller" hreflang="en">rockefeller</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-steel" hreflang="en">colorado steel</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Corinne Koehler, “Minnequa Steel Works, Office Building and Dispensary, Colorado Fuel and Iron Company,” National Register of Historic Places Continuation Sheet (May 20, 2008).</p> <p>James F. Munch, “Minnequa Steel Works Office Building and Dispensary, Colorado Fuel and Iron Company,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (May 18, 2001).</p> <p>Mary Jean Porter, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/life/2854062-120/steelworks-pueblo-center-hawkins/">New Name Designed to Honor Pueblo’s Enduring Steelmaking Heritage</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, September 4, 2014.</p> <p>H. Lee Scamehorn, <em>Mill and Mine: The CF&amp;I in the Twentieth Century</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992).</p> <p>H. Lee Scamehorn, <em>Pioneer Steelmaker in the West: The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 1872–1903</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1976).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p> <p>Joanne West Dodds, <em>They All Came to Pueblo: A Social History</em> (Virginia Beach, VA: Donning Company Publishers, 1994).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 20 Apr 2016 16:48:23 +0000 Nick Johnson 1293 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado State Fairgrounds http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-fairgrounds <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado State Fairgrounds</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1008--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1008.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/horse-riding-state-fair"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Z-701_0.jpg?itok=Hu_zToe8" width="1000" height="707" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/horse-riding-state-fair" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Horse Riding at the State Fair</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Horse racing was one of the most popular events at the state fair in the early twentieth century, but rodeo sports eventually became more popular and displaced the races.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1009--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1009.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/colorado-mineral-palace"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/20102578_0.jpg?itok=Q5kE0w0l" width="1000" height="793" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/colorado-mineral-palace" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Mineral Palace</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the late 1880s the state fair was held at Mineral Palace Park in Pueblo. In 1890 the State Fair Association sold the site and moved the state fair to a new location west of Lake Minnequa.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1010--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1010.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/state-fair-exhibits"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/UHPCSNP_10248_0.jpg?itok=ofeVdFYz" width="1000" height="872" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/state-fair-exhibits" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">State Fair Exhibits</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The fair added more substantial facilities in the 1920s and 1930s, when it received greatly increased state and federal funding.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-03T11:07:41-07:00" title="Thursday, December 3, 2015 - 11:07" class="datetime">Thu, 12/03/2015 - 11:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-fairgrounds" data-a2a-title="Colorado State Fairgrounds"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-state-fairgrounds&amp;title=Colorado%20State%20Fairgrounds"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Opened in 1901, the Colorado State Fairgrounds in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> have long played an important role in the state’s agriculture, education, and entertainment. Farmers and ranchers attend the fair to display their products, see new technologies and techniques, and buy livestock, while others come to learn about agriculture or enjoy the rodeo. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) constructed many of Colorado’s fairgrounds facilities in the 1930s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins of the Fair</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Official state agricultural and industrial fairs started in the United States in the middle of the nineteenth century. The Colorado Agricultural Society held the territory’s first agricultural fair northwest of Denver in September 1866, featuring a half-mile racetrack as well as displays of large vegetables and prize livestock. Over the next two years, the fair expanded to include more agricultural exhibits as well as examples from the territory’s <strong>mining</strong> industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of the 1860s, however, farmers in northern and southern Colorado were dissatisfied with the Denver fair. At the time, Colorado had about 1,700 farms and fewer than 100,000 acres under cultivation, most of them along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> and Arkansas Rivers and their tributaries. Northern and southern Coloradans began to organize agricultural societies and fairs of their own, including the Southern Colorado Agricultural and Industrial Association, established in Pueblo in 1872. That October the association held a three-day fair on a 100-acre site north of Pueblo. The horse races were especially popular, with attendance on the final day reportedly reaching 1,400.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Southern Colorado Agricultural and Industrial Association’s fairs continued for fifteen years at the same site north of Pueblo. After incorporating as the State Fair Association (SFA) in November 1886, the group spent $3,000 to secure a new site for the fair within Pueblo city limits at what is now <strong>Mineral Palace Park</strong>. The SFA spent an additional $5,000 on improvements to the site and held its first fair there the next summer. Already in 1890, however, the SFA sold the Mineral Park location for $48,000 and paid $30,000 for a new site west of <strong>Lake Minnequa</strong>, where it built a grandstand, exhibition hall, and racetrack. The Lake Minnequa site proved unpopular and soon suffered from low attendance because it was far from the train station and streetcar lines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1900 the SFA increased its promotional efforts and purchased a new eighty-acre site that forms the core of the current fairgrounds. The new site was located along two streetcar lines, making it far more easily accessible than the Lake Minnequa site, and the SFA built a new half-mile racetrack, 300-foot-long grandstand, exhibition hall, and stables in time for the 1901 fair. With the new site, new buildings, and even a new date in September, attendance jumped to 16,000.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>State Support and New Deal Expansion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The development of the Colorado State Fairgrounds followed a pattern common to many American state fairs. By the start of the twentieth century, fairs were adding more and larger buildings to accommodate spectacles such as horse racing, which was extremely popular at the time. Around 1900 fairs were also incorporating more amusements on the model of the Midway at the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893, which had been a huge success. After <a href="/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>, rodeos became an increasingly popular feature of fairs, especially in the West, and gradually displaced horse races as the fairs’ biggest draw.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, state governments began to invest in fairs in the 1910s and 1920s, providing the funding necessary to build more substantial fair facilities. In Colorado the legislature had become involved with the state fair for the first time in 1888, when it designated Pueblo the permanent location of the fair. In 1903 the fair received its first state appropriation to pay agricultural and horticultural premiums. In 1915 the legislature approved a $10,000 appropriation for the fair, but Governor <strong>George Carlson</strong> vetoed the measure. The problem of the fair’s exact relationship to the state was eventually solved in 1917, when the SFA deeded the fairgrounds to the state. The legislature created a State Fair Commission to run the fair and began to fund the fair’s operations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the next two years the fairgrounds served as “Camp Carlson,” a base for Colorado militia troops training for World War I, resulting in limited fair operations in 1917 and 1918. The fair quickly rebounded in the 1920s with the addition of several new buildings thanks to state funding. During these years, the fair also began to add its first permanent 4-H buildings for youth agricultural education; the first 4-H camp was held at the fairgrounds in 1918 and quickly became an annual feature, hosting students every year thereafter except during World War II and the 1951 polio epidemic.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The fair experienced a golden age of growth and popularity from the 1930s to the 1950s, under the leadership of Ray Talbot and Frank Means. Talbot served as president of the State Fair Commission from 1931 to 1953, while Means managed the fair from 1936 to 1950. During that period, the fair’s attendance rose from 20,000 in the early 1930s to 200,000 in the early 1950s. The fair ended its deficits and began to generate a surplus.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Perhaps most important, Talbot brought <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> projects to Pueblo and the fairgrounds during the Great Depression. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration and the WPA helped fund six new buildings at the fairgrounds as well as new walls, horse stables, and other infrastructure, while the <a href="/article/civilian-conservation-corps-colorado"><strong>Civilian Conservation Corps</strong></a> made a temporary camp at the fairgrounds. The final WPA building erected at the fairgrounds, the Palace of Agriculture, started construction in 1940 but was not finished until 1949, because of a lack of workers and material during World War II.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Brick, stone, or concrete and steel buildings replaced all the fair’s wooden structures during the first half of the twentieth century. None of the original 1901 fair buildings survive, with the last one being torn down in the early 1940s. Most of the New Deal–era buildings at the fairgrounds were made of local limestone. In 1944 all the existing brick buildings were coated in stucco and whitewashed to make them resemble the WPA’s limestone buildings and create a “White Way” effect—a term used to describe a brilliant, well-lit street, in reference to New York City’s Broadway. One of the more notable buildings added to the fairgrounds in the 1940s was the Rabbit Building (now the Natural Resources Building), which the fair billed at the time as the “Largest Rabbit Show Building in the World.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Postwar Changes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the changes that the Colorado State Fair experienced after World War II came in response to the <strong>urbanization</strong> and changing demographics of the Front Range. The fair emphasized entertainment to attract urban crowds who were less interested in agriculture, and added Fiesta Days to the schedule in 1967 to recognize the state’s Hispanic community. New construction added entertainment venues and concessions like the Coors Beer Garden (1953) and a band shell (1954). The last major agricultural building constructed at the fairgrounds was the livestock building, which was completed in 1964 at a cost of nearly $650,000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The historic buildings at the fairgrounds (those constructed before 1965) share certain characteristics because of the seasonal nature and agricultural orientation of the fair. Designed for summer use, many of the buildings are not heated and have no glass in the windows. Exhibition buildings have oversized entrances to accommodate livestock and display booths. The biggest change to the fairgrounds site since 1965 was the removal of the original oval horseracing track in the 1980s and the addition of a new wall to divide the rodeo arena and grandstand from the rest of the fair’s horse buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recent History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After shrinking from seventeen days to eleven days in 2005, the Colorado State Fair has attracted roughly 500,000 visitors per year and provides an estimated $33 million for the state. Although the fair itself turns a profit, year-round staffing, maintenance, and operations at the eighty-acre fairgrounds cost millions of dollars. As a result, the fair posted a $928,000 operating loss in fiscal year 2014 and continues to evaluate opportunities for budget cuts.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-state-fair" hreflang="en">Colorado State Fair</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/state-fair-association" hreflang="en">State Fair Association</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mineral-palace-park" hreflang="en">Mineral Palace Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lake-minnequa" hreflang="en">Lake Minnequa</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joey Bunch, “<a href="https://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/01/20/state-fair-can-wrangle-deficit-taxpayers-help-support/116637/">State Fair Can Wrangle Deficit if Taxpayers Help Support It</a>,” <em>Denver Post</em>, January 20, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joanne West Dodds, <em>Pueblo: A Pictorial History</em> (Norfolk, VA: Donning, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joanne West Dodds, <em>They All Came to Pueblo: A Social History</em> (Virginia Beach: Donning, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jill Seyfarth, “Colorado State Fairgrounds,” Colorado State Register of Historic Properties Nomination Form (August 15, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Deryl V. Gease, “William N. Byers and the Colorado Agricultural Society,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 43, no. 4 (1966).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 03 Dec 2015 18:07:41 +0000 yongli 1006 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Pueblo Chemical Depot http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-chemical-depot <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Chemical Depot</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1104--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1104.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-chemical-agent-destruction-pilot-plant-aerial-view-us-army-pueblo-chemical-depot-colo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/pu_aerial%5B1%5D%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=J7Az_k4K" width="1000" height="669" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-chemical-agent-destruction-pilot-plant-aerial-view-us-army-pueblo-chemical-depot-colo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot Plant Aerial View. U.S. Army Pueblo Chemical Depot, Colo.</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>As of November 4, 2015, the Pueblo Chemical Agent Destruction Pilot Plant has destroyed more than 400 hazardous objects, including projectiles, mortar rounds, and mustard agent bottles.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1102--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1102.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mustard-gas-shells"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/155mmMustardGasShells%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=lBkyv_Pv" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mustard-gas-shells" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mustard Gas Shells</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Bottles of mustard gas were among the hazardous materials held at the Pueblo Chemical Weapons Depot from 1942 to 1996, when the facility served as a weapons storage site. Today, mustard gas shells, along with other dangerous projectiles stored at the site, are currently being destroyed&nbsp; at the Pueblo Chemical Agent Destruction Pilot Plant.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-20T09:17:05-07:00" title="Friday, November 20, 2015 - 09:17" class="datetime">Fri, 11/20/2015 - 09:17</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-chemical-depot" data-a2a-title="Pueblo Chemical Depot"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpueblo-chemical-depot&amp;title=Pueblo%20Chemical%20Depot"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Pueblo Chemical Depot was established in 1942 as the Pueblo Ordnance Depot. The facility’s mission has changed over the years, from starting with receiving, storing, and issuing general supplies of ammunition during World War II, to later handling the disposal of munitions. Today, the depot’s mission is the destruction of one of the last stockpiles of US chemical weapons, notably its store of 780,000 shells of mustard agent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From 1946 to 1948, the depot was charged with maintaining and overhauling artillery, fire control, and optical equipment as well as the renovation and demilitarization of ammunition as it returned from the combat theaters of World War II. The US Air Force used the facility after 1951 to distribute ammunition. In 1952 Rocky Mountain Arsenal transported chemical weapons to Pueblo for secure storage. During the Korean War, the facility was renamed the Pueblo Army Depot and tasked with supplying the army with munitions. Finally, in 1987, with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to ban “nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges.” Pueblo completed the disassembly of weapons in compliance with this treaty in 1991.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Pueblo Depot Activity and Pueblo Chemical Depot</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the depot provided ammunition and supplies to Southwest Asia in Operation Desert Storm and Operation Desert Shield, it was renamed once again to Pueblo Depot Activity. The facility was renamed for the last time in 1996, becoming the Pueblo Chemical Depot. After its decades-long role as a supplier of munitions, it was ordered by the Base Realignment and Closure Committee to destroy rather than distribute weaponry. Repurposing the depot from munitions storage and distribution to decommissioning has left thousands of acres vacant and dormant, and this acreage continues to grow as more weapons are destroyed. In 1998, following the commencement of weapon destruction at the Pueblo Chemical Depot, only 33 of 862 buildings were occupied. The enormous plots of unused land and many vacant and deteriorating buildings angered residents of Pueblo, while the US Army hampered efforts to reclaim and redevelop the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1997, under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), the United States agreed to destroy all of its chemical stockpiles. The Pueblo facility was one of the sites selected to fulfill the stipulations of this international treaty. Although the depot’s mission in recent decades has emphasized safety and security throughout the destruction, destroying mustard agent is a dangerous and necessarily slow process. Risks include blistering of skin, scarring of eyes, and inflammation of airways. Concerned parties such as the Pueblo Citizens Advisory Commission, also cited mercury vapor as another harmful by-product of incineration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To address these concerns, the Pueblo Chemical Agent Destruction Pilot Plant, a higher-capacity destruction facility, was built in 2015. This new facility uses a different, more innocuous means to accomplish its assignment, relying on neutralization and biotreatment of the chemical agents instead of incineration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Implementing this procedure required a redesign of the Pueblo facility, approved by Congress in 2003 at a cost of $169 million. For some munitions that were difficult to disarm with neutralization and biotreatment, project overseers elected to use explosive destruction technology. Simply put, this procedure employs the heat and explosive pressure of the munitions themselves for their destruction. Following neutralization, the product will be disposed of at various waste dumps depending on the hazards associated with the byproducts. Operations at the plant continue despite ongoing concerns about the cost, now estimated at $2.6 billion, and about consequences to the environment and public health.. The chemical weapons cache, the largest remaining in the United States, is scheduled to be totally obliterated by 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Downsizing, Repurposing, and Redevelopment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Currently, the Pueblo Chemical Depot works with federal, state, and civilian organizations to treat, store, and dispose hazardous wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. The US Army Chemical Materials Activity, in collaboration with the Colorado Demilitarization Citizens’ Advisory Commission, oversees the depot’s activities. The depot also works with the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program to develop emergency plans and provide chemical accident response equipment and warning systems. The 23,000-acre site is currently downsizing to 7,000 acres, with the remainder of the space being redeveloped to host manufacturing and commercial facilities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since the Pueblo Chemical Depot opened in 1942, its use shifted from a key supplier of deadly munitions to a key destroyer of them. In compliance with international treaties and mandates concerning the demilitarization of chemical weapons, the Pueblo facility will continue to assist the United States fulfill its disposal quotas.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/oneill-caroline" hreflang="und">O’Neill, Caroline</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-chemical-weapons-depot" hreflang="en">pueblo chemical weapons depot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chemical-weapons-pueblo" hreflang="en">chemical weapons pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-ordnance-depot" hreflang="en">pueblo ordnance depot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-pueblo-chemical-weapons" hreflang="en">history of pueblo chemical weapons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/environmental-effects-pueblo-chemical-weapons" hreflang="en">environmental effects of pueblo chemical weapons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chemical-weapons-colorado" hreflang="en">chemical weapons colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003678494">History of the U.S. Army Pueblo Chemical Depot</a>,” CMA Fact Sheet, August 8, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daryl Kimball and Tom Collina, “<a href="https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/INFtreaty">The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at a Glance</a>,” Arms Control Association, last modified May 23, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vladimír Pitschmann, “Overall View of Chemical and Biochemical Weapons,” <em>Toxins</em> 6, no. 6 (June 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mary B. Powers, “Chemical Weapon Plant Halted In Design Cost Controversy,” <em>ENR: Engineering News-Record</em> 254, no. 2 (January 17, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.cma.army.mil/pueblo.aspx">Pueblo, CO</a>,” US Army Chemical Materials Activity, September 6, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chris Woodka, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/">Army, Local Authority View Chemical Depot Differently</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, July 19, 1998.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chris Woodka, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/news/3752351-120/depot-puebloplex-chemical-matrix/">Ready for a 16,000-acre Makeover?</a>” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, July 9, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bechtel Corporation, “<a href="https://www.bechtel.com/projects/pueblo-chemical-weapons-elimination/">Pueblo Chemical Agent Destruction Pilot, Colorado, USA</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dan Elliott, “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/02/04/destroy-chemical-weapons-cache/22842915/">U.S. to destroy largest remaining chemical weapons cache</a>,” <em>USA Today</em>, February 4, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Nov 2015 16:17:05 +0000 yongli 963 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org