%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Bison Reintroduction http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison-reintroduction <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison Reintroduction</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3836--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3836.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bison-rocky-mountain-arsenal"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bison_RockyMtnArsenal_2016_0.jpg?itok=FkND1hVh" width="1090" height="784" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bison-rocky-mountain-arsenal" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison at Rocky Mountain Arsenal</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado has been at the center of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> recovery efforts since the early 1900s. In 2007 a conservation herd of sixteen bison was moved from the National Bison Range in Montana to the <strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong> Wildlife Refuge in <a href="/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams County</strong></a>, Colorado. The herd has since expanded to a population of more than 180 in 2020.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3837--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3837.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bison-reduction-nineteenth-century"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/dwindling-bison-herds_0.jpg?itok=IbARkubH" width="995" height="1199" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bison-reduction-nineteenth-century" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison Reduction in Nineteenth Century</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3834--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3834.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bison-genesee-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bison_herd_at_Genesee_Park-2012_03_10_0603_0.jpg?itok=jJjdNsxE" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bison-genesee-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison at Genesee Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Brought back from the brink of extinction, Colorado is now home to several <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds that are re-establishing the keystone species in their native shortgrass prairie habitat. These bison were photographed at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a> near <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>I-70</strong></a> in 2012.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-11-20T08:10:20-07:00" title="Sunday, November 20, 2022 - 08:10" class="datetime">Sun, 11/20/2022 - 08:10</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison-reintroduction" data-a2a-title="Bison Reintroduction"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbison-reintroduction&amp;title=Bison%20Reintroduction"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Conservation efforts and reintroduction of the <strong><a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison">American bison</a></strong> (<em>Bison bison</em>) in Colorado began in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> during the early twentieth century. By that time, the bison population had declined precipitously since the mid-nineteenth century because of overhunting and the development of cities, <strong>railroads</strong>, and farms. Efforts to protect bison were rooted in the decline of Indigenous populations, the end of Colorado’s status as a “frontier” state, and a growing conservation movement that lamented the costs of urbanization and industrialization.</p> <p>Since the early 1900s, tribal, state, county, and university efforts to help bison populations recover in Colorado have been largely successful. Today there are more than 100 bison across multiple managed herds in the state, and the bison population across the West numbers around 25,000. As Colorado’s conservation herds continue to grow, management processes have become more precise, and the herds are readily available for research, engagement, or viewing across the state. In 2016 President Barack Obama declared the bison the official mammal of the United States.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>Bison are the largest mammal in North America and a keystone species of the <strong>shortgrass prairie ecosystem</strong>. In 1800 there were more than 30 million bison across the American West. They roamed the Colorado plains in thick herds, sustaining the prairies and the <strong>Lakota</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Pawnee</strong>, and other Indigenous nations.</p> <p>The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> era dealt the first blow to the bison. In the 1830s, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-vasquez"><strong>Fort Vasquez</strong></a>, and others became centers of the bison robe trade, which offered Indigenous nations access to American and European cookware, weaponry, and tools. At a time when many Indigenous nations were struggling or came into conflict because of the United States’ aggressive expansion, access to these goods gave nations such as the Cheyenne and Arapaho an advantage over others. Native Americans killed many more bison than they needed for survival to maintain this advantage.</p> <p>The robe trade did not last long, but things did not improve for bison. The Comanche, arguably the most powerful nation on the plains at the time, not only overhunted the animals to sustain a large raiding-and-trading empire but also built up massive horse herds that competed with the bison for grazing territory. A drought beginning in the 1840s starved many bison, and white colonists added to the pressure as they crossed the plains on wagon trails, killing thousands of the animals for food and other needs.</p> <p>Steeped in the mythology of <strong>Manifest Destiny</strong>, US soldiers, miners, boosters, and politicians also came to understand that killing the bison would weaken Indigenous nations. In 1868 General William T. Sherman suggested that the federal government organize a “grand buffalo hunt” on the plains to cause harm to Indigenous nations and make way for mines, railroads, and cities. While it was never an explicit government policy, eliminating the bison proved effective. Food scarcity contributed to the forced removal of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Plains peoples from Colorado in the late 1860s.</p> <p>Market forces also continued to run roughshod over the bison. In the 1870s, tanners developed a more efficient method for creating bison leather, and railroad expansion allowed for easier transportation of the heavy hides. By 1873 white hunters, sometimes with ammunition from the military, were killing nearly fifty bison a day. By the time Colorado became a state in 1876, hunting and habitat destruction from farms, cities, and railroads left only a few hundred bison south of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>Platte River</strong></a>. The northern herd suffered a similar fate in the early 1880s.</p> <h3><strong>Conservation</strong></h3> <p>American observers began to see the significance of the bison’s decline as early as 1875, when a bill to ban bison hunting made it to President Ulysses Grant’s desk. Grant vetoed it, however, as the US Army was still fighting Indigenous nations (including those who had already been forced out of Colorado). As the nineteenth century drew to a close, the US army <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>massacred</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>force-marched</strong></a>, and starved Native Americans off their lands, and Congress <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>privatized reservation lands</strong></a>, much of which were sold off to non–Indigenous people.</p> <p>With Indigenous nations severely depopulated and no longer perceived as a threat, white immigrants now lamented the loss of bison, especially as the animals became an important part of the frontier mythology portrayed by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-f-%E2%80%9Cbuffalo-bill%E2%80%9D-cody"><strong>William “Buffalo Bill” Cody</strong></a>. While Cody’s popular Wild West Shows made the bison a symbol of a romanticized American West, <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="sportsmen" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8b8dmas3encgdq" data-wsc-lang="en_US">sportsmen</span> grew concerned that there would soon be no more trophies to hunt. Sentiment turned against wanton bison killing. In 1886, for example, the<em> Denver Tribune-Republican</em> admonished a group of bison hunters in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a>, calling for the state “to enact a law prohibiting the killing of buffaloes at any season of the year.”</p> <p>Theodore Roosevelt can be counted as one of the many Americans, and perhaps the most influential, who did an about-face on bison. In the 1880s, he advocated for the bison’s disappearance to make way for American homesteading and ranching. But by his presidency in the early 1900s, he had changed his mind. He became one of the founding members of the American Bison Society, which sought to reestablish North America’s bison population. At a 1907 meeting in New York, the society reported some 2,250 bison left on the continent, with 1,400 in the United States. Later that year, the society completed the first animal reintroduction in the United States, when it moved fifteen bison from the Bronx Zoo to a wildlife refuge in Oklahoma. One year later, the group successfully persuaded Congress to create the National Bison Range on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana. Meanwhile, President Roosevelt’s establishment of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>National Forests</strong></a> across the country reflected this growing interest in conservation, as the environmental costs of industrialization became clearer and <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="sportsmen" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8b8sryb5s4dv7j" data-wsc-lang="en_US">sportsmen</span> wanted to preserve disappearing trophy species.</p> <h3><strong>Efforts in Colorado</strong></h3> <p>In 1908 eighteen bison at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-zoo"><strong>Denver Zoo</strong></a> were all that remained of the animal in the state. In 1914 the city acquired more bison from Yellowstone National Park and moved the growing herd to a 165-acre natural enclosure at <a href="/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a>. In 1938 the Denver herd had again outgrown its environs, so twenty bison were moved to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/daniels-park"><strong>Daniels Park</strong></a> in <a href="/article/douglas-county"><strong>Douglas County</strong></a>. These two <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-mountain-parks"><strong>Denver Mountain Park</strong></a> herds have continued to expand and still roam across hundreds of acres on the outskirts of the metro area.</p> <p>Elsewhere in Colorado, small herds of bison have been reintroduced or preserved on ranches and public spaces. At <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/keyword/rocky-mountain-arsenal"><strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong></a> National Wildlife Refuge in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams County</strong></a>, a conservation herd of sixteen bison was reintroduced in 2007 from the National Bison Range in Montana. It has since expanded to a population of more than 180 in 2020.</p> <p>&nbsp;The 2015 reintroduction of ten bison to Soapstone Prairie Natural Area and Red Mountain Open Space in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a> has proven successful. Facilitated by the US Department of Agriculture, Colorado State University, Larimer County, and the City of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, this bison herd shares genetic links to the last-surviving wild bison in Yellowstone National Park. The result of diverse scientific and agricultural research endeavors, the Laramie Foothills Herd now numbers close to eighty animals and has provided seed stock for other herds in Colorado.</p> <h2>Brucellosis</h2> <p>The principal obstacle to the healthy reintroduction of bison to Colorado is brucellosis, the disease caused by the bacterium <em>Brucellosis abortus</em>. This bacterium causes the sudden death of the bison fetus in utero, threatening the viability of reintroduction efforts and the growth of wild herds. The disease, which affects a variety of domesticated and wild mammals, has nearly been eradicated, save for remnant populations of the bacterium in the Yellowstone bison and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> herds. Any bison reintroduction effort requires careful stewardship to avoid introducing the disease to new herds.</p> <p>&nbsp;Identifying and eradicating the bacterium are together a significant part of the efforts at the Laramie Foothills Bison Conservation Herd in Larimer County. Using assisted reproductive technologies like artificial insemination, in-vitro embryo production, embryo transfers, and the careful washing of sperm and embryos, researchers ensure that the Laramie Foothills Conservation Herd is expanding safely and curtailing the spread of the disease.</p> <p>Research on the Laramie Foothills herd has informed other bison preservation efforts throughout the state. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas County</strong></a>, a herd of ten bison was introduced with the help of Colorado State University, the Southern Plains Land Trust, and the nonprofit Defenders of Wildlife. This herd, located at the Heartland Ranch Nature Preserve, is doing well on the plains in southern Colorado.</p> <h2>Indigenous Conservation Efforts</h2> <p>In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a>, the Southern Ute Tribe has been carefully tending a bison herd reintroduced in the 1980s. The Southern Ute Cultural Department leads the initiative to distribute bison meat for tribal members, powwows, and tribal functions. The Cultural Department also provides opportunities for education about the bison’s central role in Southern Ute culture.</p> <p>The Southern Ute Tribe is one of the sixty-nine tribes operating collectively as the InterTribal Buffalo Council (ITBC). This intertribal coalition works to preserve bison herds across nineteen US states, including Colorado. The ITBC’s efforts have been successful, as it now represents more than 2,000 heads of bison nationwide.</p> <p>In 2021 the city and county of Denver gifted more than a dozen bison to the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma. The tribes’ bison program serves similar functions like the one on the Southern Ute Reservation, coordinating access to bison meat as well as research and management of the herd.</p> <h2>Viewing Opportunities</h2> <p>Just ten minutes from downtown Denver, the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge hosts more than 300 species of prairie life, including a bison herd. West of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, the Genesee Park herd can often be seen from the roadside overlook off exit 254 on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a>. Halfway between the south Denver suburbs and Castle Rock, Daniels Park also features bison observation areas. In Larimer County, the Laramie Foothills Bison Conservation Herd can be seen from elevated viewing areas at Soapstone Prairie Natural Area or Red Mountain Open Space.</p> <p>Opportunities to observe, research, and rely upon the American bison were nearly lost in the late nineteenth century, but preservation and reintroduction efforts have turned small remnant populations into thriving herds. As Colorado’s herds benefit from research and diverse management solutions, the population will continue to grow, creating more seed herds and solidifying the bison’s resurgence in its ancestral prairie home.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/sean-mccollum" hreflang="und">Sean McCollum</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison" hreflang="en">bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-history" hreflang="en">bison history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-reintroduction" hreflang="en">bison reintroduction</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-extinct" hreflang="en">bison extinct</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-herds-colorado-0" hreflang="en">buffalo herds colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-herds-colorado" hreflang="en">bison herds colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/theodore-roosevelt" hreflang="en">theodore roosevelt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/eastern-plains" hreflang="en">eastern plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-bison" hreflang="en">southern ute bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-ranch" hreflang="en">bison ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/genesee-park" hreflang="en">genesee park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-bison-herd" hreflang="en">colorado bison herd</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-plata-county" hreflang="en">la plata county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jefferson-county" hreflang="en">jefferson county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-zoo" hreflang="en">Denver Zoo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-genocide" hreflang="en">indigenous genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/removal-indigenous-people-colorado" hreflang="en">removal of indigenous people colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal-coloardo" hreflang="en">indian removal coloardo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, “<a href="https://www.cheyenneandarapaho-nsn.gov/project/buffalo-program">Buffalo Program</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>City of Denver, “<a href="https://www.denvergov.org/Government/Agencies-Departments-Offices/Agencies-Departments-Offices-Directory/Parks-Recreation/Parks/Mountain-Parks/Bison-Conservation#:~:text=Denver%20Parks%20and%20Recreation%20maintains,and%20the%20City%20of%20Denver.">Bison Conservation</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2019/06/22/colorado-bison-herd-growth/#:~:text=The%20herd%20at%20a%20natural,calves%20born%20just%20this%20year.">Colorado Bison Herd Growing Much Faster Than Expected</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 22, 1019.</p> <p>Colorado Prairie Initiative, “<a href="https://www.grasslandsunlimited.org/our-work/bison-reintroduction/">Bison Reintroduction</a>,<a href="file:///C:/Users/Nick%20Johnson/Desktop/CO%20Encyclopedia/Articles%20Edited%20for%20WW/Need%20Editing/%22Bison%20Reintroduction,%22">”</a> n.d.</p> <p>Defenders of Wildlife, “<a href="https://defenders.org/newsroom/10-bison-arrive-southeastern-colorado-marking-start-of-new-conservation-herd#:~:text=Last%20Friday%2C%20Southern%20Plains%20Land,Nature%20Preserve%20in%20southeastern%20Colorado.">10 Bison Arrive in Southeastern Colorado, Marking Start of New Conservation Herd</a>,” December 14, 2020.</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=MEH18861030-01.2.13&amp;srpos=60&amp;e=-------en-20--41-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-bison+herd-------0------">In Commenting on the Exploits of Two Denver Hunters</a>,” <em>Meeker Herald</em>, October 30, 1886.</p> <p>Andrew C. Isenberg, “The Returns of the Bison: Nostalgia, Profit, and Preservation,” <em>Environmental History </em>2, no. 2 (April 1997).</p> <p>Laramie Foothills Bison Conservation Herd, “<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/pdf/bison-management-plan2018.pdf?1646423767">Management Plan 2018</a><u>,</u>” City of Fort Collins, July 31, 2018.</p> <p>Shanna Lewis, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/12/17/wild-bison-return-to-colorados-great-plains/">Wild Bison Return to Colorado’s Great Plains</a>,” <em>CPR</em>, December 17, 2020.</p> <p>The Nature Conservancy, “<a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/colorado/stories-in-colorado/zapata-ranch-bison/">Bringing Bison Back to the San Luis Valley</a>,” January 11, 2021.</p> <p>The Nature Conservatory, “<a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/places-we-protect/zapata-ranch/">Zapata Ranch, Colorado</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>J. Weston Phippen, “‘<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2016/05/the-buffalo-killers/482349/">Kill Every Buffalo You Can! Every Buffalo Dead Is an Indian Gone,</a>’” <em>Atlantic,</em> May 13, 2016.</p> <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/natural-resources/wildlife-resource-management/bison-program/">Bison Program</a>,” n.d.</p> <p><a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=ADT18861023.2.9&amp;srpos=59&amp;e=-------en-20--41-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-bison+herd-------0------">Talk From the Democrat-Press</a>,” <em>Aspen Daily Times</em>, October 23, 1886.</p> <p>Ted Steinberg, <em>Down to Earth: Nature’s Role in American History</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).</p> <p><a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=ADT19071025.2.34&amp;srpos=38&amp;e=-------en-20--21-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-bison+herd----1907---0------">To Save Buffaloes: Herd Shipped From New York to Oklahoma Reserve</a>,” <em>Aspen Daily Times</em>, October 25, 1907.</p> <p>Uncover Colorado, “<u><a href="https://www.uncovercolorado.com/wildlife/buffalo-herd-nature-preserve/">Buffalo Herd Nature Preserve,</a></u>” n.d.</p> <p>US Fish and Wildlife, “<a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuge/rocky-mountain-arsenal">Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CTR19070124.2.76&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-bison+herd----1907---0------">Would Increase Buffalo Herd</a>,” <em>Colorado Transcript</em>, January 24, 1907.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Andrew C. Isenberg, <em>The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 </em>(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000).</p> <p>Dale F. Lott, <em>American Bison: A Natural History </em>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).</p> <p>Louis S. Warren, <em>Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show</em> (New York: Vintage Books, 2006).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sun, 20 Nov 2022 15:10:20 +0000 Nick Johnson 3838 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Bison http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3833--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3833.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/north-american-bison"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/2951113978_a2610f9dbd_k_0.jpg?itok=rrdBMyyp" width="1090" height="730" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/north-american-bison" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">North American Bison</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Once numbering in the millions, the North American <a href="/article/bison"><strong>Bison</strong></a> thrived on Colorado's <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> for centuries until overhunting and other environmental pressures brought them to the brink of extinction in the nineteenth century. Thanks to <strong>reintroduction efforts</strong> in the twentieth century, several bison herds now roam Colorado, and ranchers even raise them for meat.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3834--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3834.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bison-genesee-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bison_herd_at_Genesee_Park-2012_03_10_0603_0.jpg?itok=jJjdNsxE" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bison-genesee-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison at Genesee Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Brought back from the brink of extinction, Colorado is now home to several <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds that are re-establishing the keystone species in their native shortgrass prairie habitat. These bison were photographed at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a> near <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>I-70</strong></a> in 2012.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-11-19T09:57:21-07:00" title="Saturday, November 19, 2022 - 09:57" class="datetime">Sat, 11/19/2022 - 09:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison" data-a2a-title="Bison"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbison&amp;title=Bison"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The American Plains Bison (<em>Bison bison</em>) are large mammals in the Bovidae family, recognizable for their large head, shaggy coats, pronounced hump,&nbsp;and close association with the American West. Bison are commonly and incorrectly referred to as "buffalo," which are Asian and African animals. North American bison have long grazed in Colorado and are a central part of the spiritual and physical world of Colorado’s Indigenous people.</p> <p>For millennia, vast herds of bison roamed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, until their numbers declined almost to extinction in the nineteenth century due to overhunting. Since then, however, their significance in American culture and their importance as a keystone species for the natural environment of the plains have prompted conservation efforts and a modest population resurgence. Today, those efforts have resulted in several <a href="/article/bison-reintroduction"><strong>managed bison herds</strong></a>&nbsp;across Colorado. In 2016 President Barack Obama named the bison the National Mammal of the United States.</p> <h2>Biology</h2> <p>Bison are diurnal animals, meaning they are active during the day. Historically, bison had distinct seasonal behaviors. In the winter, the gregarious mammals moved in small groups to seek forage and shelter, and in the summer months, they consolidated into massive herds for breeding and to protect the young. A much smaller population of free-ranging bison today continues these seasonal movements.</p> <p>Female bison, called cows, reach sexual maturity at about two to four years and typically give birth to only one calf at a time. The bison’s relatively slow reproduction rate compounded their decline when they were overhunted during the late nineteenth century. Calves are weaned off their mother’s milk after about one year. Male bison, called bulls, reach peak mass at about five to six years of age. Most bison do not live past twenty years.</p> <h2>Bison-Shortgrass Relationship</h2> <p>The Great Plains is the largest biome in North America. The High Plains, a part of that biome that extends across northeast Colorado to the foot of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, is an ideal environment for bison, the area’s keystone species. Bison have shaped the area to fit their needs. The shortgrass ecology of the High Plains consists of two primary types of grass, blue grama (<em>Bouteloua gracilis</em>) and buffalo grass (<em>Buchloë dactyloides</em>), both of which have shallow root systems and grow unimpeded by the aridity that characterizes the region. Bison themselves are selected for these dominant varieties based on the nutrition they provide and their tolerance to cyclical patterns of wet and dry years. The shortgrass provides bison with a crucial nutritional balance of protein and carbohydrates; as much as 90 percent of a bison’s diet consists of grasses and sedges.</p> <p>Further, the grazing of bison herds induces new growth for both blue grama and buffalo grass, while their droppings return critical fertilizer to the prairie soil. Their grazing patterns are more intentional than one would think, with herds returning to graze the same carefully selected areas. This symbiotic relationship is why bison have existed for many millennia on the High Plains and have long been a central resource for the people living there.</p> <h2>Bison and Indigenous Nations</h2> <p>Archaeological evidence from across Colorado confirms that bison were a staple food resource for people living in the region as far back as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> (more than 9,000 years ago). At the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jones-miller-bison-kill-site"><strong>Jones-Miller</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"><strong>Olsen-Chubbuck</strong></a> Bison Kill Sites, which date to about 8,000 BCE, Paleo-Indians herded bison into gulches, killed them, and butchered the bodies. At these and other sites, pot sherds, projectile <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>points</strong></a>, and bone debris indicate that the people who populated the High Plains hunted bison in cooperative groups and used their quarry for food, clothing, tools, and other materials. At the Massey Draw site near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, the large number of bones and the existence of modified organic materials for use as tools suggest that the site was a bison-processing encampment in the Middle <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic Period</strong></a> (~3,000-1,000 BCE). Similar killing and butchering techniques continued on the plains for thousands of years.</p> <p>In addition to its functional role as a food source, the bison is spiritually vital to many Western Great Plains Indigenous people. The nations most commonly associated with Colorado—including the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) people—all depended on the bison as a food source. They held, and still hold, the animals as an essential part of their physical and spiritual connection to the land. To the Arapaho, who call the bison <em>heneecee</em>, the animal provided food and shelter and was a key component of trade and commerce. The Cheyenne, who call the bison <em>hotoa’e</em> and hunted them in extended family units, traded meat and pemmican to the horticultural nations on the eastern Great Plains in exchange for corn and wild foods. In addition, the Nuche, who call the bison <em>coch</em> or <em>kucu</em>, left their mountain encampments each summer to hunt bison herds on the Great Plains. They hunted bison for their own needs as well as to establish trade with Spanish colonists, known as Ciboleros, who specialized in the trade of bison flesh at markets in New Mexico.</p> <p>Bison were the foundation of transactions among Indigenous groups and between Indigenous nations and Euro-American nations. In this way, the mammals’ abundance undergirded the more extensive networks of imperial commerce on the nineteenth-century plains, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>. Bison meat, hides, and tallow (fat) were principal commodities on the Great Plains. The market forces that came to bear on the region eventually spelled disaster for the bison in Colorado.</p> <h2>The Market for Bison</h2> <p>A variety of market factors drove the exploitation of the bison, including flesh for consumption or storage and bone ash for making fertilizer or to neutralize acids and clarify sugar, wine, and vinegar. However, in the early decades of the nineteenth century, demand for bison pelts surpassed these other uses as the main driver of the animal’s decline. Stemming directly from the already-established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> pelt trade, the bison robe market became dominant as beaver became rarer in the mountains and High Plains.</p> <p>The earliest American engagement with the bison robe market occurred in the early nineteenth century at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> along overland trails. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, on the Arkansas River in what is now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero County</strong></a>, was a well-known fur-trading post and commercial hub. There, white traders exchanged flour, firearms, textiles, and liquor for bison robes prepared by the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Indigenous peoples. In tandem with intensifying resource competition between bison and the growing herds of horses used to hunt them, the massive demand for robes contributed to a decline in bison, as Indigenous people were incentivized to overhunt the animal. By the 1850s, the decline in the robe market shuttered many of the fur-trading forts in Colorado, and Indigenous people who relied upon the once-innumerable resource began to starve and relocate as herds diminished.</p> <p>Several forces combined to keep bison numbers on a downward trajectory throughout the mid-nineteenth century. Increasing numbers of American colonists crossing the plains on overland trails used bison as a food source. The Comanche overhunted bison to sustain their raiding-and-trading empire and built huge horse herds that competed with the bison for grazing territory.</p> <p>As railroad tracks were laid across eastern Colorado during the 1870s, bison migration patterns were affected, and train strikes began killing bison who wandered across tracks. An increasing number of cattle and other ranch animals and the increasing amount of acreage put under cultivation reduced bison’s access to vital shortgrass prairie, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches bisected their grazing spaces. Droughts, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a><strong>s</strong>, blizzards, and disease contributed significantly to the diminishing number of bison in Colorado and the broader Great Plains, as did the forced removal of Indigenous people who had previously managed the herds and held bison in higher regard than newly arriving colonists. On top of all that, tanners developed a new method for creating bison leather in the early 1870s, creating an insatiable demand for hides. By the 1880s, bison had been nearly hunted out of existence on the High Plains.</p> <h2>Saving a Species: Bison in the Twentieth Century</h2> <p>At the turn of the twentieth century, the bison underwent a transformation in the minds of many non-Indigenous Americans. For decades, hunting of the animals had been encouraged to weaken Indigenous nations and make way for the so-called progress of railroads, farming, and ranching in the West. With the conquest of the region complete, however, many Americans began to see both the bison and Indigenous people as symbols of a disappearing mythical frontier, and they became nostalgic about these symbols.</p> <p>Perhaps the best example of this change in sentiment is that of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-f-%E2%80%9Cbuffalo-bill%E2%80%9D-cody"><strong>William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody</strong></a>, an army veteran who hunted bison for the Kansas-Pacific Railroad and the US Army only to make the animals an important part of his subsequent “Wild West” shows that celebrated the American frontier. Cody’s shows were immensely popular and gave bison staying power as symbols of a romanticized American West. Cody, who first helped kill the bison and then helped spur a national lamentation of their loss, is now buried on Lookout Mountain, near Golden, not far from where a reintroduced bison herd roams.</p> <p>Later, in 1934, the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> (CU) adopted the name “Buffaloes” to represent its sports programs and campus community, further tying the bison to the lives of contemporary Coloradans. The mascot was chosen due to a national naming contest by CU’s student newspaper, <em>Silver &amp; Gold</em>. Boulder resident A. J. Dickson was the first to submit the name “buffaloes.” For the first football game of the 1934 season, CU students paid twenty-five dollars to have a bison calf on the sidelines (it is not known where the calf was taken from, though it likely came from Genesee Park). Since 1967 CU has had a live female bison, nicknamed “Ralphie,” lead the football team onto the field at home games.</p> <p>In Colorado, conservation of the keystone species has been in progress since the early twentieth century. Beginning in 1908, the city of Denver rounded up a herd of eighteen bison for conservation. The Denver herd lived on the prairie of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/city-park"><strong>City Park</strong></a> and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-zoo"><strong>Denver Zoo</strong></a>, but as the herd grew, its home moved to a larger site at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a> in 1914 and expanded to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/daniels-park"><strong>Daniels Park</strong></a> in 1938. The city of Denver and the Denver Zoo continue to manage the bison herd, occasionally gifting bison to the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ute, and other Indigenous nations with strong cultural ties to the animals. Collectively, these efforts protect the region’s biodiversity, support the recovery of the species, acknowledge Indigenous nations as equal partners in their protection, and provide the people of Colorado the opportunity to engage with one of their region’s most important species.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Bison reintroduction programs continue in Colorado, and the state herds have increased significantly in number and physical health. A short distance from Denver, Coloradans can view the bison herd at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/rocky-mountain-arsenal"><strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong></a>. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden,</strong></a> the overlook at exit 254 off <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> allows observation of the Genesee Park herd. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, bison viewing areas at Soapstone Prairie Natural Area and Red Mountain Open Space enable visitors to see a herd with genetic links to some of the last remaining wild bison in the Yellowstone region. The state of Colorado, the federal government, and many Indigenous nations continue to prioritize the reintroduction, study, and management of the prairie’s keystone species and the country’s national mammal.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/sean-mccollum" hreflang="und">Sean McCollum</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison" hreflang="en">bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo" hreflang="en">buffalo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-hunting" hreflang="en">bison hunting</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-extinct" hreflang="en">bison extinct</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-colorado" hreflang="en">bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-plains" hreflang="en">high plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-ecosystem" hreflang="en">plains ecosystem</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/national-mammal" hreflang="en">national mammal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/barack-obama" hreflang="en">barack obama</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/theodore-roosevelt" hreflang="en">theodore roosevelt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-herds-colorado" hreflang="en">bison herds colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/see-bison-colorado" hreflang="en">see bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/genesee-park" hreflang="en">genesee park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/are-there-bison-colorado" hreflang="en">are there bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/are-there-bison-left" hreflang="en">are there bison left</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/daniels-park" hreflang="en">daniels park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-zoo" hreflang="en">Denver Zoo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapho" hreflang="en">arapho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nuche" hreflang="en">nuche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-genocide" hreflang="en">indigenous genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/red-mountain-open-space" hreflang="en">red mountain open space</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soapstone-prairie-bison" hreflang="en">soapstone prairie bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soapstone-prairie-natural-area" hreflang="en">soapstone prairie natural area</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-county" hreflang="en">denver county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jefferson-county" hreflang="en">jefferson county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grama-grass" hreflang="en">grama grass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-grass" hreflang="en">buffalo grass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shortgrass-prairie" hreflang="en">shortgrass prairie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shortgrass-prairie-ecology" hreflang="en">shortgrass prairie ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-plains-ecology" hreflang="en">high plains ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-bill-cody" hreflang="en">buffalo bill cody</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-robe-trade" hreflang="en">bison robe trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-f-cody" hreflang="en">william f cody</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www3.uwsp.edu/biology/VertebrateCollection/Pages/Vertebrates/Mammals%20of%20Wisconsin/Bison%20bison/Bison%20bison.aspx#:~:text=Length%20of%20bison%20ranges%20from,shoulder%20and%20the%20thoracic%20girdle.">Bison bison—American Bison</a>,” Biology Department, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, updated 2004.</p> <p>Kathleen A. Brosnan, <em>Uniting Mountain and Plain: Cities, Law, and Environmental Change Along the Front Range</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).<br /> <br /> Cheyennelanguage.org, “<a href="http://www.cheyennelanguage.org/words/animals/animals.htm">Animals</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Coleman Cornelius, “<a href="https://source.colostate.edu/northern-colorado-bison-project-uses-high-tech-breeding-to-halt-disease-and-conserve-an-icon/">Northern Colorado Bison Project Uses High-Tech Breeding to Halt Disease and Conserve an Icon</a>,” <em>Source </em>(Colorado State University), March 10, 2015.</p> <p>City of Denver, “Bison Conservation,”&nbsp; n.d.</p> <p>City of Fort Collins, “<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/bison">Laramie Foothills Bison Conservation Herd</a>,”&nbsp; n.d.</p> <p>Andrew Cowell and Alonzo Moss, Sr., Williams C’Hair, Wayne C’Hair, et al., “<a href="https://homewitharapaho.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/arapaho-dictionary1.pdf">Dictionary of the Arapaho Language</a>,” 2012.</p> <p>Catherine S. Fowler, “<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/465789">Some Lexical Clues to Uto-Aztecan Prehistory</a>,” International Journal of American Linguistics 49, no. 3 (July 1983).</p> <p>Andrew C. Isenberg, <em>The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920</em> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).<br /> <br /> Shanna Lewis, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/12/17/wild-bison-return-to-colorados-great-plains/">Wild Bison Return to Colorado’s Great Plains</a>,” CPR, December 17, 2020.</p> <p>Mountain Scholar, University Historic Photograph Collection, “Bison Image—1,”&nbsp; July 1930.</p> <p>Sarah M. Nelson, <em>Denver: An Archaeological History</em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).<br /> <br /> San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Library, “<a href="https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/americanbison/summary">American Bison <em>(Bison bison)</em></a>,”&nbsp; updated March 9, 2021.</p> <p>University of Colorado, “<a href="https://cubuffs.com/sports/2016/6/28/ralphie-history">Ralphie History</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2015/10/21/usda-helps-bring-bison-back-colorados-prairies">USDA Helps Bring Bison Back to Colorado's Prairies</a>,”&nbsp; February 21, 2017.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Dale F. Lott, <em>American Bison: A Natural History</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).<br /> <br /> Louis S. Warren, <em>Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show</em> (New York: Vintage Books, 2006).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sat, 19 Nov 2022 16:57:21 +0000 Nick Johnson 3831 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Black Bear http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-bear <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Black Bear</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3646--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3646.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/black-bear"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/2021_Fall_20211001_0003_0_0.jpg?itok=9Y2hUcCw" width="1000" height="743" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/black-bear" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Black Bear</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A black bear by highway 50 in Gunnison County.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-12-01T15:39:37-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 1, 2021 - 15:39" class="datetime">Wed, 12/01/2021 - 15:39</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-bear" data-a2a-title="Black Bear"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fblack-bear&amp;title=Black%20Bear"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Curious, intelligent, and opportunistic, the American black bear (<em>Ursus americanus</em>) ranges throughout Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a>, forests, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian areas</strong></a>. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a> (CPW) estimates there to be around 17,000–20,000 black bears in the state, many of which inhabit areas where people live and recreate. Black bears generally pose little threat to humans and in fact play important cultural and economic roles for people in Colorado. However, some bears develop problematic behavior around people that leads authorities to remove or kill them, meaning that human responsibility is an essential part of managing Colorado’s black bear population.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The American black bear is a close relative of the Asiatic black bear (<em>Ursus thibetanus</em>). Ancestors of the black bear may have migrated to North America and evolved into the American black bear we know today, which now consists of sixteen subspecies. The black bear can be found in more than forty US states, ranging from the East Coast to the Rocky Mountain West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the “black bear” name, the bears come in many different shades of fur, including brown, white, and blond, depending on the region they inhabit. In Colorado and other parts of the West, they are commonly brown. A brown or cinnamon black bear is not to be confused with the larger brown bear (<em>Ursus arctos</em>), or grizzly bear, which no longer lives in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Black bears can live up to thirty years. One of the smallest American bears, black bears are nevertheless Colorado’s largest mammal, with males weighing up to 600 pounds and females weighing up to 200 pounds. Black bears are typically about five feet tall when standing up on their back legs and about three feet long when walking on all fours.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Habitat and Ecology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Black bears inhabit virtually every forested area in Colorado, including riverside <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> groves in otherwise treeless areas such as the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. They spend the winter months in hibernation, a state of depressed metabolism in which a bear sleeps in a den (prime locations include under logs and the bases of hollow trees, as well as caves) and does not feed. They emerge in the spring to mate and raise their cubs before entering a stage of hyperphagia—intensive foraging—in the summer and fall.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Black bears are omnivorous, meaning they will eat both meat and plants. Their diet varies with seasonal availability but typically consists mostly of acorns, berries, nuts, grasses, and other vegetation. They will also eat insects, small mammals, ungulates such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a> and <a href="file://users/williamwei/Desktop/CEPhII_Batch22_9-15-21/coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and human trash. One study of black bear diets in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a> found that grasses made up 28 percent of a bear’s diet, while berries and ants each made up 16 percent; ungulates accounted for another 6 percent and small mammals 4 percent. Five percent of bear diets in the study consisted of trash, an indication of how park bears have come to rely on human visitors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History and Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Black bears hold an important place in the spirituality of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Nuche</strong></a>, or Ute people of Colorado. In Ute culture, bears are viewed as the wisest animal and one of the bravest (second only to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lion</strong></a>). The Nuche believe that bears are aware of their relationship with humans, and they hold <strong>Bear Dances </strong>to strengthen this natural bond with the animal. Ute oral tradition says that long ago a bear gifted the Bear Dance to the Nuche.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Anglo- and Euro-American Colorado, black bears have historically been viewed as hunting trophies or threats to livestock and wildlife tourism. One of the earliest accounts of a black bear sighting, from Middle Park in 1863, described a man running into a river in pursuit of one. Another article from 1870 encouraged “settlers” to “engage in the manly sport of hunting” black bears that foraged in “the refuse of their kitchens.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the twentieth century, as ranching became more prominent across Colorado’s mountains, bears were also hunted as threats to livestock. To protect cattle and sheep, government hunters were dispatched to kill predators, including bears, all over the state. As late as 1941, Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ralph-carr"><strong>Ralph L. Carr</strong></a> allowed “ranchers and farmers to shoot without license and out of season any bear which is molesting livestock or causing any other sort of damage.” Bears were also considered a threat to other animals that drew tourists. After the creation of Rocky Mountain National Park in 1915, federal agents “greatly reduced” the park’s population of grizzly and black bears, as well as other predators, to boost elk numbers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with other predators, black bears were hunted relentlessly all over the country before their dwindling numbers in the mid-twentieth century prompted concern from newly established state and federal wildlife agencies. A <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> report from 1940 estimated Colorado’s combined black and brown bear population to be around 4,900, which indicated “an increase in the number of black bear.” Grizzly bears were hunted to extinction in Colorado by 1951.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Human Interaction</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Black bears are opportunistic foragers who will do whatever it takes to get a meal. This often brings them into contact with people, whom bears recognize as a potential source of food. Human-bear interactions have increased with Colorado’s population. In 2020 there were more than 1,800 reported black bear encounters in Colorado, mostly after June 1, when bears become more active and more people visit the mountains. Unattended food and beverages at campsites or cabins are prime targets for bears, but they will also rummage through trash and occasionally break into cars and houses in search of food. Bears also associate a wide range of nonfood smells with people (and thus food), including soaps and other toiletries; even beer and water bottles, if used while eating, can attract bears.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike their more aggressive cousins the grizzlies, black bears are notoriously skittish when they come into direct contact with humans. Many encounters end with the bear running away. However, if a bear is surprised, threatened, or protecting cubs, it may attack. In 2019, for instance, there were three bear attacks on people near <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, all of which were outdoors. Fatal attacks are rare; Colorado’s most recent fatal attack was in 2009. State wildlife managers maintain that removing things that attract bears to campsites or neighborhoods is more effective at mitigating human-bear conflict than removing or killing bears.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Hunting</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Numerous state and federal laws protect black bears. In 1992 Colorado residents approved a ballot initiative that eliminated bear hunting in spring and prohibited capturing bears using bait and dogs. It remains legal to hunt black bears in Colorado with a license, in-season. Colorado Parks and Wildlife (CPW) manages bear populations by selling a fluctuating number of hunting licenses per season. Hunters can check CPW’s website for additional information.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-bears" hreflang="en">black bears</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-bear-colorado" hreflang="en">black bear colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/where-do-black-bears-live-colorado" hreflang="en">where do black bears live in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-bear-information" hreflang="en">black bear information</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-bear-life-cycle" hreflang="en">black bear life cycle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bears" hreflang="en">bears</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Roger A. Baldwin and Louis C. Bender, “Foods and Nutritional Components of Diets of Black Bear in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado,” <em>Canadian Journal of Zoology </em>87, no. 11 (November 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Miles Blumhardt, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2020/07/15/colorado-bear-attacks-larimer-county-has-seen-104-encounters-2020/5438355002/">More Than 100 Black Bear Encounters Reported in Loveland–Fort Collins Area This Year</a>,” <em>Coloradoan </em>(Fort Collins), July 15, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. Lynn Coffin and J. Barton Herschler, “<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=ETG19500428-01.2.118&amp;srpos=7&amp;e=--1940---1950--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-black+bear+management-------0-----">Game Management Important to the National Park Region</a>,” <em>Estes Park Trail</em>, April 28, 1950.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=OCT19400411.2.12&amp;srpos=15&amp;e=--1940---1950--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22black+bear%22-------0-----">Colorado Deer Herds Increase Twenty Per Cent—Elk Increasing</a>,” <em>Oak Creek Times</em>, April 11, 1940.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver Museum of Nature and Science, “<a href="https://www.dmns.org/science/featured-collections/zoology/colorado-s-last-grizzly-bear/#:~:text=Grizzly%20bears%20had%20been%20considered,extinct%2C%20in%20Colorado%20since%201951.%22">Colorado’s Last Grizzly Bear</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>D. L. Lewis et al., “<a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1890/ES15-00137.1">Foraging Ecology of Black Bears in Urban Environments: Guidance for Human-Bear Conflict Mitigation</a>,” <em>Ecosphere </em>6, no. 8 (August 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=WIT19410311-01.2.37&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22bears%22+%22ranchers%22-------0-----">Marauding Bears to Be Shot</a>,” <em>World-Independent</em>, March 11, 1941.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/bearsafetyfood.htm">Bear Safety: Storing Food</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Wildlife Federation, “<a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Black-Bear#:~:text=Because%20of%20their%20versatile%20diet,is%20riparian%20vegetation%20and%20trees.">Black Bear</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ryan Osborne, “<a href="https://www.denver7.com/news/local-news/the-bears-are-awake-colorado-7-things-to-know-and-how-to-stay-safe">Bears Are Awake, Colorado: 7 Things to Know and Stay Safe</a>,” Denver Channel, May 13, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18630305.2.23&amp;srpos=2&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22black+bear%22-------0-----">Over the Range</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, March 5, 1863.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CCF18701110.2.44&amp;srpos=17&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22black+bear%22-------0-----">Perhaps It May Be Interesting to Gentlemen of Leisure …</a>” <em>Colorado Weekly Chieftain</em>, November 10, 1870.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elena Ulev, Richard M. DeGraaf, and Deborah D. Rudis, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/mammal/uram/all.html">Ursus americanus</a>,” US Forest Service Fire Effects Information System, updated July 18, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/2183#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20bear%20is%20regarded%20as,assists%20in%20strengthening%20this%20friendship.%E2%80%9D">Ute Spirituality</a>,” Native American Roots, August 28, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=LLR19210802-01.2.40&amp;srpos=7&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22bears%22+%22ranchers%22-------0-----">Wild Animals Are Expensive: Cost Government Twenty-Seven Dollars Each for Predatory Animals</a>,” <em>Loveland Reporter</em>, August 2, 1921.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wise About Bears, “<a href="https://wiseaboutbears.org/black-bears/the-bear-family/black-bear-ecology/">Black Bear Ecology</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kathy Zeller, “<a href="https://theconversation.com/black-bears-adapt-to-life-near-humans-by-burning-the-midnight-oil-118899">Black Bears Adapt to Life Near Humans by Burning the Midnight Oil</a>,” <em>Conversation, </em>July 31, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/culture/bear-dance/">Bear Dance</a>,” Southern Ute Indian Tribe.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/Education/LivingWithWildlife/BeBearAwareBooklet.pdf">Be Bear Aware</a>” (children’s activity booklet).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/LivingwithWildlifeBears2.aspx">Bearproofing Your Home</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda Masterson, <em>Living With Bears Handbook</em> (Masonville, CO: PixyJack Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Damon Toledo, “<a href="https://www.sudrum.com/top-stories/2015/04/17/history-of-the-bear-dance/">History of the Bear Dance</a>,” <em>Southern Ute Drum</em>, April 17, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 01 Dec 2021 22:39:37 +0000 yongli 3645 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Wolves in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wolves-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Wolves in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3656--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3656.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gray-wolf"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/GrayWolfFlickr_0.jpg?itok=xs_gejPz" width="1090" height="717" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gray-wolf" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gray Wolf</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A female gray wolf in 2009. Gray wolves once thrived throughout Colorado but were largely eradicated by the 1940s out of fear of their impacts on ranching and tourism. In 2020 Coloradans approved a measure to officially re-introduce the gray wolf to Colorado, as the wolves themselves have been slowly coming back to the state over the previous two decades.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-02-16T13:25:07-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 16, 2021 - 13:25" class="datetime">Tue, 02/16/2021 - 13:25</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wolves-colorado" data-a2a-title="Wolves in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwolves-colorado&amp;title=Wolves%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The gray wolf (<em>Canis lupus</em>) was once one of the most prevalent predators in Colorado, stalking deer and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> across the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. Before wolves were killed off in the state by the 1940s, they enjoyed a rather peaceful coexistence with humans. Since their eradication, wolves have garnered renewed public appreciation that has led to their controversial reintroduction in a number of places, including Colorado; in 2020 Colorado became the first state to approve a ballot measure for wolf reintroduction.</p> <h2>Description</h2> <p>The gray wolf is one of nature’s most imposing predators, with powerful jaws and sharp sets of canine teeth up to two and a half inches long. Wolves also possess remarkable intelligence and keen senses, allowing them to track and follow prey for many miles. Adept carnivores, they will eat large ungulates such as deer, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and bison, as well as smaller prey such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beavers</strong></a>, rabbits, and small rodents.</p> <p>Wolves resemble large dogs, especially German shepherds (dogs are evolutionarily descended from wolves). They sport bushy tails and gray-and-white fur, and can weigh between 60 and 145 pounds. They live in dens, small burrows where females give birth to between six and ten pups each year, usually in March.</p> <p>Historically, the gray wolf’s range covered more than two-thirds of the United States and a wide set of habitats, from tundra to prairies and deserts. Today, smaller populations of wolves roam parts of Alaska, Arizona, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, Oregon, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. In many of these places, including Colorado neighbors Wyoming and New Mexico, wolves were reintroduced after being wiped out in the first few decades of the twentieth century.</p> <h2>Indigenous People and Wolves</h2> <p>Wolves are an important part of Indigenous spirituality. They figure prominently in the mythology of nearly every Indigenous nation in the continental United States. In Ute mythology, the wolf is the creator and hero, while his younger brother, Coyote, is a trickster—a relationship that reflects the ecological tie between wolves as hunters and coyotes as their trailing scavengers. The Utes and other Indigenous people made a habit of leaving some of their bison carcasses behind for wolves, whom they also occasionally killed for fur. For the most part, wolves and Native Americans coexisted relatively peacefully until the arrival of white immigrants in the nineteenth century.</p> <h2>Euro-Americans and Wolves</h2> <p>At first, the arrival of white immigrants to what became Colorado was a boon for wolves. From the 1830s through the 1840s, white hunters killed buffalo in droves for robes, leaving their skinless bodies on the plains for wolves and coyotes to scavenge.</p> <p>By the late nineteenth century, however, white immigrants had killed off an astonishing number of the gray wolf’s natural prey. The bison were gone, and by 1900 there were a mere 1,000 elk remaining in the state, a huge difference from the quarter million or so that roam Colorado today. Pronghorn and deer populations were similarly devastated. With the removal of prey, wolves turned to opportunistically eating livestock, prompting a furious backlash from Colorado ranchers.</p> <p>In the popular imagination of the ranching era, wolves morphed from noble predators to “pests” or “destructive beasts,” as early 1900s reports called them. Local newspapers in ranching areas kept tabs on wolf pack locations, and reports of wolves “devouring” livestock fueled the perception of the predators as costly vermin that needed to be eradicated. To protect livestock, the state and independent ranching outfits placed bounties on wolves and other predators, including <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lions</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-bear"><strong>bears</strong></a>, and coyotes.</p> <p>By 1892, for one dollar per kill, Coloradans were slaughtering an average of more than 10,000 wolves and coyotes each year. The bounty was one-tenth that of the one for bears and mountain lions, indicating that wolves and coyotes were far more widespread. The bounties got more lucrative later on; in 1900, for instance, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walden-north-park"><strong>North Park</strong></a> Cattle Company and North Park Stock Growers Association each chipped in to offer thirty-dollar bounties on wolves “for the protection and benefit of every ranchman in the park.” Later, salaried government agents joined the wolf extermination campaign.</p> <p>In addition to proactive approaches such as bounties, ranchers also relied on defensive strategies to protect livestock from wolves. A 1910 article in the <em>Routt County Courier</em> claimed that “a wolf-tight woven wire fence, with barb wires” offered “the best protection” for sheep. By the 1940s, the cumulative effect of negative press, bounties, and livestock protection had taken its toll, with wolves effectively wiped out of the state.</p> <h2>Reintroduction</h2> <p>As in Colorado, wolves were cleared out of neighboring Wyoming by the 1930s, and their eradication across most of the continent led them to be listed under the <strong>Endangered Species Act</strong> by 1973. As the work of ecologists and conservationists became more widely appreciated over the ensuing decades, the public began to reconceive wolves as powerful, romantic symbols of a wilderness lost to rapacious development. Reintroduction measures began to accrue public support, though many ranchers and rural communities continued to oppose bringing back wolves.</p> <p>By the mid-1990s, wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park and other parts of the northern US Rockies. Since then they have ranged widely, including into Colorado. In 2004 a lone wolf from Yellowstone was killed by a car on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> in Colorado, and in 2009 another arrived from Montana and died in the state. In 2019 a lone wolf was discovered in northwest Colorado, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a> (CPW) later confirmed the existence of a wolf pack in that part of the state.</p> <p>In the midst of these sporadic sightings, the state convened a fourteen-member Colorado Wolf Management Working Group, which produced a report on wolf population management in December 2004. The report identified four key recommendations for effective wolf management: addressing both positive and negative impacts of wolf presence, monitoring and collecting data on wolves and livestock, adapting management strategies to on-the-ground data, and compensating for livestock losses.</p> <p>Even before wolves had made their own way back to the state, some Coloradans took it upon themselves to welcome them. In 1988, in the foothills of the Wet Mountains in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/custer-county"><strong>Custer County</strong></a>, Kent Weber co-founded Mission: Wolf, a nonprofit dedicated to wolf education and preservation. Today the nonprofit houses nearly two dozen rescued wolves and operates a “wolf ambassador” program that brings wolves into classrooms to educate schoolchildren and dispel myths about the predators.</p> <h2>Effects of Wolf Reintroduction</h2> <p>Yellowstone National Park offers an example of the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction. After wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone in 1995, the park’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian ecosystems</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-trees"><strong>aspen</strong></a> stands experienced recovery due to reduced browsing by a smaller elk population. Coyote numbers also dropped as wolves drove them out, allowing numbers of smaller predators such as foxes and raptors to increase. There is also evidence that wolves generated more interest and visitation; by 2006, 44 percent of Yellowstone visitors named the wolf as the species they would most like to see in the park.</p> <p>Although they do occur, wolf attacks on livestock are exceedingly rare, with wolves killing .009 percent of inventoried cattle across the United States in 2015, according to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). That same year, the USDA reported that wolves killed only 1,330 of the nation’s 6.8 million sheep. Claims of danger to humans are similarly exaggerated; a 2013 report noted only “a small number of documented attacks” in the last sixty years by an estimated North American wolf population of 60,000, adding that “a person in wolf country has a greater chance of being killed by a dog, lightning, a bee sting, or a car collision with a deer than being injured by a wolf.”</p> <h2>2020 Initiative</h2> <p>On November 3, 2020, Coloradans narrowly passed Proposition 114, a ballot initiative that directs state wildlife agencies to come up with a plan to manage a reintroduced wolf population on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> by 2024. The measure reflected many of the directives identified by the 2004 working group, including the provision of “fair compensation” to ranchers who lose stock to wolves. The vote made Colorado the first state to pass wolf reintroduction via ballot measure instead of being directed to do so by the federal government. The measure was extremely controversial, passing by less than two percentage points and buoyed by strong support from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> communities.</p> <p>Those who favored the measure argued that restoring a keystone predator such as the wolf will allow for healthier, more balanced ecosystems throughout western Colorado, with minimal threats to livestock or people. Even though the measure instructs the state to compensate for livestock losses, opponents had other concerns, including claims that “wolves are disease vectors” that threaten elk and dogs and that they would endanger humans on public land.</p> <h2>Future</h2> <p>On November 3, 2020, the US Fish and Wildlife Service removed the gray wolf from the Endangered Species list, paving the way for state entities such as CPW to take over wolf management in early 2021.However, CPW notes that this measure will “likely” face legal challenges, so it remains uncertain which agency will manage Colorado’s wolf population in the near future.&nbsp;In the spring of 2021, state wildlife officials confirmed that two adult wolves in North Park produced the first wolf pups born in Colorado in more than eighty years. This was followed in late 2021 and early 2022&nbsp;by the first reports of wolves attacking cattle in the state.</p> <p>The implementation of Proposition 114 will&nbsp;face opposition, as thirty-nine of Colorado’s sixty-four counties—mostly rural counties in the mountains and plains—passed resolutions opposed to wolf reintroduction. The <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> in southwest Colorado also officially opposes wolf reintroduction, as does the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Northern Ute Tribe</strong></a> in Utah and the <strong>Jicarilla Apache Tribe </strong>in northern New Mexico, though there remain supporters of wolves in each tribe. Despite the role of wolves in Indigenous spirituality, the tribes worry about potential damage to livestock and livelihoods as well as to populations of elk and moose. With such broad opposition, it remains to be seen whether wolves will truly be allowed to roam Colorado as they did long before their Rocky Mountain sanctuary became part of the United States.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wolves" hreflang="en">wolves</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wolves-colorado" hreflang="en">wolves colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gray-wolf" hreflang="en">gray wolf</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grey-wolf" hreflang="en">grey wolf</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wolf-reintroduction-colorado" hreflang="en">wolf reintroduction colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wolf-reintroduction-2020" hreflang="en">wolf reintroduction 2020</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coyotes" hreflang="en">coyotes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Miles Blumhardt, "<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2021/10/12/rare-video-first-colorado-wolves-born-traveling-nurse-jackson-county/6087715001/">Traveling nurse shoots rare video of Colorado's first wolves born here in 80 years</a>,"&nbsp;<em>The Coloradoan&nbsp;</em>(Fort Collins), October 12, 2021.</p> <p>Sam Brasch, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/11/06/931472376/in-historic-move-colorado-voters-decide-to-reintroduce-gray-wolves">In Historic Move, Colorado Voters Decide to Reintroduce Gray Wolves</a>,” NPR, November 6, 2020.</p> <p>Arthur Carhart, with Andrew Gulliford and Tom Wolf, eds., <em>The Last Stand of the Pack: Critical Edition</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2017).</p> <p>“<a href="https://waterislifewalk.org">Colorado Counties Already Opposed to Wolf Introduction</a>,” Colorado Stop the Wolf Coalition, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_114,_Gray_Wolf_Reintroduction_Initiative_(2020)">Colorado Proposition 114, Gray Wolf Reintroduction Initiative (2020)</a>,” Ballotpedia, updated December 5, 2020.</p> <p>"<a href="https://coloradosun.com/2022/01/18/cow-euthanized-after-wolf-attack/">Colorado ranch where wolves killed a cow last month reports a second attack on cattle</a>,"&nbsp;<em>The Colorado Sun</em>, January 18, 2022.</p> <p>Colorado Wolf Management Working Group, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/WildlifeSpecies/SpeciesOfConcern/Wolf/recomendations.pdf">Findings and Recommendations for Managing Wolves That Migrate Into Colorado</a>,” Colorado Parks and Wildlife, December 28, 2004.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=BLA18840809-01.2.15&amp;srpos=17&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Corona</a>” (account of wolves attacking sheep), <em>Brush Lariat</em>, August 9, 1884.</p> <p>John Duffield, Chris Neher, and David Patterson, “<a href="https://defenders.org/sites/default/files/publications/wolves_and_people_in_yellowstone.pdf">Wolves and People in Yellowstone: Impacts on the Regional Economy</a>,” University of Montana, September 2006.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=BSJ19070504.2.15&amp;srpos=64&amp;e=-------en-20--61--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Even the Wolves . . . </a>,”<em>Basalt Journal</em>, May 4, 1907.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RCC19101110-01.2.33&amp;srpos=51&amp;e=-------en-20--41--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Fence Prevents Wolves From Devouring Sheep</a>,” <em>Routt County Courier</em>, November 10, 1910.</p> <p>“<a href="https://waterislifewalk.org">Get the Facts</a>,” Colorado Stop the Wolf Coalition, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/sites/default/files/docs/HSUS-Wolf-Livestock-6.Mar_.19Final.pdf">Government Data Confirm That Wolves Have a Negligible Effect on U.S. Cattle and Sheep Industries</a>,” Humane Society of the United States, March 6, 2019.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Gray-Wolf#:~:text=Gray%20wolves%2C%20or%20timber%20wolves,like%20a%20large%20German%20shepherd.">Gray Wolf</a>,” National Wildlife Federation, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=FRE19141211.2.71&amp;srpos=25&amp;e=-------en-20--21--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Gray Wolves Attack Cattle</a>,” <em>Colorado Farm and Ranch</em>, December 11, 1914.</p> <p>Andrew Gulliford, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/wolves-are-already-headed-for-colorado-lets-make-it-official/">Wolves Are Already Headed for Colorado. Let’s Make It Official</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, February 23, 2016.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.livingwithwolves.org/about-wolves/why-wolves-matter/#:~:text=Since%201995%2C%20when%20wolves%20were,to%20pronghorn%2C%20and%20even%20trout.">How Wolves Help</a>,” Living With Wolves, n.d.</p> <p>International Wolf Center, “<a href="https://wolf.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Are-Wolves-Dangerous-to-Humans.pdf">Wolves and Humans</a>,” 2013.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=NPU19020307-01.2.5&amp;srpos=47&amp;e=-------en-20--41--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Items From Highho</a>,” <em>North Park Union</em>, March 7, 1902.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=NEE19070509-01.2.5&amp;srpos=45&amp;e=-------en-20--41--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Killed Seven Wolves</a>,” <em>The New Era </em>(Walden), May 9, 1907.</p> <p>Native Languages of the Americas, “<a href="http://www.native-languages.org/ute-legends.htm">Ute Indian Legends, Myths, and Stories</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Jeremy Wade Shockley, “<a href="https://www.sudrum.com/top-stories/2020/10/09/wolf-reintroduction-reaches-state-ballot/">Wolf Reintroduction Reaches State Ballot</a>,” <em>Southern Ute Drum</em>, October 9, 2020.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=WSN18921125-01.2.4&amp;srpos=62&amp;e=-------en-20--61--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Thousands for Bounties</a>,” <em>West Side Citizen </em>(Denver), November 25, 1892.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=NPU19000105-01.2.5&amp;srpos=42&amp;e=-------en-20--41--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22wolves%22-------0-----">Wolf and Coyote Bounty</a>,” <em>North Park Union</em>, January 5, 1900.</p> <p>“<a href="https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/217212/AEXT_08007_202005.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y">Wolves in Colorado: History and Status</a>,” Colorado State University Extension, n.d.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/centerforhumancarnivorecoexistence/">The Center for Human-Carnivore Coexistence (Colorado State University)</a>.</p> <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/CON-Wolf-Management.aspx">Wolf Management</a>.”</p> <p>Andrew Gulliford, <em>The Woolly West: Colorado’s Hidden History of Sheepscapes </em>(College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2018).</p> <p>John Linnell et al., “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236330045_The_fear_of_wolves_A_review_of_wolf_attacks_on_humans">The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans</a>,” Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (Trondheim, Norway: January 2002).</p> <p>Native Languages of the Americas, “<a href="http://www.native-languages.org/legends-wolf.htm">Native American Wolf Mythology</a>.”</p> <p>Michael Robinson, <em>Predatory Bureaucracy: The Extermination of Wolves and the Transformation of the West </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 16 Feb 2021 20:25:07 +0000 yongli 3539 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sagebrush http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sagebrush <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sagebrush</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3526--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3526.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sagebrush"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Artemisia_tridentata_sagebrush_bush_0_0.jpg?itok=VTkPjVp-" width="1090" height="792" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sagebrush" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sagebrush</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>One of the most recognizable symbols of the arid American West, sagebrush (genus Artemisia) is a short, woody shrub that grows across thirty-nine Colorado counties and anchors a culturally and ecologically significant landscape.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-02-08T15:37:22-07:00" title="Monday, February 8, 2021 - 15:37" class="datetime">Mon, 02/08/2021 - 15:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sagebrush" data-a2a-title="Sagebrush"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsagebrush&amp;title=Sagebrush"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Sagebrush (genus <em>Artemisia</em>) is one of the most common and recognizable plants on Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> and arid <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. A woody, fragrant, faded-green bush, sagebrush is ubiquitous throughout drier parts of the American West, covering some 106 million acres of the region. This makes sagebrush a keystone species that anchors the largest interconnected wildlife habitat in the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sagebrush is an important part of Indigenous culture and spirituality. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the stubborn bush gave white immigrants fits as they tried to till the soil in arid places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moffat-county"><strong>Moffat County</strong></a>. Today, Colorado’s sagebrush ecosystem and the creatures that depend on it, including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sage-grouse"><strong>sage grouse</strong></a>, face threats from invasive species, development, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire"><strong>wildfire</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Several different types of sagebrush occur in Colorado. The most common are subspecies of the big sagebrush (<em>Artemisia tridentata</em>), which typically grow between two and four feet tall but can reach heights of up to fifteen feet, depending on available moisture. They have woody stems that grow dozens of small branches. As with many other species of <em>Artemisia</em>, big sagebrush has thin, silvery-green leaves whose tips are shaped like tiny, three-fingered mittens. A big sagebrush can live between 100 and 150 years, far longer than other similarly sized shrubs. The plant produces small, pale yellow flowers that bloom in late summer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other sagebrush varieties in the state include the low sagebrush (<em>A. arbuscula</em>), which in Colorado is found only in Moffat and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a> Counties; the fringe sage (<em>A. frigida</em>), a more common variety found across the state; and the sand sage (<em>A. filifolia</em>), which is common in the southern and plains counties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To survive in harsh, arid environments, the sagebrush plant has two root systems: a sprawling set of roots branches laterally through the soil, while a tap root searches for deeper water sources. This robust root structure is what made plowing up large fields of sagebrush such a difficult task in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In Colorado, sagebrush covers thirty-nine contiguous <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/place/counties"><strong>counties</strong></a> in the western half of the state, representing about 5 percent of the total sagebrush land in the West. It is also present on the eastern plains, especially in the southern and southeast parts of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The relatively high protein content of <em>Artemisia </em>leaves makes sagebrush an excellent forage shrub for browsers such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a>, and <strong>jackrabbits</strong>. Some ranchers feed it to cattle as winter forage. Sagebrush helps chipmunks and other small creatures hide from predators, and it provides habitat for more than 100 species of birds, including the Sage grouse, which has been the focus of extensive conservation efforts in Colorado. In addition, sagebrush ecosystems support more than 130 other types of plants, including several species of Indian paintbrush, a bright red <strong>wildflower</strong> that taps into sagebrush roots. Grasses—including wheatgrass, bluegrass, and needlegrass—fill in the gaps between sagebrush.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sagebrush was and remains an important part of Indigenous culture. Historically, the Paiute people in Utah fashioned clothing and snowshoes as well as several different types of seasonal shelters from sagebrush. Today the Paiute still include the plant in coming-of-age and other ceremonies and boil the leaves to make a medicinal tea. Navajo people use sagebrush to treat rheumatism and postpartum pain. The Ute people use the plant in similar ways and incorporate it in many stories. One story, recorded in the <em>Southern Ute Drum</em> in 2019, involves a young boy traveling through a “sagebrush forest” where he learns how his people used sage smoke to help communicate with restless ancestral spirits.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>American Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The US Army and white colonists forced most of the Ute population out of the state by 1882. To white immigrants who moved to western Colorado, sagebrush became a widely recognized symbol of the frontier that was, like Indigenous people, an obstacle to civilization. “The sagebrush is the outward symbol of the real United States West,” proclaimed Colorado’s <em>Great Divide </em>in 1918. That symbol may once have been “the buffalo or the Red Indian,” the newspaper claimed, “but all of these are numbered with the things of the past, or are slowly vanishing, while the sagebrush remains.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White immigrants much preferred the fertile prairies of the eastern slope to the dry sagebrush country over the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>. In 1875 the <em>Colorado Daily Chieftain </em>mocked the perceived infertility of sagebrush country, inviting those who tired of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>’s “grand and lovely” scenery to “take a stroll over the hills, and see how much sagebrush, cactus and cobblestones an acre of Colorado ‘adobe’ soil will produce.” In places where sagebrush dominated, like Moffat County, the bush was to be removed so that civilization’s standards could be met; the <em>Craig Empire </em>opined in 1916 that “getting rid of this sagebrush will be a good start” toward “beautifying Craig.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Not all whites saw the sagebrush as a symbol of wilderness or unsettlement. The plant was considered such a routine sight that the town of <strong>Kit Carson</strong> adopted it as the mascot for its baseball team in the early 1870s. In those days, the plant was also an important fuel source for American cowboys. Sheep and sometimes even cattle grazed the tops of the hardy plants. By 1907—as more towns, farms, and ranches sprang up in sagebrush country across the state—some Coloradans were nostalgic for the “vanishing sagebrush.” As one newspaper put it, the plant’s “aroma” was one that “hint[ed] of the wild, free life of the range that will be no more.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Plowing Sagebrush Country</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>However, immigrants to the relatively new town of <strong>Craig</strong>, drawn by the promise of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-northwestern-pacific-railway-hill-route-moffat-road"><strong>Moffat Road</strong></a> rail line, might have scoffed at the idea that sagebrush was vanishing. Owing to the plant’s strong root system, farmers around Craig had a tough time removing sagebrush until around 1915. That year, blacksmith Morgan C. French invented a “sage brush plow” that could tackle entire lots of the stubborn bush, making way for alfalfa and other traditional crops, as well as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches. The invention weighed more than typical plows and used rotating, toothed disks to cut soil away from the sagebrush roots while sweeping the plants aside into the prongs of a metal rake, which left them neatly piled for collection or burning.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <em>Craig Empire </em>considered French’s invention to be “one of the greatest Colorado has ever known.” However, most farmers eventually shifted to ranching, as they realized that the grasses growing in the sagebrush ecosystem made for excellent forage.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Management and Threats</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As time went on, more Coloradans became aware of sagebrush’s importance to both ranching and the broader ecosystem. After the turn of the twentieth century, ranchers overgrazed on sagebrush range, depleting the natural supply of grasses and causing sagebrush to run rampant. Communities tried several solutions to reinvigorate the range. A 1931 article in the <em>Craig Empire Courier </em>urged locals to “burn sagebrush now to improve native ranges”—a recognition of fire’s ability to clear overgrown sage and make room for more grass.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After <strong>World War II</strong>, as chemicals became a major part of modern agriculture, the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong> sprayed 2, 4-D, a toxic herbicide, on overgrown sagebrush in Moffat County. The chemical killed the sagebrush and ushered in robust growth of wheatgrass, with unknown other ecological effects. Later, in 1961, researchers at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/agricultural-extension-service"><strong>Colorado State University Extension</strong></a> recommended that ranchers spray or burn sagebrush in order to triple beef production on the range. More recent studies, however, recommend against complete removal of sagebrush because it reduces biodiversity and may ultimately result in poor production of forage grasses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Colorado’s sagebrush ecosystem is managed by a variety of local and federal agencies, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a>, the <strong>US Fish and Wildlife Service</strong>, the Bureau of Land Management, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and the <strong>National Park Service</strong>. In addition to researching and protecting the plants and animals of sagebrush country, these agencies work with local ranchers to promote ecological balance on the range, using methods such as prescribed burns and restricted access to keep both sagebrush and forage plants available. The <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> also has a Range Division that helps maintain its sagebrush.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sagebrush country currently faces a number of human-wrought threats, including development, invasive species, and wildfire. Oil and gas pads, for instance, have been found to reduce local mule deer populations and other sagebrush species through noise pollution and habitat fragmentation. Still, a 2005 report from Colorado Parks and Wildlife named invasive herbaceous plants as the largest threat to the state’s sagebrush ecosystems. One of the most troublesome invaders is cheatgrass, which outgrows other grasses to dominate an area. Cheatgrass grows tall and is extremely flammable, making fire another premier threat to sagebrush country today.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sagebrush" hreflang="en">sagebrush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moffat-county" hreflang="en">Moffat County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/artemisia" hreflang="en">artemisia</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paiute" hreflang="en">paiute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>James P. Blaisdell, Robert B. Murray, and E. Durant McArthur, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr134.pdf">Managing Intermountain Rangelands—Sagebrush-Grass Ranges</a>,” US Forest Service, October 1982.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=STP19610720.2.35&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22+%22range%22-------0-----">Beef Production Can Be Tripled By Improving Sage Brush Ranges</a>,” <em>Steamboat Pilot</em>, July 20, 1961.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen A. Boyle and Dawn R. Reeder, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/WildlifeSpecies/Sagebrush/CHAPTER0contentsfrontmatter.pdf">Colorado Sagebrush: A Conservation Assessment and Strategy</a>,” Colorado Parks and Wildlife, September 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CEC19311021-01.2.54&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22-------0-----">Burn Sagebrush Now to Improve Native Ranges</a>,” <em>Craig Empire Courier</em>, October 21, 1931.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CRE19170124-01.2.4&amp;srpos=7&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-sage+brush+plow+french-------0-----">French Sage Brush Plow Has Solved Farming Difficulty</a>,” <em>Craig Empire</em>, January 24, 1917.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CRE19160614-01.2.31&amp;srpos=11&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22+%22craig%22-------0-----">How About It?</a>” (“sagebrush grubbing”), <em>Craig Empire</em>, June 14, 1916.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=STP19490811.2.2&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22+%22range%22-------0-----">Increased Forage Thru Sagebrush Killing Foreseen</a>,” <em>Steamboat Pilot</em>, August 11, 1949.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Natural History Museum of Utah, “<a href="https://nhmu.utah.edu/native-plants/plant/Big%20Sagebrush">Big Sagebrush</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CFT18751010.2.57&amp;srpos=16&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22-------0-----">Pueblo, Col., Sept. 24, 1875</a>,” <em>Colorado Daily Chieftain</em>, October 10, 1875.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CFT18770215-01.2.22&amp;srpos=17&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22-------0-----">Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties</a>,” <em>Colorado Daily Chieftain</em>, February 15, 1877.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terry Ryan, “<a href="https://www.montananaturalist.org/blog-post/sagebrush-icon-of-the-west/">Sagebrush: Icon of the West</a>,” Montana Natural History Center, December 13, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CRE19151110-01.2.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA--------0-----">Sage Brush Plow Is Proving Successful</a>,” <em>Craig Empire</em>, November 10, 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hall Sawyer et al., “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.13711">Mule Deer and Energy Development—Long-Term Trends of Habitation and Abundance</a>,” <em>Global Change Biology </em>23, no. 11, April 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeremy Wade Shockley, “<a href="https://www.sudrum.com/news/2013/05/16/fencing-project-breathes-new-life-into-tribal-rangelands/">Fencing Project Breathes New Life Into Tribal Rangelands</a>,” <em>Southern Ute Drum</em>, May 16, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CFT18720726.2.52&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22-------0-----">There Will Be a Match Game of Baseball …</a>” <em>Colorado Daily Chieftain</em>, July 26, 1872.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SPH19071213-01.2.40&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22-------0-----">The Vanishing Sagebrush</a>,” <em>Springfield </em>(CO)<em> Herald</em>, via the <em>Denver Republican</em>, December 13, 1907.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_artr2.pdf">Big Sagebrush</a>,” Plant Guide, Natural Resources Conservation Service, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Fish and Wildlife Service, “<a href="https://www.fws.gov/sagebrush/index.html#:~:text=The%20sagebrush%20ecosystem%20is%20the%20largest%20interconnected%20habitat%20type%20in%20America.&amp;text=The%20spread%20of%20non%2Dnative,Learn%20more%20about%20the%20threats.">The Sagebrush Ecosystem</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Fish and Wildlife Service, “<a href="https://www.fws.gov/sagebrush/threats-to-wildlife/development/index.html">The Sagebrush Ecosystem: Development</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=GRD19180724-01.2.37&amp;srpos=2&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22+%22civilization%22-------0-----">What Boston Thinks of Sagebrush</a>,” <em>Great Divide</em>, July 24, 1918.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ron Yellowbird, “<a href="https://www.sudrum.com/culture/2019/04/26/i-am-water-part-1-of-2/">I Am Water, Part 1 of 2</a>,” <em>Southern Ute Drum</em>, April 26, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=MCC19110601-01.2.7&amp;srpos=65&amp;e=-------en-20--61-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22sagebrush%22+%22craig%22-------0-----">Dry Farmers Active</a>,” <em>Moffat County Courier</em>, June 1, 1911.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sage Grouse Initiative, “<a href="https://www.wlfw.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/SGI_Sagebrush_PocketGuide_Nov12.pdf">Pocket Guide to Sagebrush</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=GRD19180814-01.2.76&amp;srpos=25&amp;e=-------en-20--21--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-sage+brush+plow-------0-----">The Song of the Sagebrush</a>,” <em>Great Divide</em>, August 14, 1918.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/Links/SageID.pdf">Sagebrush Identification Guide</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Utah State University, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/sagestep_reports/">Sagebrush Steppe Treatment Evaluation Project: Reports</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Feb 2021 22:37:22 +0000 yongli 3527 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cottonwood Trees http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cottonwood Trees</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3517--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3517.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plains-cottonwood"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Populus_deltoides_monilifera_USDA_0.jpg?itok=eoUdN_BP" width="1090" height="656" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plains-cottonwood" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden"> Plains Cottonwood</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides monolifera), seen here along the <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southern Colorado, is among the most important tree species in Colorado. Historically, it provided food, shelter, timber, medicine, and forage for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and American immigrants alike. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-29T17:18:28-07:00" title="Friday, January 29, 2021 - 17:18" class="datetime">Fri, 01/29/2021 - 17:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees" data-a2a-title="Cottonwood Trees"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcottonwood-trees&amp;title=Cottonwood%20Trees"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>One of the most ecologically and culturally significant trees in Colorado, the plains cottonwood (<em>Populus deltoides monilifera</em>) thrives near rivers and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian</strong></a> areas throughout the state. It is one of the only tree species to grow on Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, which made it an important source of forage, fuel, timber, and medicine for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and white immigrants. The cottonwood gets its name from the millions of cotton-like seeds that female trees release each spring.</p> <h2>Description</h2> <p>Cottonwoods are tall, deciduous trees commonly found along riverbanks and other high-moisture areas, with broad leaves and dark gray bark. They thrive at altitudes of 3,500 to 6,500 feet and reach a maximum height of around 190 feet.</p> <p>Seeding and sprouting are the cottonwood’s two major avenues of reproduction. Cottonwoods are dioecious, meaning individual trees are either male or female. Females grow necklace-like strings of seedpods that release millions of white, cottony seeds into the air, typically in June. Males grow purple flowers. Like their mountain-dwelling cousins the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-trees"><strong>aspen</strong></a>, cottonwoods are members of the poplar family, but unlike the aspen, cottonwoods do not produce clone trees from a single root system. However, like other poplars, cottonwoods will readily resprout if broken or cut down—a trait that has coevolved with breaking and browsing animals such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, and <strong>horses</strong>.</p> <p>Cottonwoods live just over 100 years—a fairly short lifespan for a tree. Sometimes large branches and the inner core of the tree will die before the rest of it, contributing to its common half-dead appearance. Cottonwoods in this condition represent a hazard, as branches can break and fall at any moment.</p> <h2>Ecology</h2> <p>As the vertical sentinels of the largely horizontal plains, cottonwoods provide habitat and food for many animals, from bison to birds, squirrels, and ponies. Eagles, blue jays, magpies, and woodpeckers are among the avian species that find respite in the cottonwood’s branches. Beaver stimulate cottonwood growth by gnawing down trunks, and bison, horses, and ponies eat the tree’s bark. Smaller trees, including willow and box elder, and shrubs thrive in the shade produced by the cottonwood.</p> <h2>Indigenous Culture</h2> <p>Indigenous people who lived on the plains and in the southwest part of the state—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, and <strong>Navajo</strong>—revered the cottonwood as a source of medicine and for its many practical uses, especially forage and food for horses. Sun Dance artifacts were carved from cottonwood. Perhaps the most famous grove of cottonwoods in the state was the Big Timbers, a thick stand along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southeast Colorado. In the early 1800s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho fought the Comanche and Kiowa for control of the sacred grove, with all four nations brokering a peace in 1840. Meanwhile, an old, thick cottonwood along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a> near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> served as a Council Tree, a meeting spot for a local band of Arapaho led by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday"><strong>Teenokuhu</strong> <strong>(Friday)</strong></a>.</p> <p>In one Arapaho story, a girl named Sapana climbs a tall cottonwood into the sky itself, where she is then put to work skinning bison hides by an old man who takes the form of a porcupine. The girl is helped back to earth by a buzzard and a hawk. In return for their help, the Arapaho always left at least one bison carcass for the buzzards and hawks after their hunts.</p> <h2>Hispano Culture</h2> <p>Cottonwood trees were also a prominent part of early Hispano culture. In southern Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hispano-settlement-purgatoire-valley"><strong>Purgatoire</strong></a> valley, members of the Catholic Penitente Brotherhood carved <em>santos</em>, or holy images, into cottonwood roots and trunks. In the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, where permanent Hispano settlements began in the 1850s, cottonwood beams supported adobe buildings, including the many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/iglesia"><strong><em>iglesias</em> and <em>capillas</em></strong></a>—churches and chapels—established across the valley. The town and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>county</strong></a> of <strong>Alamosa</strong> were named after the Spanish word for cottonwood grove.</p> <h2>American Culture</h2> <p>In 1807 American explorer <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> built his <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>stockade</strong></a> in the San Luis Valley out of cottonwood logs. Other whites quickly realized the importance of cottonwoods when they began crossing the plains to Colorado during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Gold Rush of 1858–59</strong></a>. In addition to being the only fuel aside from bison droppings, cottonwoods provided shelter and food for draft animals and acted as guideposts for immigrant parties who needed to stick to the river paths, lest they become lost in the monotonous landscape of the plains. When immigrants reached the area of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, they found building materials scarce; as such, the first house in what became Denver City, on today’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer Street</strong></a>, was built of “round cottonwood logs” and “roofed with earth.”</p> <p>One of the first editions of the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>, printed on May 14, 1859, reflects white immigrants’ views of the cottonwood as part of the strikingly beautiful scenery of springtime along the eastern slope of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>:</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">The prairies are putting on their robes of green and the bright verdure of the cottonwood and alder contrasts beautifully with the dark sombre [<em>sic</em>] hue of the evergreen forests.</p> <p>White immigrants’ consumption of cottonwood groves only increased as more Americans traveled west over the ensuing decades. The depletion of this important resource, as well as the simultaneous and related decline of the bison, contributed to starving conditions among many Indigenous bands in the mid- to late nineteenth century.</p> <h2>Threats</h2> <p>Since they are water-loving trees, cottonwoods are especially susceptible to drought. Millions died during the 1930s drought that contributed to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a>, and many more could be lost in the twenty-first century as a warming <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> increases drought frequency and length. In addition, dams built since the beginning of the twentieth century have lowered flow rates in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>, Arkansas, and other rivers, leading to a decline in cottonwood reproduction.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood" hreflang="en">cottonwood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwoods" hreflang="en">cottonwoods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood-trees" hreflang="en">cottonwood trees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa" hreflang="en">alamosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa-county" hreflang="en">alamosa county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano" hreflang="en">hispano</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/iglesia" hreflang="en">iglesia</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capilla" hreflang="en">capilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/zebulon-pike" hreflang="en">zebulon pike</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/riparian" hreflang="en">riparian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rivers" hreflang="en">rivers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beaver" hreflang="en">beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horses" hreflang="en">horses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/council-tree" hreflang="en">council tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-friday" hreflang="en">chief friday</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Michael Burman and Larry Larson, “<a href="https://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pub/em-8800-cottonwood-establishment-survival-stand-characteristics">Cottonwood: Establishment, Survival and Stand Characteristics</a>,” Oregon State University Extension, March 2002.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-trees/colorados-major-tree-species/#1466529004857-b98c0fa7-79c5">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Colorado State University, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18600215.2.18&amp;srpos=11&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">First House</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, February 15, 1860.</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p> <p>Indigenouspeople.net, “<a href="http://www.indigenouspeople.net/heron.htm">The Girl Who Climbed to the Sky</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18590514.2.51&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">Local Items</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, May 14, 1859.</p> <p>Native Languages, “<a href="http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cottonwood.htm#:~:text=The%20cottonwood%20tree%20was%20sacred,cottonwood%20boughs%20in%20funeral%20rituals.">Native American Cottonwood Tree Mythology</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Joe H. Offer, “<a href="https://wou.edu/geography/files/2015/05/Offer2014CapstoneFinal.pdf">Relating Upriver Dam Creation to the Regeneration of Cottonwoods (<em>Populus deltoids </em>Subsp. <em>monilifera</em>) Within the Upper Missouri River Breaks National Monument</a>,” Capstone, Western Oregon University, 2014.</p> <p>S. K. Wier, “<a href="http://www.westernexplorers.us/PlainsCottonwood.pdf">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Western Explorers, 2014.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-forests/">Colorado Forests</a>,” Colorado State University.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2015/06/Cottonwood_Management_QuickGuide_26June2015.pdf">Cottonwood Management</a>,” Colorado State University, 2015.</p> <p>George L. Trager, “<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/463823?journalCode=ijal">’Cottonwood Tree,’ A South-Western Linguistic Trait</a>,” <em>International Journal of American Linguistics</em> 9, no. 2, 1938.</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Eastern Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Western Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sat, 30 Jan 2021 00:18:28 +0000 yongli 3515 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Conifers http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conifers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3510--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3510.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lodgepole-and-spruce-forest-sprague-lake"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Picea_engelmannii_Pinus_contorta_Sprague_Lake_0_0.jpg?itok=LhKMAunR" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lodgepole-and-spruce-forest-sprague-lake" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden"> Lodgepole and Spruce Forest, Sprague Lake</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado's high alpine forests are dominated by the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta, far left, left-center, and far right) and the Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii, bottom center, bright brown cones). Brown and grey beetle-killed trees stand in the background as a reminder of both species' vulnerability to bark beetle infestations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3513--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3513.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lodgepole-pine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/lodgepole_0_0.jpg?itok=ndavvkzM" width="1090" height="1453" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lodgepole-pine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lodgepole Pine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Lodgepole pine are among the most famous evergreens in Colorado. They are easily recognizable by their straight, narrow trunks, and are a fire-dependent species: their pine cones only open when burned.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3514--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3514.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ponderosa-pine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/USFS_ponderosa_0_0.jpg?itok=s3zoLK_u" width="1090" height="1641" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ponderosa-pine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ponderosa Pine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Ponderosa Pine is a large pine tree growing up to 160 feet tall. Its thick trunk and bark make it especially fire-hardy, and its broad, full branches provide excellent shade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-28T12:18:20-07:00" title="Thursday, January 28, 2021 - 12:18" class="datetime">Thu, 01/28/2021 - 12:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers" data-a2a-title="Conifers"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconifers&amp;title=Conifers"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From the tall, straight lodgepole pines in the high <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rockies</strong></a> to the short, gnarled piñons that guard the state’s canyons and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>grasslands</strong></a>, coniferous trees dominate Colorado’s natural environments and hold together important ecosystems. Commonly referred to as pines or evergreens, coniferous trees are defined by needly leaves, seed-bearing cones, and thick, resinous sap that oozes from their trunks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first glance, many of Colorado’s conifers look similar, but the state’s most common needle-bearers represent several distinct species. These include the lodgepole pine (<em>Pinus contorta</em>), the ponderosa pine (<em>Pinus ponderosa</em>), the piñon pine (<em>Pinus edulis</em>), the limber pine (<em>Pinus flexilis</em>), several types of juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>), the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca</em>), the Engelmann spruce (<em>Picea engelmannii</em>), and the Colorado blue spruce (<em>Picea pungens</em>), the <strong>official state tree</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While all of these trees play important roles in their respective ecosystems, many face a range of natural and human threats today. These include bark beetle infestations, warming temperatures and droughts, fire suppression, and fire itself.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Lodgepole Pine   </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepole pines (<em>Pinus contorta</em>) are easily recognizable by their straight, relatively narrow trunks, which can reach upward of ninety feet. The name for these trees dates to 1859, the year of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, and probably refers to their use by Indigenous people. They live at higher elevations, generally between 6,000 and 11,000 feet, making them part of central Colorado’s breathtaking mountain scenery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepoles have coevolved with human-caused <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a><strong>s</strong>, relying on blazes to open their cones after they drop to the ground. The two-inch cones can remain on the ground for many years waiting for fire; if the seedlings manage to sprout under an existing lodgepole canopy, they usually die, replaced by more shade-tolerant conifers such as spruces or Douglas-fir.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lodgepoles are often presented as the poster trees for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-pine-beetle"><strong>mountain pine beetle</strong></a> epidemic that swept through Colorado’s pine forests in the 2000s. The trees have natural defenses against the beetle called terpenes, but lodgepole forests that are stressed from drought or pollution are less able to defend themselves and are highly susceptible to pine beetle infestations. The most recent outbreak in Colorado affected some 3.3. million acres of lodgepole and other pines.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ponderosa Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Ponderosa pines (<em>Pinus ponderosa</em>) are distinguished by their wide, light-brown trunks and long, soft needle clusters. The name <em>ponderosa</em> comes from early nineteenth-century Scottish naturalist David Douglas, who described the trees as being of “ponderous” (large) size. They are one of the taller pine trees in the state, growing to a maximum height of about 160 feet. Ponderosas are common throughout the state, as they can thrive at any altitude but prefer elevations between 6,300 and 9,500 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ponderosas are experts at wringing nutrients from dry, diminished soils, which is why they are often found in open areas where few other pine species grow. Thick bark and trunks, as well as moisture-laden needle clusters, make them resistant to all but the hottest fires. The ponderosa’s fire hardiness and shade-producing size make the tree a favorite choice for neighborhood landscaping and recreational areas such as picnic spots and campgrounds.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Piñon Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Piñon pines (<em>Pinus edulis</em>) are denizens of the state’s dry, rocky hills, southern prairies, and canyonlands, often alongside one-seed juniper. Shorter than the lodgepole and ponderosa, piñons typically do not exceed fifty feet in height. They have reddish-brown trunks with gnarled limbs that carry short needles and yellow-brown cones that each produce about twenty edible seeds. Their name is the Spanish word for these seeds, also known as piñon nuts or “pine kernels.” In the nineteenth century, piñon nuts were a staple of Indigenous and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> diets; today they are picked and sold throughout the American Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Piñon pines are extremely susceptible to fire on account of their thin bark, dead lower limbs, and oily needle clusters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Limber Pine</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The limber pine (<em>Pinus flexilis</em>) gets its name from its flexible branches and is common across elevations of 5,000 to 12,000 feet. Seldom reaching more than fifty feet tall, limber pines have yellow-brown cones and short, blue-green needles. Their flexibility allows them to cling to rocky outcroppings and windy areas where other trees have difficulty growing; as a result, limber pines often appear in unique, twisted shapes. Like the ponderosa, limber pines thrive in nutrient-deficient soils but are not as fire hardy; mature trees can survive a blaze, but only if it is not especially hot.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Junipers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado is home to three types of junipers: Rocky Mountain juniper (<em>Juniperus scopulorum</em>), one-seed juniper (<em>Juniperus monosperma</em>), and Utah juniper (<em>Juniperus osteosperma</em>). Junipers can be distinguished from other conifers by their short height; reddish-brown bark; overlapping short, triangular needles; and small blue or brown berries. All juniper berries carry seeds that need to pass through the digestive tracts of birds or other animals in order to germinate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Rocky Mountain juniper is common in wet environments at or above 5,000 feet and grows between twenty and fifty feet high. In <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, <strong>Garden of the Gods</strong> offers plenty of Rocky Mountain juniper. The one-seed juniper prefers a lower elevation and drier, rocky areas. It is most often found alongside piñon pine in the southern and southwest parts of Colorado. One-seed junipers rarely exceed fifteen feet in height and have thick trunks that can measure up to three feet wide. Finally, the round-topped Utah juniper is found across Colorado’s dry <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>, from the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-canyon-gunnison"><strong>Black Canyon</strong></a> to the Utah border. It prefers rocky or sandy environments between 5,000 and 9,500 feet of elevation and grows between ten and twenty feet tall. The Utah juniper has the largest berries of the three Colorado species, up to three-quarters of an inch in diameter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All three juniper species are extremely susceptible to fire, owing to their thin, lacy needles and flammable oils.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rocky Mountain Douglas-Fir</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Distinct from its relative on the West Coast, the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca</em>) is common in the nation’s interior alpine regions. The common name for both species comes from David Douglas, the Scottish botanist who described them in the nineteenth century; however, the scientific name, <em>menziesii</em>, comes from another Scottish botanist, Archibald Menzies. The common name is hyphenated because Douglas-firs are technically different from firs and spruces, but they share so many similar characteristics that botanists have squabbled over their categorization.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s Douglas-firs are generally found at altitudes of 5,500 to 11,500 feet, often intermixed with Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine. They can grow upward of 100 feet tall with thick trunks (up to thirty inches) and have a very recognizable, Christmas tree–type shape. Douglas-fir needles are blue-green, short, and stiff, and they grow in three-pronged bracts around pinecones measuring two to three inches. Mature Douglas-firs are extremely fire resistant, owing to their thick bark.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Engelmann Spruce</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Engelmann spruces (<em>Picea engelmannii</em>) are distinguishable from lodgepoles and other tall pines by their wing-like upper branches and short, stiff needle sets. They grow between 45 and 130 feet tall and are generally found alongside Douglas-firs or lodgepoles at elevations ranging from 8,000 to 11,000 feet. Engelmann spruces are named for American botanist George Engelmann, who offered his first description of the trees in 1884. Their thin bark and shallow roots make them highly susceptible to fire. In the 2010s, more than 350,000 acres of Engelmann spruce forests across the state were affected by an outbreak of the <strong>spruce beetle</strong> (not to be confused with the mountain pine beetle).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Blue Spruce</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Colorado blue spruce (<em>Picea pungens</em>) is the official state tree, designated as such on account of its full, pyramid shape, which makes it a popular Christmas tree. The tree is named for its blue-green needles, which are short and pointy. It is among the tallest conifers, growing between 70 and 150 feet tall and is generally found at altitudes ranging from 6,700 to 11,500 feet. The blue spruce is distinguishable from the Engelmann spruce by its needle color and fullness. Like the Engelmann, its thin bark and shallow roots make it especially vulnerable to fires, and it is also susceptible to spruce beetle outbreaks.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Culture and Management</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the years, various groups of Coloradans have viewed, lived with, and managed pine forests differently. In addition to their historic use in construction, many of Colorado’s conifers hold medicinal, dietary, and spiritual <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-grove"><strong>importance</strong></a> to the Ute people—the earlier denizens of the state’s Rocky Mountains—as well as the <strong>Apache</strong> and <strong>Navajo</strong>, who lived in the southern plains and southwest canyonlands. Indigenous people intentionally set fires to hunt or renew forests, understanding the link between fires and biodiversity long before it was articulated in Western science.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush, Americans cleared entire hillsides of conifers to build mines, sluices, mills, and towns. Largely because of the mining industry, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> saw extensive deforestation into the early twentieth century. While the timber industry did not become as big as it did on the West Coast, Colorado did see the development of a small timber industry, with eighty-four sawmills in the state by 1982. The lodgepole lumber industry peaked in the 1970s. By 2009 the state had around 100 timber-manufacturing businesses, about a 30 percent drop from 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> began managing Colorado’s coniferous forests in the early 1900s, fire transitioned from natural, human-managed process to public enemy because it threatened public and private property, including timber stands. Smokey Bear symbolized the agency’s commitment to stopping fires, which could burn vast reserves of “valuable timber.” Over the years, conservationists and experts in many fields, from <strong>Aldo Leopold</strong> to Stephen Pyne, argued for fire’s role in maintaining healthy ecosystems. US Forest Service policy has since changed to allow more natural burns; however, fire’s threats to property and industry continue to drive forest policy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fire suppression had a profound effect on Colorado’s coniferous forests. Fire-dependent species such as lodgepole declined, while ponderosa and other fire-hardy species proliferated; as fire-dependent trees declined, overall biodiversity decreased because animals that depended on those trees left. As lofty canopies coalesced across the state, shade-tolerant species such as Douglas-fir, as well as a variety of shorter trees and shrubs, proliferated. The removal of fire also disrupted the nutrient cycle of forests, which benefited species like the efficient ponderosa but reduced overall biodiversity and forest health.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Colorado’s coniferous forests face a range of threats, many of which are human derived. The largest threat is climate change, brought on by hundreds of years of fossil-fuel burning. As Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> warms, moisture becomes scarcer, trees become stressed, outbreaks of pests such as bark beetles become more frequent, and fires become larger and more common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, more than a century of fire suppression in Colorado’s forests has led to buildups of stands that under current warming conditions threaten to erupt into massive conflagrations. This was evident in the 2020 fire season, when beetle-killed pines fueled both the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cameron-peak-fire"><strong>Cameron Peak</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/east-troublesome-fire"><strong>East Troublesome</strong></a> Fires, the two largest in state history. Scientists are now finding that some of Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range">Front Range</a> forests have burned so severely that conifers may not entirely return to those areas as they transition to a savanna-type ecosystem.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conifers" hreflang="en">conifers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-conifers" hreflang="en">colorado conifers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/blue-spruce" hreflang="en">blue spruce</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/engelmann-spruce" hreflang="en">engelmann spruce</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lodgepole-pine" hreflang="en">lodgepole pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pinon-pine" hreflang="en">pinon pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pinon-nuts" hreflang="en">pinon nuts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/culturally-modified-trees" hreflang="en">culturally modified trees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/limber-pine" hreflang="en">limber pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ponderosa-pine" hreflang="en">ponderosa pine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/douglas-fir" hreflang="en">douglas fir</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/forests" hreflang="en">forests</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/forestry" hreflang="en">forestry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Julie Christensen, “<a href="https://www.weekand.com/home-garden/article/juniper-bushes-fire-dangers-18014304.php">Juniper Bushes and Fire Dangers</a>,” <em>SF Gate</em>, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-trees/colorados-major-tree-species/#1466529071538-b3b221f3-39de">Colorado’s Major Tree Species</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2017/02/CSU_304464_ForestReport-2016-www.pdf">2016 Report on the Health of Colorado’s Forests</a>,” Colorado State University, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State University, “<a href="https://static.colostate.edu/client-files/csfs/pdfs/SFRA09_App-F-Forest-Industry-Profile.pdf">Appendix F—Colorado Statewide Forest Resource Assessment</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/nature/conifers.htm">Conifers</a>,” Rocky Mountain National Park, National Park Service, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Engelmann%20spruce">Engelmann spruce</a>,” Merriam-Webster, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sharon Hood et al., “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/pdfs/other/FireResistRegen.pdf">Fire Resistance and Regeneration Characteristics of Northern Rockies Tree Species</a>,” US Forest Service, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert E. Keane et al., “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/highelevationwhitepines/Threats/pdf/fire_exclusion.pdf">Cascading Effects of Fire Exclusion in Rocky Mountain Ecosystems: A Literature Review</a>,” US Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, May 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Kershner, “<a href="https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2005/nov/06/legend-ponderosa/#:~:text=Here's%20your%20ponderosa%20primer%3A%20A,because%20of%20its%20sheer%20bulk.">The Legend of the Ponderosa</a>,” <em>Spokesman Review </em>(Spokane, WA), November 6, 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lodgepole%20pine">Lodgepole pine</a>,” Merriam-Webster, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David P. Lowery, “<a href="https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/usda/amwood/253lodge.pdf">Lodgepole Pine: An American Wood</a>,” US Forest Service, updated 1984.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kyle C. Rodman, et al., “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.13174">A Changing Climate Is Snuffing Out Post-fire Recovery in Montane Forests</a>,” <em>Global Ecology and Biogeography</em> 29, no. 9 (September 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r2/forest-grasslandhealth/?cid=stelprdb5348787#:~:text=For%20all%20pine%20species%20(lodgepole,389%2C000%20acres%20in%20South%20Dakota.">Aerial Detection Survey: 2011 Results</a> [bark beetle infestations],” Rocky Mountain Region, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>S.K. Wier, “<a href="http://www.westernexplorers.us/ColoradoJunipers.pdf">Junipers of Colorado</a>,” Western Explorers, 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-forests/forest-types/pinon-juniper-woodlands/">Piñon-Juniper Woodlands</a>,” Colorado State University.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Kodas, <em>Megafire: The Race to Extinguish a Deadly Epidemic of Flame </em>(New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Pyne, <em>Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire</em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Eastern Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Western Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Jan 2021 19:18:20 +0000 yongli 3508 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Land Use and Bird Life in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/land-use-and-bird-life-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Land Use and Bird Life in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:17:40-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:17" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:17</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/land-use-and-bird-life-colorado" data-a2a-title="Land Use and Bird Life in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fland-use-and-bird-life-colorado&amp;title=Land%20Use%20and%20Bird%20Life%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the early to mid-1800s, when Europeans and Euro-Americans began arriving in what is now Colorado, they encountered a landscape that was significantly different from what we see today. The changes that have occurred to the landscape since then have had significant impacts on the state’s natural history. In a well-known example, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>, removal of Indigenous people, hunting, and mass conversion of prairie to farmland resulted in the near-extinction of the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. The effects of changes in land use on bird populations are less familiar, but they are easy to observe and provide a great way to appreciate the avian fauna of our state as well as how humans are seamlessly connected to our living world.</p> <p>This article is focused on land use and bird life in <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> on Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. However, many of the same kinds of human-avian relationships can be observed elsewhere in the state, even if they play out in slightly different ways.</p> <h2>More Trees, Different Birds</h2> <p>Perhaps the most noticeable difference in the natural history of Boulder County over the past 150 years is the vast increase in trees on the plains and in some foothill areas. A pair of photographs in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silvia-pettem"><strong>Silvia Pettem</strong></a>’s book <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City</em> shows Mapleton Avenue in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> during the 1890s, when silver maple saplings were first planted, juxtaposed with a view of the same area in the 1990s, illustrating how the presence of trees has created an entirely new habitat for birds over the past 100 years. Meanwhile, in the foothills and mountains west of Boulder, many areas were heavily logged in the mid-1800s and have slowly grown back. Thomas Veblen and Diane Lorenz show this change in paired photographs from the nineteenth and late twentieth centuries in their book <em>The Colorado Front Range: A Century of Ecological Change</em>. Because the logged trees were native species that eventually grew back, this change did not affect bird populations as much as introducing many new trees to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>.</p> <p>Before the arrival of European Americans, the only trees on the plains were riparian—species associated with stream channels. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>Plains Cottonwoods</strong></a>, Peachleaf Willows, and a few other native species provided limited habitat for tree-dwelling and tree-nesting birds. Many of these birds, such as the yellow warbler and Bullock’s oriole, are still present today. But as the new immigrants planted trees in Boulder County and other towns and cities across Colorado, many Eastern woodland birds slowly extended their ranges into Colorado; examples include the blue jay, blue-gray gnatcatcher, northern flicker, bushtit, black-capped chickadee, and northern mockingbird. Even the northern cardinal and eastern phoebe have recently been sighted regularly in Boulder County and other parts of eastern Colorado. The spread of forest and urban habitats has also brought more common nonnative species, such as the European starling, the house sparrow, and, more recently, the Eurasian collared dove.</p> <p>The creation of urban forest habitats has also resulted in increased populations of red-tailed hawks and great horned owls owing to increased nesting and perching sites, and of Cooper’s hawks and sharp-shinned Hawks, which nest in trees and prey on woodland birds.</p> <p>As trees—along with urban development and agriculture—have displaced native prairie habitats, there has been a predictable decrease in bird species adapted to prairie life. Some, such as the plains sharp-tailed grouse, are long gone from Boulder County, while others—such as grasshopper, savannah, and fox sparrows—have become less common as their habitat or food sources declined. Lark buntings, horned larks, and species of longspurs are much less numerous now because of reduced prairie habitat. According to the bird-conservation group Partners in Flight<em>, </em>there has been an 86 percent decline in the population of Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-bird"><strong>state bird</strong></a>, the lark bunting, since 1970. The North American Breeding Bird Survey shows that populations of mountain plover also declined by 80 percent between 1966 and 2014.</p> <h2>More Ponds and Lakes, Different Birds</h2> <p>Perhaps even more striking than the effect of trees on bird populations on the Colorado Front Range is that of the large number of ponds and reservoirs built over the past 100 years. Before the arrival and settlement of Europeans and Euro-Americans in the mid- to late 1800s, there were no naturally occurring lakes or ponds on the plains of Colorado, other than the occasional widenings of streams and rivers. The landscape from a bird’s-eye view was one of arid grasslands and long, narrow, streamside habitats. Just as these riparian habitats provided trees for limited populations of woodland birds, the quiet, pondlike sections of rivers and streams supported limited populations of water birds. That all changed in the late nineteenth century.</p> <p>Boulder’s first reservoir was built in 1876. Starting at about the same time, ponds and larger reservoirs began to be built in earnest all over the Colorado plains. A satellite view today reveals hundreds of reservoirs and ponds all over the Front Range and eastern plains of Colorado, especially near towns and cities. These features have provided huge new habitats for many birds that previously were either not present or present in very small numbers. The vast proliferation of human-made ponds and reservoirs has resulted in the long-term and common presence of double-crested cormorants, common and red-breasted Mergansers, ospreys, bald eagles, various species of grebes and shorebirds, and virtually all species of diving ducks on the plains of Colorado.</p> <p>The American white pelican is a visible and fitting example of a bird whose presence in Colorado has been vastly changed by the presence of human-made reservoirs. Although white pelicans had always migrated through Colorado, which lies between their southern wintering areas and natural prairie lakes in Canada and the northern United States, their long-term presence in Colorado is almost entirely due to reservoirs. On the Colorado Birding Trail website, for example, all locations for white pelicans (including new, breeding populations) are reservoirs.<br /> <br /> Sometimes these pelicans have helped solve other human-made problems in Colorado’s reservoirs. For example, in the early 2010s, one Boulder County reservoir, the twelve-acre Teller Lake No. 5, became infested with thousands of nonnative goldfish. State wildlife biologists considered various solutions, including draining the lake or shocking it and removing the stunned goldfish. But in spring 2015, white pelicans descended on Teller Lake No. 5 and ate virtually all the goldfish, presenting state biologists with a hassle-free solution.</p> <h2>Other Land-Use Changes</h2> <p>Smaller-scale, more subtle human land-use patterns have also had an effect on Colorado bird populations. According to Steve Jones, Boulder County naturalist and author of <em>A Field Guide to the North American Prairie</em>, when ranching on semiurban grasslands is replaced by industrial use or land speculation for development, there is a short-term burst in prairie dog numbers because there are fewer incentives for landowners to poison them. Jones believes that in the 1980s this rise in prairie dog population fueled an influx of wintering ferruginous hawks into Boulder County. Jones also notes that the removal of cattle from mountain meadows, foothill shrublands, and plains riparian areas during the past fifty years has contributed to the proliferation of birds such as yellow-breasted chats, gray catbirds, ovenbirds, and more.</p> <p>Finally, although climate change is a result of worldwide land-use changes, its impact in Colorado should not be neglected. Warming average temperatures may already be affecting Colorado bird populations. Many migratory species are arriving earlier in the spring and nesting at higher elevations. Habitat for species that nest above the tree line is shrinking, contributing to a population decrease among brown-capped rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan. Over the next several decades, further drying of Colorado’s grasslands, shrublands, and foothills forests may cause the composition of our nesting bird populations to resemble that of present-day New Mexico.</p> <h2>Beyond Boulder County</h2> <p>Importantly, the human-bird relationships observed in Boulder County can also be observed in different parts of the state in different ways. For instance, populations of greater <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sage-grouse"><strong>sage grouse</strong></a> in western Colorado have been negatively affected by the replacement of <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> grasslands by agriculture and oil and gas activity, as well as by more frequent fires resulting from the introduction of nonnative, weedy plants such as cheatgrass. In addition, the creation and fish stocking of large reservoirs on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>, such as <strong>Blue Mesa Reservoir</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison County</strong></a>, have attracted many of the same species that are now more common in Boulder County, such as herons and pelicans. Essentially, wherever humans have made drastic changes to the land and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> in Colorado, drastic changes in the bird populations have followed, a consistent reminder of our inescapable place within the natural world.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/ogle-martin" hreflang="und">Ogle, Martin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-birds" hreflang="en">colorado birds</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildlife" hreflang="en">wildlife</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildlife-management" hreflang="en">wildlife management</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/reservoirs" hreflang="en">reservoirs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pelican" hreflang="en">pelican</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/birds" hreflang="en">birds</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Charlie Brennan, “<a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2015/04/28/hungry-pelicans-credited-with-gobbling-thousands-of-goldfish-infesting-boulder-lake/">Hungry Pelicans Credited with Gobbling Thousands of Goldfish Infesting Boulder Lake</a>,” <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, April 28, 2015.</p> <p>Colorado Birding Trail, “<a href="https://coloradobirdingtrail.com/american-white-pelican/">American White Pelican</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Partners in Flight, “<a href="https://pif.birdconservancy.org/ACAD/Database.aspx">Avian Conservation Assessment Database</a>,” 2017.</p> <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City </em>(Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p> <p>US Fish and Wildlife Service, “<a href="https://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/factsheets/Sage-steppe_022814.pdf">The Sage-Steppe Ecosystem</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, “<a href="https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/">North American Breeding Bird Survey</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Thomas T. Veblen and Diane C. Lorenz,<em> The Colorado Front Range: A Century of Ecological Change</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Efthymia Giosa, Christos Mammides, and Savvas Zotos, “<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197286">The Importance of Artificial Wetlands for Birds: A Case Study From Cyprus</a>,” <em>PLOS One</em>, May 10, 2018.</p> <p>Natalie Triedman, “<a href="https://www.coloradocollege.edu/dotAsset/cbb78858-d078-4a7c-ba80-2040569abbdd.pdf">Environment and Ecology of the Colorado River Basin</a>,” 2012 Colorado College State of the Rockies Report Card.<br /> &nbsp;</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>In the 1800s, settlers came to Colorado. The land looked different. This article is about changes in Boulder County.</p> <h2>More Trees, Different Birds</h2> <p>Before settlers, the only trees on the plains grew near streams. Plains Cottonwoods and Peachleaf Willows were habitat for birds. Then, people started planting trees. The new trees brought Eastern bird species, like the house sparrow, to Colorado.</p> <p>More red-tailed hawks and great horned owls came. The number of Cooper’s hawks and sharp-shinned Hawks, which nest in trees, also grew.</p> <p>However, there are fewer prairie birds. The plains sharp-tailed grouse is gone from Boulder County. Other birds are less common. There has been an 86 percent decrease in Colorado’s state bird, the lark bunting, since 1970. The number of mountain plover fell by 80 percent between 1966 and 2014.</p> <h2>More Ponds and Lakes, Different Birds</h2> <p>There didn't used to be lakes or ponds on the plains of Colorado. Instead, there were grasslands and streams. Settlers changed that.</p> <p>Boulder’s first reservoir was built in 1876. About the same time, more ponds and reservoirs were built across the state. Today, there are hundreds of reservoirs and ponds in Colorado. The reservoirs have created new habitat for birds. They have attracted double-crested cormorants and bald eagles.</p> <p>The American white pelican has changed its behavior because of reservoirs. White pelicans always migrated through Colorado. Now, they stay longer.</p> <p>The pelicans have helped solve human-made problems. In the early 2010s, nonnative goldfish were living in a Boulder County reservoir. Scientists wanted to remove the fish. In spring 2015, white pelicans came and ate them.</p> <h2>Other Land-Use Changes</h2> <p>Other land-uses have impacted birds. Cattle ranches have been replaced by development. This causes a short-term increase in prairie dogs. People have fewer reasons to poison them. More prairie dogs brought wintering ferruginous hawks into Boulder County.</p> <p>Climate change may also be affecting birds. Warmer temperatures mean migratory birds are coming earlier. The birds are also nesting at higher elevations. There is less habitat for birds that nest above the tree line. This means fewer brown-capped rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan.</p> <h2>Beyond Boulder County</h2> <p>Development is causing changes in other parts of Colorado. The Greater sage grouse has been hurt by farming and oil and gas activity. On the Western Slope, large reservoirs like Blue Mesa have brought in herons and pelicans.</p> <p>Wherever humans have made changes, birds have changed too.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>In the 1800s, when settlers began arriving in Colorado, they encountered a different landscape.</p> <p>This article focuses on land use and bird life in Boulder County.</p> <h2>More Trees, Different Birds</h2> <p>Before settlers arrived, the only trees on the plains grew near streams. Plains Cottonwoods, Peachleaf Willows, and a few others provided habitat for birds. As settlers planted trees, many Eastern woodland birds extended their ranges into Colorado. The new habitat brought nonnative species, such as the European starling and the house sparrow.</p> <p>The creation of urban forests has attracted more red-tailed hawks and great horned owls. The number of Cooper’s hawks and sharp-shinned Hawks, which nest in trees, has also increased.</p> <p>As development changed native habitats, there has been a decrease in prairie birds. The plains sharp-tailed grouse is gone from Boulder County. Others—such as grasshopper, savannah, and fox sparrows—have become less common.</p> <p>There has been an 86 percent decrease in Colorado’s state bird, the lark bunting, since 1970. Populations of mountain plover also declined by 80 percent between 1966 and 2014.</p> <p>More Ponds and Lakes, Different Birds</p> <p>Before settlers arrived, there were no naturally occurring lakes or ponds on the plains of Colorado. The landscape was one of grasslands and long, narrow, streamside habitats. That all changed in the late nineteenth century.</p> <p>Boulder’s first reservoir was built in 1876. About the same time, more ponds and reservoirs were built elsewhere in the state. Today, there are hundreds of reservoirs and ponds all over Colorado. The reservoirs have provided new habitats for birds. They have attracted double-crested cormorants, ospreys, and bald eagles.</p> <p>The American white pelican is an example of a bird whose presence has been changed by reservoirs. Although white pelicans always migrated through Colorado, now, they stay longer.</p> <p>The pelicans have helped solve human-made problems. In the early 2010s, a Boulder County reservoir became infested with nonnative goldfish. Biologists considered solutions, but in spring 2015, white pelicans came and ate the goldfish.</p> <h2>Other Land-Use Changes</h2> <p>More subtle land-use patterns have had an effect on bird populations. When ranches are replaced by development, there is a short-term increase in prairie dogs.&nbsp; Landowners have fewer reasons to poison them. More prairie dogs brought wintering ferruginous hawks into Boulder County during the 1980's. Removing cattle also caused an increase in yellow-breasted chats and gray catbirds.</p> <p>The impact of climate change in Colorado must also be considered. Warmer temperatures may be affecting Colorado bird populations. Migratory species are arriving earlier and nesting at higher elevations. Habitat for species that nest above the tree line is shrinking. This means fewer brown-capped rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan.</p> <h2>Beyond Boulder County</h2> <p>The effects of development can also be seen in other parts of the state. Greater sage grouse numbers have been hurt by agriculture and oil and gas activity. Large reservoirs on the Western Slope, such as Blue Mesa Reservoir, have attracted herons and pelicans.</p> <p>Wherever humans have made changes, changes in the bird populations have followed.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>In the early to mid-1800s, when Europeans and Euro-Americans began arriving in what is now Colorado, they encountered a landscape that was very different from what we see today.</p> <p>This article focuses on land use and bird life in Boulder County. However, many of the same kinds of human-avian relationships can be observed elsewhere in the state.</p> <h2>More Trees, Different Birds</h2> <p>Before the arrival of European Americans, the only trees on the plains were riparian species that grow near streams. Plains Cottonwoods, Peachleaf Willows, and a few other native species provided limited habitat for birds. Many of these birds, such as the yellow warbler and Bullock’s oriole, are still present today. As new immigrants planted trees, many Eastern woodland birds extended their ranges into Colorado. The spread of forest and urban habitats has also brought more common nonnative species, such as the European starling, the house sparrow, and the Eurasian collared dove.</p> <p>The creation of urban forest habitats has also resulted in increased populations of red-tailed hawks and great horned owls. The number of Cooper’s hawks and sharp-shinned Hawks, which nest in trees and prey on woodland birds, has also increased.</p> <p>As trees, urban development and agriculture displaced native prairie habitats, there has been a decrease in bird species adapted to prairie life. Some, such as the plains sharp-tailed grouse, are gone from Boulder County. Others—such as grasshopper, savannah, and fox sparrows—have become less common. Lark buntings, horned larks, and species of longspurs are less numerous now because of reduced prairie habitat.</p> <p>According to the bird-conservation group Partners in Flight, there has been an 86 percent decline in the population of Colorado’s state bird, the lark bunting, since 1970. Populations of mountain plover also declined by 80 percent between 1966 and 2014.</p> <h2>More Ponds and Lakes, Different Birds</h2> <p>Before settlers arrived, there were no naturally occurring lakes or ponds on the plains of Colorado. The landscape from a bird’s-eye view was one of grasslands and long, narrow, streamside habitats. The pondlike sections of rivers and streams supported limited populations of water birds. That all changed in the late nineteenth century.</p> <p>Boulder’s first reservoir was built in 1876. About the same time, more ponds and reservoirs were built elsewhere in the state. A satellite view today reveals hundreds of reservoirs and ponds all over Colorado. The reservoirs have provided new habitats for birds. They have attracted double-crested cormorants, common and red-breasted Mergansers, ospreys, and bald eagles.</p> <p>The American white pelican is an example of a bird whose presence in Colorado has been changed by reservoirs. Although white pelicans had always migrated through Colorado, their long-term presence is almost entirely due to reservoirs.</p> <p>These pelicans have helped solve human-made problems. In the early 2010s, one Boulder County reservoir became infested with thousands of nonnative goldfish. Biologists considered various solutions, but in spring 2015, white pelicans descended on the lake and ate the goldfish.</p> <h2>Other Land-Use Changes</h2> <p>More subtle land-use patterns have also had an effect on bird populations. When ranching on semiurban grasslands is replaced by industrial use or development, there is a short-term burst in prairie dog numbers.&nbsp; Landowners have fewer reasons to poison them. This rise in prairie dog population fueled an influx of wintering ferruginous hawks into Boulder County during the 1980's. The removal of cattle from mountain meadows, foothill shrublands, and plains riparian areas during the past fifty years has contributed to the proliferation of birds such as yellow-breasted chats, gray catbirds, ovenbirds, and more.</p> <p>The impact of climate change in Colorado must also be considered. Warming temperatures may already be affecting Colorado bird populations. Many migratory species are arriving earlier in the spring and nesting at higher elevations. Habitat for species that nest above the tree line is shrinking. This is contributing to a decrease in brown-capped rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan.</p> <h2>Beyond Boulder County</h2> <p>The human-bird relationships observed in Boulder County can also be observed in different parts of the state. Populations of greater sage grouse in western Colorado have been negatively impacted by agriculture, oil and gas activity, and fires. The creation and fish stocking of large reservoirs on the Western Slope, such as Blue Mesa Reservoir in Gunnison County, have attracted many of the same species that are now more common in Boulder County, such as herons and pelicans.</p> <p>Wherever humans have made changes to the land and water in Colorado, changes in the bird populations have followed.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:17:40 +0000 yongli 3118 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Moose http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2364--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2364.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/moose"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CSU-GGMoose-1.jpg?itok=P7fwipdz" width="1000" height="563" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/moose" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Moose, the largest members of the deer family, can be found in densely forested areas across Colorado. Here, a male Bull Moose shows freshly exposed antlers.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2365--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2365.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/moose-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CSU-GGMoose-2_0.jpg?itok=G0EamKvh" width="1000" height="563" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/moose-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Two bull moose stand in a field of wildflowers. The animals were introduced to Colorado in 1978; before then, breeding populations did not exist in the state.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2366--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2366.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/moose-calf"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/CSU-GGMoose-3_0.jpg?itok=LiGcIFY_" width="1000" height="563" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/moose-calf" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose Calf</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A moose calf eats wildflowers. Female moose typically give birth to only one calf at a time, although the healthiest females can give birth to twins.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3353--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3353.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/moose-near-walden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Rawah_Wilderness_20200620_1008_0.jpg?itok=VSM6KTj5" width="1090" height="789" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/moose-near-walden" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose Near Walden</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1978, Colorado wildlife managers arranged for the first transplant of 12 moose to Colorado’s North Park region near Walden. Since then the moose population in Colorado has been increasing steadily. More information can be found on <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/LivingwithWildlifeMoose.aspx">Colorado Parks and Wildlife</a> website.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--947--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--947.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/moose-brainard-lake-recreation-area"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Hiking_20150628_0013-copy_0.jpg?itok=VRSjkVa2" width="1090" height="705" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/moose-brainard-lake-recreation-area" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Moose in Brainard Lake Recreation Area</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Moose can often be&nbsp;seen in <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsinternet/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gDfxMDT8MwRydLA1cj72BTJw8jAwjQL8h2VAQAzHJMsQ!!/?ss=110210&amp;amp;navtype=BROWSEBYSUBJECT&amp;amp;cid=FSE_003741&amp;amp;navid=110000000000000&amp;amp;pnavid=null&amp;amp;position=BROWSEBYSUBJECT&amp;amp;recid=28182&amp;amp;ttype=recarea&amp;amp;pname=Arapaho%2520&amp;amp;%2520Roosevelt%2520National%2520Forests%2520Pawnee%2520National%2520Grassland%2520-%2520Brainard%2520Lake%2520Recreation%2520Area">Brainard Lake Recreation Area</a>. In the&nbsp;1970s, there were hardly any moose in Colorado. <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/WildlifeSpecies/Mammals/MooseReintroductionFactSheet.pdf">In 1978, they were reintroduced to Colorado by Colorado Parks and Wildlife.</a> Since then, moose have thrived and expanded to other parts of Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-21T15:32:13-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 21, 2017 - 15:32" class="datetime">Tue, 02/21/2017 - 15:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose" data-a2a-title="Moose"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmoose&amp;title=Moose"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Moose (<em>Alces alces shirasi</em>) are the largest member of the deer family, with individuals reaching weights of between 800 and 900 pounds. The subspecies of moose found in Colorado, as well as throughout the southern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, is the Shiras subspecies. This subspecies is smaller than that of northern latitudes, particularly in regards to antler size. Moose were almost nonexistent in Colorado until they were introduced in the late 1970s. Today, the large ungulates can be found in many densely forested parts of the state, drawing respect and admiration from residents, tourists, and big-game hunters alike.</p><div style="height:1px;overflow:hidden;">The vast expanses of Quebec, where wildlife reigns supreme, are home to the moose (Alces alces shirasi), the largest member of the deer family, whose majestic presence echoes in the dense forests. However, amidst the tranquil beauty of the region's natural landscape, another realm flourishes in the virtual world - Quebec online casinos. When players immerse themselves in the excitement of digital gaming, they are drawn to the lure of chance, pulling them into a realm where luck reigns supreme. Like the elusive moose that crosses the rugged terrain of Quebec, the online casino industry navigates its own ecosystem, adapting to the ever-changing landscape of technology and regulation. Just as the moose asserts its dominance with its formidable figure, <a href="https://onlinecasinoquebec.com">Quebec online casino</a> compete for players' attention with a plethora of offerings ranging from classic table games to innovative slots to cater to a variety of tastes and preferences.</div><h2>History</h2><p>The nativity of moose in Colorado is a subject of debate. There is no evidence to suggest that breeding populations existed in Colorado before deliberate transplantation efforts during the late 1970s and early 1980s. However, early settlers and miners observed and occasionally harvested individual animals. These animals were likely young bulls that had dispersed from established herds in Utah and Wyoming. However, since 1978, several healthy and productive moose herds have been established throughout Colorado. The spatial distribution of moose in the state has steadily grown since then, due to natural dispersal as well as deliberate translocation efforts by <a href="/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a>.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mature individuals of the Shiras subspecies can reach weights between 800–900 pounds. Moose coat color is typically black, although individual animals with lighter colored coats can appear tawny. White-colored guard hairs are often observed at the lower ends of legs. Bull moose are often recognized by their large, palm-shaped antlers. Bull moose shed their antlers every year, typically between the middle of December and the end of January, and new antler growth occurs during spring and through the majority of the summer. Mature cows typically breed for the first time when they are two years old. The healthiest cows are capable of having twins; however, in Colorado, as well as in many other states, Shiras moose more commonly have a single calf.</p><p>Throughout their range, moose are commonly associated with <strong>willow</strong> (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and <strong>aspen</strong> (<em>Populus</em> tremuloides) trees. This characteristic holds true for moose in Colorado, but in different parts of the state moose have also become associated with more non-traditional habitat types, such as mountain shrub communities and <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> (<em>Artemesia</em> spp.), when it occurs near willow and aspen.</p><p>The seasonal migration of moose in Colorado is less defined than that of <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>) or <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a> (<em>Odocoileus hemionus</em>). Whereas seasonal distribution of these other species is largely regulated by <a href="/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a> depth at higher elevations, the moose’s large size enables individual animals to tolerate deeper snow and remain at higher elevations during winter.</p><h2>Interaction with People</h2><p>Moose are a large and easily observed species. Under many circumstances the flight response of moose is less than that of other wild and free-ranging animals. When coupled with the unique and large antler characteristics of bulls, moose are often recognized for their value as a watchable wildlife species. However, the docile nature of moose should not be taken for granted. Moose can quickly become aggressive when stressed by people or dogs; the vast majority of negative interactions with moose in Colorado involve a moose being agitated or harassed by a dog. Additionally, moose cows with calves are known to quickly take defensive action when people are nearby.</p><p>In addition to their visual appeal, moose are also a prized species for hunters. Due to the relatively low density of moose, the restricted range over which they exist, and the large number of hunters applying to hunt moose each year, moose-hunting licenses in Colorado are some of the hardest to acquire in the annual drawing.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/bergman-eric-j" hreflang="und">Bergman, Eric J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moose" hreflang="en">moose</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moose-colorado" hreflang="en">moose in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-moose-colorado" hreflang="en">history of moose in colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>A. C. Duvall and G. S. Schoonveld, “Colorado Moose: Reintroduction and Management,” <em>Alces</em> 24 (1988).</p><p>Albert W. Franzmann and Charles C. Schwartz, eds., <em>Ecology and Management of the North American Moose</em> 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>David M. Armstrong, James P. Fitzgerald, and Carron A. Meaney, <em>Mammals of Colorado</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2010).</p><p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/LivingwithWildlifeMoose.aspx">Moose Country</a>.”</p><p>Colorado Tourism, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/8-places-see-colorado-wildlife-without-leaving-your-car">8 Places to See Colorado Wildlife Without Leaving Your Car</a>,” updated June 1, 2016.</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Moose are the largest member of the deer family. The moose in Colorado is the smaller Shiras subspecies.</p><p>Moose were once hard to find in Colorado. Their numbers increased when moose were introduced in the late 1970s. Today, moose can be found in forested parts of the state.</p><h2>History</h2><p>Early settlers and miners saw and sometimes killed moose. These animals were likely young males that had left herds in Utah and Wyoming.</p><p>Since 1978, healthy and productive moose herds have grown in Colorado.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mature moose can weigh between 800–900 pounds. Their coat color is typically black. Animals with lighter colored coats can appear brown.</p><p>Bull moose are known for their palm-shaped antlers. They shed their antlers every year.&nbsp; The antlers fall off in December and January. New antlers grow during spring and summer.</p><p>Mature cows typically breed for the first time when they are two years old. Healthy cows can have twins. Shiras moose usually only have one calf.</p><p>Moose can be found near willow and aspen trees. They can also live in other areas. Moose have been seen near mountain shrubs and sagebrush that grow near willow and aspen.</p><h2>Interaction with People</h2><p>Moose are a large and easy to see. They can be stressed by people or dogs.&nbsp; Moose cows with calves can become defensive when people are near.</p><p>Moose are a prized species for hunters. Many hunters apply to hunt moose each year. Moose-hunting licenses in Colorado are some of the hardest to get.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Moose are the largest member of the deer family. The moose found in Colorado is the Shiras subspecies. This subspecies is smaller than other moose, especially when it comes to antler size.</p><p>Moose were almost nonexistent in Colorado until they were introduced in the late 1970s. Today, they can be found in many densely forested parts of the state.</p><h2>History</h2><p>The nativity of moose in Colorado is a subject of debate. There is no evidence breeding populations existed before transplantation efforts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Early settlers and miners observed and sometimes killed moose. These were likely young males from established herds in Utah and Wyoming. Since 1978, several healthy and productive moose herds have grown in Colorado.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mature moose of the Shiras subspecies can reach weights between 800–900 pounds. Moose coat color is typically black, although animals with lighter colored coats can appear tawny. White-colored guard hairs are often observed at the lower ends of legs. Bull moose are often recognized by their large, palm-shaped antlers. Bull moose shed their antlers every year.&nbsp; The antlers fall off between December and January. New antlers grow during spring and summer.</p><p>Mature cows typically breed for the first time when they are two years old. Healthy cows can have twins. However, Shiras moose more commonly have a single calf.</p><p>Throughout their range, moose are commonly associated with willow and aspen trees. However, moose have also become associated with more non-traditional habitat types. They can be found in mountain shrub communities and sagebrush when it occurs near willow and aspen.</p><p>The seasonal migration of moose in Colorado is less defined than that of elk or mule deer. Migration of these other species is largely controlled by snow depth at higher elevations. The moose’s large size enables them to tolerate deeper snow and remain at higher elevations during winter.</p><h2>Interaction with People</h2><p>Moose are a large and easily observed species. However, the docile nature of moose should not be taken for granted. Moose can become aggressive when stressed by people or dogs.&nbsp; The majority of negative interactions with moose involve a moose being harassed by a dog. Additionally, moose cows with calves are known to quickly take defensive action when people are nearby.</p><p>Moose are a prized species for hunters. Due to the low density of moose, their restricted range, and the large number of hunters applying to hunt moose each year, moose-hunting licenses in Colorado are some of the hardest to acquire in the annual drawing.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Moose (Alces alces shirasi) are the largest member of the deer family. The moose found in Colorado is the Shiras subspecies. This subspecies is smaller than that of northern latitudes, especially when it comes to antler size. Moose were almost nonexistent in Colorado until they were introduced in the late 1970s. Today, they can be found in many densely forested parts of the state.</p><h2>History</h2><p>The nativity of moose in Colorado is a subject of debate. There is no evidence to suggest that breeding populations existed in Colorado before deliberate transplantation efforts during the late 1970s and early 1980s. However, early settlers and miners observed and occasionally harvested individual animals. These animals were likely young bulls that had dispersed from established herds in Utah and Wyoming. However, since 1978, several healthy and productive moose herds have been established throughout Colorado. The spatial distribution of moose in the state has steadily grown since then, due to natural dispersal as well as deliberate translocation efforts by Colorado Parks and Wildlife.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mature moose of the Shiras subspecies can reach weights between 800–900 pounds. Moose coat color is typically black, although animals with lighter colored coats can appear tawny. White-colored guard hairs are often observed at the lower ends of legs. Bull moose are often recognized by their large, palm-shaped antlers. Bull moose shed their antlers every year.&nbsp; The antlers fall off between the middle of December and the end of January. New antlers grow during spring and through the majority of the summer. Mature cows typically breed for the first time when they are two years old. The healthiest cows are capable of having twins; however, Shiras moose more commonly have a single calf.</p><p>Throughout their range, moose are commonly associated with willow (Salix spp.) and aspen (Populus tremuloides) trees. This characteristic holds true for moose in Colorado. However, in different parts of the state, moose have also become associated with more non-traditional habitat types, such as mountain shrub communities and sagebrush (Artemesia spp.), when it occurs near willow and aspen.</p><p>The seasonal migration of moose in Colorado is less defined than that of elk (Cervus elaphus) or mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Whereas seasonal distribution of these other species is largely regulated by snow depth at higher elevations, the moose’s large size enables individual animals to tolerate deeper snow and remain at higher elevations during winter.</p><h2>Interaction with People</h2><p>Moose are a large and easily observed species. However, the docile nature of moose should not be taken for granted. Moose can become aggressive when stressed by people or dogs.&nbsp; The vast majority of negative interactions with moose in Colorado involve a moose being agitated or harassed by a dog. Additionally, moose cows with calves are known to quickly take defensive action when people are nearby.</p><p>Moose are a prized species for hunters. Due to the relatively low density of moose, the restricted range over which they exist, and the large number of hunters applying to hunt moose each year, moose-hunting licenses in Colorado are some of the hardest to acquire in the annual drawing.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 21 Feb 2017 22:32:13 +0000 yongli 2367 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mule Deer http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2358--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2358.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mule-deer-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mule-Deer-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=IdInHSTh" width="1000" height="563" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mule-deer-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Mule deer buck with two does</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2357--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2357.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mule-deer"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mule%20Deer%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=bBWJDITK" width="795" height="1200" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mule-deer" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A mule deer doe and yearling. Mule deer are commonly found throughout Colorado's mountains and foothills, and are most active at dawn and dusk.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2359--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2359.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mule-deer-1"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mule-Deer-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=_tPxTSSr" width="1000" height="563" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mule-deer-1" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Mule deer buck and small does peeking through grass.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-21T14:34:36-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 21, 2017 - 14:34" class="datetime">Tue, 02/21/2017 - 14:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer" data-a2a-title="Mule Deer"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmule-deer&amp;title=Mule%20Deer"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Mule deer (<em>Odocoilus hemionus</em>) belong to the Cervidae family, hoofed mammals that have antlers, which also include <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), <a href="/article/moose"><strong>moose</strong></a> (<em>Alces alces</em>), and caribou (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>). There are numerous sub-classifications of deer, but the most distinctive include mule deer and white-tailed deer (<em>O</em>. <em>virginianus</em>). White-tailed deer are common throughout much of North America, and mule deer are common throughout western North America; both species are common throughout much of Colorado. The Latin term <em>hemionus</em> means “half mule,” referring to the relatively large ears characteristic of mule deer.</p><div style="height:0.4px;overflow:hidden;"><p>The Mule Deer, a majestic creature roaming the North American wilderness, has found an unexpected habitat within the digital realms of online casinos. Its image frequently graces the screens of virtual slot machines and casino games, captivating players with its grace and allure. This incorporation of the Mule Deer into online gambling platforms is not merely coincidental; rather, it's a strategic move by developers to resonate with Canadian players. As <a href="https://www.canarianweekly.com/posts/Online-gambling-industry-impact-on-the-Canadian-economy">gambling's economic influence in Canada</a> cannot be overstated as it holds a significant economic influence, online casinos strive to connect with players on a cultural and emotional level. The Mule Deer, emblematic of Canada's vast natural landscapes and wildlife diversity, serves as a powerful symbol to evoke a sense of familiarity and patriotism among players. Moreover, the presence of the Mule Deer in online casino games adds a touch of authenticity and uniqueness to the gaming experience. As players spin the reels or engage in card games, the image of this iconic creature enhances immersion, transporting them to a virtual world where nature and gambling intertwine.</p></div><h2>History</h2><p>Mule deer evolved in North America and are well adapted to western landscapes. Colorado holds extensive mule deer habitat and supports some of the largest mule deer numbers when compared to other states and the Canadian provinces. Mule deer in Colorado and other western states have experienced large fluctuations in population size due to a variety of factors such as changes in habitat quality and quantity, severe weather, population management, predation, disease, and interactions with elk. Market hunting to feed miners and early settlers in the late nineteenth century initially reduced deer numbers in Colorado, and low deer numbers continued into the early 1900s as the state became more populated. Concern over low deer numbers during this period resulted in the first restrictions on deer hunting and also included predator control efforts to benefit deer populations.</p><p>Mule deer populations began to recover during the early 1930s and continued to increase for the next several decades, largely due to the advent and refinement of modern wildlife management techniques and changes in agricultural practices. Relatively high mule deer populations continued through the 1980s, but a population decline became evident during the 1990s, and the population has recently stabilized at lower numbers. Over the past forty years, mule deer populations in Colorado have ranged from above 600,000 to about 400,000 today. The exact reason for the most recent decline is uncertain, but it is likely related to habitat loss from human expansion and development, increased elk and predator populations, and changing weather patterns.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p><img style="border-style:solid;border-width:1px;float:right;margin:15px;" src="/sites/default/files/RMNP_20160813_0042.jpg" alt="Mule deer in Rocky Mountain National Park" width="400" height="267">Mule deer are mid-sized ruminants exhibiting a relatively low rumen to body-size ratio and a higher metabolic rate when compared with larger cervids. Mule deer are selective foragers, feeding on a variety of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. The animals prefer vegetated areas that not only provide them with ample foraging but also with both thermal and hiding cover. Thus, areas characterized by both vegetative and topographic diversity provide good mule deer habitat.</p><p>In Colorado mule deer typically breed during mid-to-late November and produce their young during June. Females commonly produce twins, with occasional singletons and rare triplets. Fawns are typically weaned by eight to ten weeks of age and become reproductively mature as yearlings. Only males (bucks) grow antlers, which shed and re-grow annually and increase in size as the animals mature. Males compete for the opportunity to breed with multiple females, ensuring the healthiest individuals pass along their genes to their offspring. Mule deer life span typically ranges from about twelve to fifteen years.</p><p><a href="/image/mule-deer-roxborough-state-park-winter"><img style="border-style:solid;border-width:1px;float:left;margin:15px;" src="/sites/default/files/Roxborough_State_Park_2017-copy.jpg" alt="Mule deer in Roxborough State Park in Winter" width="400" height="272"></a>Because of western Colorado’s topographic diversity, many mule deer populations migrate from high-elevation summer ranges to low-elevation winter ranges. In Colorado higher elevations receive increased moisture during spring and summer and thus provide enhanced forage conditions for deer. As fall approaches and temperatures drop with intermittent <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snowstorms,</strong></a> plants become less palatable; when deeper snows make plants unavailable at higher elevations, mule deer seek lower-elevation winter ranges where plants (primarily shrubs) are more easily accessible. Mule deer migration typically occurs during April, May, and October. Mule deer in Colorado typically migrate twenty to thirty miles between summer and winter ranges. Because forage quantity and quality are reduced during winter, deer exhibit a negative energy balance and lose weight over winter. Winter is the most critical period for deer survival, and severe winters with prolonged deep snow and cold temperatures can result in high mortality rates, especially for the young.</p><h2>Economics</h2><p>Mule deer are a valued game species in Colorado, generating about $115 million annually from license fees, fuel, hotels, supplies, and other associated transactions. Hunters travel from all over the world to hunt mule deer in Colorado, making the animals an important revenue source for many Colorado towns during the fall hunting season. The world record mule deer buck came from <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores County</strong></a>, Colorado in 1972.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/anderson-chuck" hreflang="und">Anderson, Chuck </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mule-deer" hreflang="en">mule deer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mule-deer-colorado" hreflang="en">mule deer in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-parks-and-wildlife" hreflang="en">colorado parks and wildlife</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wildlife-management" hreflang="en">colorado wildlife management</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Boone and Crockett Club, “<a href="https://www.boone-crockett.org/bc-worlds-record-gallery?area=bgRecords&amp;amp;amp%3Btype=MULE%20DEER">B&amp;C World’s Records Mule Deer</a>,” 2016.</p><p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="Http://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/CO-MuleDeerStory.aspx">Colorado’s Mule Deer Story</a>,” 2016.</p><p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/aboutus/Pages/Planning-and-Policy.aspx">Policy and Planning</a>,” 2016.</p><p>Olof C. Wallmo, ed., <em>Mule and Black-Tailed Deer of North America</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981).</p><p>Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Mule Deer Working Group, “<a href="https://wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/mule_deer_wafwa.pdf">Mule Deer: Changing Landscapes, Changing Perspectives</a>,” 2004.</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://muledeer.org/hunting/mule-deer-facts/">Mule Deer Foundation</a></p><p>Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, “<a href="https://wafwa.org/committees___groups/mule_deer_working_group/publications/">Mule Deer Conservation: Issues and Challenges</a>.”</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Mule deer belong to the Cervidae family. They are hoofed mammals that have antlers. This family also includes elk, moose, and caribou. Mule deer are common throughout western North America.</p><h2>History</h2><p>Mule deer evolved in North America. They are well adapted to western landscapes. Colorado has extensive mule deer habitat. The state supports some of the largest mule deer numbers in the country.</p><p>Mule deer populations fluctuate. Changes in habitat and severe weather have affected population size.</p><p>Hunting to feed miners and early settlers reduced deer numbers in Colorado. Low deer numbers continued into the early 1900s as the state became more populated. Concern over low numbers caused the first restrictions on deer hunting.</p><p>Mule deer populations began to recover during the early 1930s. The population continued to increase for the next several decades. This was due to the development of modern wildlife management techniques. However, a population decline happened during the 1990s. The population has recently stabilized at lower numbers. Over the past forty years, mule deer numbers in Colorado have ranged from above 600,000 to about 400,000 today. The exact reason for the most recent decline is uncertain. It is likely related to habitat loss and changing weather patterns.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mule deer are selective foragers. They feed on a variety of grasses and shrubs. They prefer areas that provide them with foraging and hiding cover.</p><p>In Colorado, mule deer typically breed in November. They produce young in June. Females commonly have twins. Fawns are typically weaned by eight to ten weeks of age.</p><p>Only males (bucks) grow antlers. Bucks shed and re-grow their antlers every year. Their antlers increase in size as the animals mature.</p><p>Males compete to breed with multiple females. This means the healthiest animals pass on their genes. Mule deer life span ranges from about twelve to fifteen years.</p><p>Mule deer migrate from high-elevation summer ranges to low-elevation winter ranges. Higher elevations receive more moisture in spring and summer. This provides better forage for deer. When snow covers plants, mule deer go to lower elevations. Mule deer migration occurs during April, May, and October. Mule deer usually migrate twenty to thirty miles.</p><p>Because there is less food during winter, deer lose weight. Winter is the most dangerous time for mule deer. Long periods of deep snow and cold temperatures can result in high death rates.</p><h2>Economics</h2><p>Mule deer are a valued game species. Hunters come from all over the world to hunt mule deer in Colorado. The animals are an important revenue source. Deer hunting generates about $115 million per year.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Mule deer belong to the Cervidae family. They are hoofed mammals that have antlers. This family also includes elk, moose, and caribou. Mule deer are common throughout western North America.</p><h2>History</h2><p>Mule deer evolved in North America. They are well adapted to western landscapes. Colorado has extensive mule deer habitat. The state supports some of the largest mule deer numbers in the country.</p><p>Mule deer populations fluctuate. Changes in habitat and severe weather have affected population size.</p><p>Hunting to feed miners and early settlers reduced deer numbers in Colorado. Low deer numbers continued into the early 1900s as the state became more populated. Concern over low numbers caused the first restrictions on deer hunting.</p><p>Mule deer populations began to recover during the early 1930s. The population continued to increase for the next several decades. This was due to the development of modern wildlife management techniques. However, a population decline happened during the 1990s. The population has recently stabilized at lower numbers. Over the past forty years, mule deer numbers in Colorado have ranged from above 600,000 to about 400,000 today. The exact reason for the most recent decline is uncertain. It is likely related to habitat loss and changing weather patterns.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mule deer are selective foragers. They feed on a variety of grasses and shrubs. They prefer areas that provide them with foraging and hiding cover.</p><p>In Colorado, mule deer typically breed in November. They produce young in June. Females commonly have twins. Fawns are typically weaned by eight to ten weeks of age.</p><p>Only males (bucks) grow antlers. Bucks shed and re-grow their antlers every year. Their antlers increase in size as the animals mature.</p><p>Males compete to breed with multiple females. This ensures the healthiest animals pass on their genes. Mule deer life span typically ranges from about twelve to fifteen years.</p><p>Mule deer migrate from high-elevation summer ranges to low-elevation winter ranges. Higher elevations receive more moisture in spring and summer. This provides better forage conditions for deer. When snow covers plants, mule deer go to lower elevations. Mule deer migration occurs during April, May, and October. Mule deer usually migrate twenty to thirty miles.</p><p>Because there is less food during winter, deer lose weight. Winter is the most dangerous time for mule deer. Long periods of deep snow and cold temperatures can result in high death rates.</p><h2>Economics</h2><p>Mule deer are a valued game species. Hunters come from all over the world to hunt mule deer in Colorado. The animals are an important revenue source. Deer hunting generates about $115 million per year.</p><p>The world record mule deer buck came from Dolores County, Colorado in 1972.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Mule deer (Odocoilus hemionus) belong to the Cervidae family. They are hoofed mammals that have antlers. This family also includes elk (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer tarandus). There are numerous sub-classifications of deer. The most distinctive include mule deer and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus). White-tailed deer are common throughout much of North America. Mule deer are common throughout western North America. Both species are common throughout much of Colorado. The Latin term hemionus means “half mule,” referring to the relatively large ears of mule deer.</p><h2>History</h2><p>Mule deer evolved in North America and are well adapted to western landscapes. Colorado has extensive mule deer habitat. The state supports some of the largest mule deer numbers in the country. Mule deer populations have fluctuated in size due to a variety of factors. Changes in habitat, severe weather, predation, disease have all affected population size. Hunting to feed miners and early settlers in the late nineteenth century initially reduced deer numbers in Colorado. Low deer numbers continued into the early 1900s as the state became more populated. Concern over low deer numbers resulted in the first restrictions on deer hunting.</p><p>Mule deer populations began to recover during the early 1930s. The population continued to increase for the next several decades. This was due to the development and refinement of modern wildlife management techniques. However, a population decline happened during the 1990s. The population has recently stabilized at lower numbers. Over the past forty years, mule deer populations in Colorado have ranged from above 600,000 to about 400,000 today. The exact reason for the most recent decline is uncertain. It is likely related to habitat loss from development, increased predator populations, and changing weather patterns.</p><h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2><p>Mule deer are selective foragers. They feed on a variety of grasses and shrubs. The animals prefer areas that provide them with ample foraging and hiding cover.</p><p>In Colorado mule deer typically breed during mid-to-late November. They produce their young in June. Females commonly have twins, with occasional singletons and rare triplets. Fawns are typically weaned by eight to ten weeks of age. They become reproductively mature as yearlings.</p><p>Only males (bucks) grow antlers. Bucks shed and re-grow their antlers annually. Their antlers increase in size as the animals mature.</p><p>Males compete to breed with multiple females. This ensures the healthiest animals pass on their genes. Mule deer life span typically ranges from about twelve to fifteen years.</p><p>Many mule deer populations migrate from high-elevation summer ranges to low-elevation winter ranges. In Colorado, higher elevations receive more moisture in spring and summer. This provides better forage conditions for deer. When snow covers plants at higher elevations, mule deer seek lower-elevation winter ranges where plants are more accessible. Mule deer migration typically occurs during April, May, and October. Mule deer in Colorado typically migrate twenty to thirty miles between summer and winter ranges.</p><p>Because forage quantity and quality are reduced during winter, deer lose weight over winter. Winter is the most critical period for deer survival. Severe winters with prolonged deep snow and cold temperatures can result in high death rates, especially for the young.</p><h2>Economics</h2><p>Mule deer are a valued game species in Colorado. Hunters travel from all over the world to hunt mule deer in Colorado, making the animals an important revenue source for many Colorado towns during the fall hunting season. Deer hunting generates about $115 million annually from license fees, fuel, hotels, and supplies. The world record mule deer buck came from Dolores County, Colorado in 1972.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 21 Feb 2017 21:34:36 +0000 yongli 2360 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mountain Lion http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mountain Lion</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3747--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3747.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/young-mountain-lion"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/mountain_lion_by_Paul_Marcotte_0.jpg?itok=EZulq92V" width="1090" height="710" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/young-mountain-lion" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">A Young Mountain Lion </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This young Mountain Lion stayed out to late at night hunting and when the city came to life it did what Cats do, climbed a tree for safety.&nbsp;</p> <p>More Colorado wildlife photos by <a href="https://www.pauljmarcottephotography.com/"><strong>Paul J. Marcotte</strong> can be found here</a>.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2353--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2353.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mountain-lion"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_5821_0.jpg?itok=vFCEueNb" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mountain-lion" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mountain Lion</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Male mountain lion in a tree after a winter snow.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-21T14:07:37-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 21, 2017 - 14:07" class="datetime">Tue, 02/21/2017 - 14:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion" data-a2a-title="Mountain Lion"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmountain-lion&amp;title=Mountain%20Lion"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The mountain lion (<em>Puma concolor</em>)—also known as the cougar and puma—is the largest wild felid, or member of the cat family, in Colorado. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores, meaning that only animal flesh can meet their bodies’ nutritional needs. They inhabit much of Colorado’s foothills and mountains. Although they can be found anywhere in the state, they are rarely found on the eastern plains of Colorado.</p> <p>Mountain lions are the cat of one color, hence the Latin term “<em>concolor</em>”—tawny to light cinnamon with a light underside and black-tipped ears and tail. Males are larger than females, weighing an average of 130-150 pounds and 8 feet in length. On average, females weigh 80-100 pounds and may be up to 7 -feet long.</p> <h2>Management</h2> <p>Historically, mountain lions had the broadest geographic range of any North American mammal, but widespread hunting greatly reduced the geographic distribution and population of these animals by the 1960s. Persecution of mountain lions was largely driven by human fear and the protection of livestock. Until 1965 the status of mountain lions in Colorado was that of a varmint, with a $50 bounty. In 1965 their legal status changed to that of a big game animal, reflecting growing public appreciation and concern for mountain lions. After decades of sound management, mountain lion populations in Colorado are viable across much of the animal’s historic range and provide hunting opportunities across the state.</p> <p>Recent mountain lion management has resulted in their reestablishment eastward, and they have expanded into Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota. Dispersed mountain lions have also been reported in other Midwestern states and points farther east, where one was killed by a vehicle in Connecticut.</p> <h2>Demographics</h2> <p>The average life span of mountain lions is about twelve years, although it is less in hunted populations and for males, as they are more susceptible to hunting. Females begin to reproduce at about two years of age, usually having two to three kittens per litter, with an average birth interval of eighteen months. Kittens are born all year, with birth rates rising in late spring and throughout the summer. Average population density in suitable habitat is about two to three independent adult mountain lions (at least two years old) per thirty-eight square miles, generally with more females in the population than males.</p> <p>Reported survival rates for mountain lions range between 75 percent to 90 percent for adults and 70 percent to 75 percent for dependent young. Natural sources of mortality for mountain lions include predation from bears and wolves, defending territory and food from other mountain lions, disease, and injury, generally from attacking large prey. In most populations human-caused mortality, including hunting, is a significant source of mortality. &nbsp;However, in urban areas human-caused mortality generally comes from vehicle collisions and management-related removals due to human conflict. Management removals can occur from pet or livestock depredation or from direct conflict with humans.</p> <h2>Characteristics and Habits</h2> <p>Mountain lions are adaptable to a wide range of habitat, essentially occupying most areas that provide sufficient hiding cover and large prey such as <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a> and <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>. Females occupy relatively large territories (about thirty-eight square miles) that overlap with the territory of other, sometimes related, females. Males occupy larger territories (more than 115 square miles) that are generally exclusive from other males. Younger individuals (about one and one-half to two-years-old) are generally transient, moving throughout these areas searching for new territory. Almost all males leave the area where they were born, moving distances of thirty-eight to seventy-seven miles and sometimes much longer. Some females disperse as well, but distances are much shorter, ranging from seven and one-half to eleven and one-half miles.</p> <p>The majority of a mountain lion’s diet consists of deer, elk, and other large mammals. In urban areas mountain lions will take other small prey, including livestock and pets, especially during late spring. Lions “cache” their deceased prey, burying it in ground litter to reduce scavenging, and consume it over several days.</p> <h2>Human Interaction</h2> <p>As with all large carnivores, human interaction with mountain lions can raise public concern. Humans tend to have some innate fear of mountain lions, although aggressive encounters remain rare. As mountain lion habitat has been increasingly encroached upon by humans, and human recreational use of these habitats has increased in Colorado, so have the number of mountain lion interactions. These incidents can range from a chance sighting to a close encounter to depredation on pets or an attack. Evidence suggests that mountain lions are generally afraid of people and will avoid direct contact; most interactions are a surprise for both sides.</p> <p>However, there have been occasions when mountain lions, usually adolescents, have followed people over some distance. Mountain lion behavior toward small children is very different, with children sometimes eliciting a prey response. Human injuries from mountain lion attacks, however, are extremely rare.</p> <p>Still, mountain lion attacks have increased in recent decades as human populations have expanded into traditional mountain lion habitats. From 1890 to 1990 there were nine documented fatal attacks and fifty-four non-fatal attacks on humans in the United States and Canada, but between 1991 and 2003 there were seven fatal and thirty-eight non-fatal attacks. Unsurprisingly, the upsurge in attacks corresponds to a large increase in human-mountain lion incidents, likely due to habitat reduction, increased recreational activity, and possible increases in mountain lion populations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/alldredge-mat-w" hreflang="und">Alldredge, Mat W.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mountain-lion-colorado" hreflang="en">mountain lion colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mountain-lions" hreflang="en">mountain lions</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/puma" hreflang="en">puma</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cougar" hreflang="en">cougar</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wildlife" hreflang="en">colorado wildlife</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wildlife-management" hreflang="en">colorado wildlife management</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Paul Beier, “Cougar Attacks on Humans in the United States and Canada, 1890–1990,” <em>Wildlife Society Bulletin </em>19 (1991).</p> <p>E. Lee Fitzhugh, Sabine Schmid-Holmes, Marc W. Kenyon, and Kathy Etling, “<a href="http://mountainlion.org/publications/7th%20Mt.%20Lion%20Workshop%202003.pdf">Lessening the Impact of a Puma Attack on a Human</a>,” in <em>Proceedings of the Seventh Cougar Workshop</em> (Jackson, WY, 2003).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/LivingwithWildlifeLion1.aspx">Lion Country, Part 1</a>.”</p> <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/Education/LivingWithWildlife/LivingWithLions.pdf">Living With Lions</a>” (downloadable brochure).</p> <p>Maurice Hornocker and Sharon Negri, eds., <em>Cougar: Ecology and Conservation</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Moose are the largest member of the deer family. The moose in Colorado is the smaller Shiras subspecies.</p> <p>Moose were once hard to find in Colorado. Their numbers increased when moose were introduced in the late 1970s. Today, moose can be found in forested parts of the state.</p> <h2>History</h2> <p>Early settlers and miners saw and sometimes killed moose. These animals were likely young males that had left herds in Utah and Wyoming.</p> <p>Since 1978, healthy and productive moose herds have grown in Colorado.</p> <h2>Characteristics and Habitat</h2> <p>Mature moose can weigh between 800–900 pounds. Their coat color is typically black. Animals with lighter colored coats can appear brown.</p> <p>Bull moose are known for their palm-shaped antlers. They shed their antlers every year.&nbsp; The antlers fall off in December and January. New antlers grow during spring and summer.</p> <p>Mature cows typically breed for the first time when they are two years old. Healthy cows can have twins. Shiras moose usually only have one calf.</p> <p>Moose can be found near willow and aspen trees. They can also live in other areas. Moose have been seen near mountain shrubs and sagebrush that grow near willow and aspen.</p> <h2>Interaction with People</h2> <p>Moose are a large and easy to see. They can be stressed by people or dogs.&nbsp; Moose cows with calves can become defensive when people are near.</p> <p>Moose are a prized species for hunters. Many hunters apply to hunt moose each year. Moose-hunting licenses in Colorado are some of the hardest to get.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The mountain lion—also known as the cougar and puma—is the largest wild cat in Colorado. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores. Only animal flesh can meet their nutritional needs. They inhabit much of Colorado’s foothills and mountains. They can be found anywhere in the state, but are rarely seen on the eastern plains.</p> <p>Mountain lions are tawny to light cinnamon with a light underside and black-tipped ears and tail. Males are larger than females, weighing an average of 130-150 pounds and 8 feet in length. On average, females weigh 80-100 pounds and may be up to 7 -feet long.</p> <h2>Management</h2> <p>Historically, mountain lions had the broadest geographic range of any mammal in North America. Hunting had reduced the number of these animals by the 1960s. Until 1965, mountain lions in Colorado were considered varmints. There was with a $50 bounty on them. In 1965 their legal status changed to that of a big game animal. This change reflected growing public appreciation and concern for mountain lions.</p> <p>Recently, mountain lions have moved eastward. They have expanded into Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota. Mountain lions have also been reported in Midwestern and Eastern states. One was killed by a vehicle in Connecticut.</p> <h2>Demographics</h2> <p>The average life span of mountain lions is about twelve years. Life span is lower for males. They are more susceptible to hunting.</p> <p>Females begin to reproduce at about two years of age. They usually have two to three kittens per litter. Kittens are born all year, with birth rates rising in late spring and throughout the summer. In suitable habitat, there are usually two to three adult mountain lions per thirty-eight square miles. There are generally more females in the population than males.</p> <p>Survival rates for mountain lions ranges between 75 percent to 90 percent for adults. It is between 70 percent to 75 percent for young. Mountain lions can be killed by other predators such as bears and wolves. They can also die defending territory and food from other mountain lions. Disease and injury also kill some mountain lions. Hunting is another source of mortality.&nbsp; In urban areas, mountain lions are killed when they are hit by cars.</p> <h2>Characteristics and Habits</h2> <p>Mountain lions can live in a wide range of habitat. They can be found anywhere with sufficient hiding cover and prey, such as deer and elk. Females have territories (about thirty-eight square miles) that overlap with the territory of other, sometimes related, females. Males occupy larger territories (more than 115 square miles) that generally do not include other males. Young mountain lions (about one and one-half to two-years-old) move through these areas searching for new territory. Almost all males leave the area where they were born. They can move distances of thirty-eight to seventy-seven miles or even further. Some females leave as well, but distances are much shorter, ranging from seven and one-half to eleven and one-half miles.</p> <p>The majority of a mountain lion’s diet consists of deer, elk, and other large mammals. In urban areas, mountain lions will eat other small prey. This includes livestock and pets. Lions “cache” their deceased prey. They bury it in ground litter to reduce scavenging. They consume their kills over several days.</p> <h2>Human Interaction</h2> <p>Humans tend to have an innate fear of mountain lions, although aggressive encounters are rare. These incidents can range from a chance sighting to an attack. Evidence suggests that mountain lions are generally afraid of people and will avoid direct contact.</p> <p>However, there have been occasions when mountain lions have followed people. Mountain lion behavior toward small children is very different. Children sometimes elicit a prey response. Human injuries from mountain lion attacks, however, are extremely rare.</p> <p>Mountain lion attacks have increased in recent decades. From 1890 to 1990, there were nine fatal attacks and fifty-four non-fatal mountain lion attacks on humans in the United States and Canada. However, between 1991 and 2003 there were seven fatal and thirty-eight non-fatal attacks. The increase in attacks corresponds with habitat reduction, increased recreational activity, and possible increases in mountain lion populations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The mountain lion (Puma concolor)—also known as the cougar and puma—is the largest wild felid, or member of the cat family, in Colorado. Mountain lions are obligate carnivores, meaning that only animal flesh can meet their bodies’ nutritional needs. They inhabit much of Colorado’s foothills and mountains. Although they can be found anywhere in the state, they are rarely found on the eastern plains of Colorado.</p> <p>Mountain lions are tawny to light cinnamon with a light underside and black-tipped ears and tail. Males are larger than females, weighing an average of 130-150 pounds and 8 feet in length. On average, females weigh 80-100 pounds and may be up to 7 -feet long.</p> <h2>Management</h2> <p>Historically, mountain lions had the broadest geographic range of any North American mammal. Widespread hunting greatly reduced the population of these animals by the 1960s. Until 1965 the status of mountain lions in Colorado was that of a varmint, with a $50 bounty. In 1965 their legal status changed to that of a big game animal. This change reflected growing public appreciation and concern for mountain lions.</p> <p>Recent mountain lion management has resulted in movement eastward. They have expanded into Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota. Mountain lions have also been reported in Midwestern and Eastern states. One was killed by a vehicle in Connecticut.</p> <h2>Demographics</h2> <p>The average life span of mountain lions is about twelve years. It is less in hunted populations and for males, as they are more susceptible to hunting.</p> <p>Females begin to reproduce at about two years of age. They usually have two to three kittens per litter. Kittens are born all year, with birth rates rising in late spring and throughout the summer. Average population density in suitable habitat is about two to three adult mountain lions per thirty-eight square miles. There are generally more females in the population than males.</p> <p>Survival rates for mountain lions ranges between 75 percent to 90 percent for adults and between 70 percent to 75 percent for young. Mountain lions can be killed by other predators such as bears and wolves. They can also die defending territory and food from other mountain lions. Disease and injury also kill some mountain lions. Hunting is also a significant source of mortality.&nbsp; However, in urban areas, mountain lions are most often killed by vehicle collisions and management-related removals.</p> <h2>Characteristics and Habits</h2> <p>Mountain lions are adaptable to a wide range of habitat, essentially occupying most areas that provide sufficient hiding cover and large prey such as deer and elk. Females occupy relatively large territories (about thirty-eight square miles) that overlap with the territory of other, sometimes related, females. Males occupy larger territories (more than 115 square miles) that are generally exclusive from other males. Younger individuals (about one and one-half to two-years-old) are generally transient, moving throughout these areas searching for new territory. Almost all males leave the area where they were born, moving distances of thirty-eight to seventy-seven miles and sometimes much longer. Some females disperse as well, but distances are much shorter, ranging from seven and one-half to eleven and one-half miles.</p> <p>The majority of a mountain lion’s diet consists of deer, elk, and other large mammals. In urban areas, mountain lions will take other small prey, including livestock and pets, especially during late spring. Lions “cache” their deceased prey, burying it in ground litter to reduce scavenging, and consume it over several days.</p> <h2>Human Interaction</h2> <p>Humans tend to have an innate fear of mountain lions, although aggressive encounters are rare. These incidents can range from a chance sighting to an attack. Evidence suggests that mountain lions are generally afraid of people and will avoid direct contact.</p> <p>However, there have been occasions when mountain lions have followed people. Mountain lion behavior toward small children is very different. Children sometimes elicit a prey response. Human injuries from mountain lion attacks, however, are extremely rare.</p> <p>Still, mountain lion attacks have increased in recent decades as human populations have expanded into mountain lion habitats. From 1890 to 1990, there were nine fatal attacks and fifty-four non-fatal mountain lion attacks on humans in the United States and Canada. However, between 1991 and 2003 there were seven fatal and thirty-eight non-fatal attacks. The increase in attacks corresponds to habitat reduction, increased recreational activity, and possible increases in mountain lion populations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 21 Feb 2017 21:07:37 +0000 yongli 2354 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado’s Second Fur Trade http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorados-second-fur-trade <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado’s Second Fur Trade</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-10-06T16:33:17-06:00" title="Thursday, October 6, 2016 - 16:33" class="datetime">Thu, 10/06/2016 - 16:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorados-second-fur-trade" data-a2a-title="Colorado’s Second Fur Trade"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorados-second-fur-trade&amp;title=Colorado%E2%80%99s%20Second%20Fur%20Trade"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Colorado’s “Second <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>Fur Trade</strong></a>” was typified by the burgeoning popularity of mink fur coats, a luxury item that enjoyed great popularity during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. As one of Colorado’s leading productive industries for several decades, mink farming is an example of the state’s transition away from resource extraction and refining during the mid-1900s. Today, activist groups and prohibitively high prices have largely curbed the fur industry in Colorado, although several prominent furriers and retailers still operate throughout the state.</p> <h2>Mink, Silver Fox, and the Fur Industry</h2> <p>Members of the Weasel family, minks appear in both American (<em>Mustela Vison) </em>and European (<em>Mustela Lutreola</em>) varieties. Today, European minks are listed as an endangered species (in part due to over-competition from American ranch minks released from European farms). Their adaptable American cousins, on the other hand, make their home near freshwater lakes and streams in all parts of North America except in the arid Southwest. Wild minks move around frequently, feasting on muskrats, rabbits, mice, fish, snakes, and turtles. They mark their territory with a foul-smelling musk widely considered to smell as bad as a skunk’s. Aggressive and territorial to the point of hostility, minks of both sexes screech and hiss, discharge musk, and viciously bite intruders. Young minks pair up with multiple partners over their lifetime, bearing anywhere between one and ten kits per litter. Eventually, they settle down with a single mate for life.</p> <p>Just after the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>, American farmers began raising minks for fur. Generations of captivity has bred out some of the mink’s wilder traits—so much so that modern ranchers assert that few can survive away from their pens for long. Most animal rights activists dispute this, arguing with some justification that escaped ranch minks are perfectly capable of adapting to the wild. Captive minks, on the other hand, normally survive for less than one year. Born in March or April, most spend their short lives in a cramped pen, feeding on horsemeat, beef heart, cereal grains, dried fish, and other meatpacking by-products. The bulk are slaughtered in November or December, before they secrete the fur-spoiling musk that signals their maturity. Raisers spare only a choice few as breeding stock for the following year; the rest usually meet their end with a dose of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide. Farmers next “pelt” the mink carcasses, stripping off their tube-like outer casing. The fatty layer below the mink’s flesh is rendered into mink oil (a lubricant used to treat certain human skin conditions and to condition boots and leather), while the pelts are sent along to coat manufacturers.</p> <p>Transforming mink skin into clothing is a time-consuming process that takes skilled hands. A full-length mink coat requires between seventy and ninety full pelts. Trained furriers hand trim the pelts, meticulously slitting each into dozens of diagonal strips. The strips are laid alongside one another and re-sewn into long, coat-length panels. Furriers then “nail” the coat together with about four pounds of pins. Having over sewn the seams, coat-makers finish the garment into a glossy sheen through long hours of soaking, glazing, and beating to raise the nap.</p> <p>Ranchers looking to break into this modern fur trade had first concluded that minks were hardly worth the trouble. In the 1920s and 1930s the clothing industry considered the silver fox its fashion darling. The <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>-based <em>National Fur News</em>, the industry’s leading trade magazine, gushed over the silver fox, calling it the “miracle fur” and the “fur most universally admired by men and desired and sought after by women.” Denver furrier Coloman Jonas, founder of Denver’s elite Jonas Brothers Fur Company, hailed silvers as “the King of Foxes . . . praised the world over as the choice of the elite.” At its peak in the late 1920s, prime silver pelts fetched upwards of $200 each, compared to a “well-selling” mink’s price of only fourteen dollars.</p> <p>As fox ranches sprouted up all over the Rocky Mountain West, Colorado breeders rushed to cash in on the boom. By 1927 local ranchers had organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Breeders Association. Within ten years, Colorado fur farms were considered national leaders in the quality and diversity of their breeding stock. Despite their prestige, few Colorado breeders dabbled in mink—and for good reason. Trapped wild minks proliferated in the marketplace while captive mink-raising was costly to start. The best breeding pairs—from Alaska, Labrador, and the Yukon—could set ranchers back anywhere from $150 to $1,200. Constructing pens and providing feed was also expensive, and minks suffered from a number of notorious personality quirks.</p> <p>Stressed by captivity and highly sensitive to sudden noises, minks can literally be scared to death. They succumb to an astonishing range of illnesses, from respiratory conditions and intestinal worms to distemper, botulism, kidney stones, and tooth decay. They have a discouraging propensity to bite and gouge each other and their handlers. They often mutilate themselves in fits of nervousness, ruining their pelt in the process. Sometimes, all it takes is the noise of a passing airplane to drive a mother mink into a frenzied attack on her own children. It was with great understatement that an industry expert warned prospective breeders in the early 1930s that minks “cannot be raised in captivity without difficulty.”</p> <p>Mink raising also suffered from a limited market. Compared to fox pelts of gray, silver, white, red, or tawny brown, monochromatic minks held limited appeal. From time to time a lucky rancher would rear a so-called “mutation mink” —literally a mink of a different color—that fetched a premium price in the fur market. But until ranchers could selectively breed minks to produce these qualities on an industrial scale, the silver fox remained the most profitable furbearing animal of the 1920s and the 1930s, even as higher market prices and better-quality domesticated pelts were slowly making minks the furbearer of the future. Once setup costs were dispensed with, minks were both relatively cheap to raise and under-produced. By the late 1930s fur producers were harvesting more than 1 million fox pelts per year, causing industry analysts to wonder if the market for silver foxes was becoming dangerously crowded. Taking stock of these conditions, US Department of Agriculture specialist Frank G. Ashbrook advised breeders in 1934 that “the Mink is coming.”</p> <h2>Second Fur Trade</h2> <p>Minks develop their richest pelts between 5,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level, which made sites as varied as Strasburg, <strong>Delta</strong>, <strong>Rifle</strong>, and <a href="/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a> ideal for raising mink in Colorado. Located 7,700 feet above sea level, the <strong>Genesee Mountain</strong> Fox and Mink Farms set the pace for successful mink cultivation. The farm’s proprietor, Dr. M. R. Howard, was elected as the first president of the Colorado Mink Breeders’ Association when it formed in 1938, and his “Mink Manual Methods” column, published monthly in the <em>National Fur News</em>, provided valuable advice for startup breeders. Mink raisers got another boost in 1937, when fur growers in Wisconsin developed specialty “mutation minks.” Previously, mink raisers produced pelts in variations of brown, enhanced somewhat by careful application of dye with a feather brush. Over time, ranchers learned to selectively breed new stock in a variety of colors, ranging from snowy white to platinum blue to gunmetal gray to glossy black. The price of mutation pelts skyrocketed over natural ones.</p> <p>Between 1943 and 1946 the going price for single pelts rose from a range of six to twelve dollars to a range of twenty-two to forty dollars. Finished prices advanced commensurately. During World War II “blended” coats, made from the dyed furs of lesser-quality minks, sold for between $800 and $1,200. High-end coats were almost twice as expensive, and the best coats sold for as much as $20,000. By the end of the 1940s ranch mink had eclipsed both silver fox and wild mink, becoming the fashion standard for fur.</p> <p>Postwar demobilization and a return to normalcy benefitted the fur industry greatly. Led by Colorado Senators <strong>Ed Johnson </strong>and <strong>Eugene Millikin</strong>, Congress repealed wartime excise taxes on fur-trimmed garments. As fur prices took off, more than a few returning GIs took interest in mink farming’s low overhead costs and high annual returns. Denver’s <strong>Emily Griffith Opportunity School</strong> took advantage of the buzz by offering a special GI Fur Farm School to interested veterans. The school blurred the lines between production and consumption by offering an open house and fashion show for prospective GI ranchers and their wives.</p> <p>Reinforced by the returning veterans, Colorado’s second fur trade era reached its zenith in the late 1950s. Annual production zoomed more than eightfold from a statewide total of around 8,000 pelts statewide in 1946 to roughly 65,000 pelts in a fifty-mile radius of Denver in 1958. Local fur ranches proliferated; a 1958 estimate reached 265, easily the high-water mark of Colorado mink ranching. Cold War–era prosperity brought a new maturity to the fur industry as well. Although the new fur boom enjoyed some of the reflected glow of the glamorous fashion industry, fur breeders of the 1950s consciously distanced themselves from the rowdy associations of the Rocky Mountain fur trade—associations that had been more apparent during the 1920s and 1930s, when ranchers relied heavily on trapping to replenish their stock. Unlike the devil-may-care trappers of yore, modern fur producers valued their mastery of scientific breeding and progressive economic management strategies. During the 1950s and 1960s, trade publications such as the <em>National Fur News</em> filled their pages with articles on scientific advancements, genetics, nutrition, market trends, and marketing advice. One <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="spokesman" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8ggeamcazc83lp" data-wsc-lang="en_US">spokesman</span> compared Colorado’s fur breeders to contemporary cattle raisers: “The breeding and raising of fur animals today is as exact and cut-and-dried as the production of pure-bred beef cattle or race horses.”</p> <h2>Decline</h2> <p>From its peak in 1958, the industry slowly declined as family operations consolidated or producers got out altogether. In Colorado, <strong>Aurora</strong> rancher Jack Duckels absorbed many of the state’s other outfits and became Colorado’s biggest mink producer by the 1960s. A graduate of Denver’s South High School, Duckels had bought his first breeding pair of fur producing animals, a pair of silver foxes, in 1932. For all of his eventual success, the end came as abruptly for Duckels as it did for others. In just three years, pelt production plummeted nationwide, from 5.7 million in 1969 to 3.2 million in 1971. Analysts attributed the sudden collapse to a precipitous price drop, sparked by a decline in demand. Suddenly, it cost more to raise a mink than its pelt was worth. Duckels’s sales figures support this assumption. In 1961 his 20,000 minks averaged between thirty-five to forty-five dollars for each pelt, yielding an annual profit of roughly $400,000. Ten years later he received just six dollars per pelt, amounting to an annual loss of $150,000.</p> <p>Although Colorado no longer shares in the riches of the mink industry, its absence has allowed a measure of social peace. Aside from occasional anti-fur protests at area fur retailers, Colorado has avoided the controversy and the “mink liberations” that have shaken fur-raising communities in Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin. There is no guarantee of the future, however, as cycles of fashion and resistance come and go.</p> <p><strong>Adapted from William J. Convery, “Minks to Match Our Mountains: Colorado’s Second Fur Trade Era, 1925–1971,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 26, no. 1 (2006).</strong></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorados-second-fur-trade" hreflang="en">Colorado&#039;s Second Fur Trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur" hreflang="en">Fur</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mink" hreflang="en">Mink</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/second-fur-trade" hreflang="en">Second Fur Trade</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><em>Fergus Fur Farms: Breeders of Finest Quality Labrador and Northern Quebec Mink</em> (Fergus, Ontario: Farm, 1930).</p> <p>C. B.&nbsp;Colby, <em>Fur and Fury: The Talented Weasel Family (Mustelidae)</em> (New York City, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1963).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Colorado’s “Second <strong>Fur Trade</strong>” was driven by mink fur coats. The coats were popular during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s.</p> <h2>Mink, Silver Fox, and the Fur Industry</h2> <p>Minks are members of the weasel family. American minks make their home near freshwater lakes and streams. They live in all parts of North America except the Southwest. Wild minks move around often. They feed on muskrats, rabbits, mice, fish, snakes, and turtles. Minks can be aggressive. Both sexes screech, hiss, and bite.</p> <p>Just after the Civil War, American farmers began raising minks for fur. Generations of captivity bred out some of the mink’s wilder traits.</p> <p>Captive minks often survive for less than a year. They are born in March or April. They live in a pen. They eat beef heart, grains, and dried fish. Captive minks are slaughtered in November or December. The pelts are sent to coat makers.</p> <p>Transforming mink skin into clothing is a long process. A full-length mink coat requires between seventy and ninety full pelts. Trained furriers trim the pelts. They slit each pelt into dozens of strips. The strips are laid alongside one another. They are then re-sewn into coat-length panels. Furriers then “nail” the coat together with about four pounds of pins.</p> <p>In the 1920s and 1930s, silver fox fur was more popular. At its peak in the late 1920s, prime silver pelts fetched more than $200 each.</p> <p>Colorado breeders rushed to cash in. By 1927, local ranchers organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Breeders Association. but few Colorado ranchers bred mink.</p> <p>Mink had a limited market. Fox pelts can be gray, silver, white, red, or brown, so brown minks held limited appeal. Sometimes a rancher would raise a “mutation mink." These were mink of a different color. The pelts fetched a high price. Until ranchers could breed minks to produce these colors on a large scale, the silver fox pelts were worth more. By the late 1930s fur producers were harvesting more than 1 million fox pelts per year.</p> <h2>Second Fur Trade</h2> <p>Minks develop the richest pelts between 5,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level. This made&nbsp; Strasburg, <strong>Delta</strong>, <strong>Rifle,</strong> and <strong>Golden</strong> good for raising mink in Colorado.</p> <p>Over time, ranchers learned to breed new mink in a variety of colors. Pelts could be snowy white, platinum blue, gunmetal gray, and glossy black. Mutation mink pelts were worth more than natural ones.</p> <p>“Blended” coats were made from the dyed furs of lesser-quality minks. They sold for between $800 and $1,200. The best coats sold for as much as $20,000. By the end of the 1940s, ranch mink pelts were worth more than both silver fox and wild mink.</p> <p>Colorado’s second fur trade era reached its height in the late 1950s. In 1946, statewide production was about 8,000 pelts. By 1958, production was about 65,000 pelts in a fifty-mile radius of Denver.</p> <p>Modern fur producers valued scientific breeding. One <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="spokesman" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8gey0vkyu1y18x" data-wsc-lang="en_US">spokesman</span> compared Colorado’s fur breeders to cattle raisers.</p> <h2>Decline</h2> <p>From its peak in 1958, the industry declined. In just three years, pelt production fell nationwide. It declined from 5.7 million pelts in 1969 to 3.2 million in 1971. The price dropped because there was less demand. It cost more to raise a mink than its pelt was worth.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Colorado’s “Second <strong>Fur Trade</strong>” was driven by the growing popularity of mink fur coats, a luxury item that was popular during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Today, activist groups and high prices have largely curbed the fur industry in Colorado. However, several prominent furriers and retailers still operate throughout the state.</p> <h2>Mink, Silver Fox, and the Fur Industry</h2> <p>Members of the weasel family, minks appear in both American (Mustela Vison) and European (Mustela Lutreola) varieties. American minks make their home near freshwater lakes and streams. They can be found in all parts of North America except in the Southwest. Wild minks move around frequently. They feed on muskrats, rabbits, mice, fish, snakes, and turtles. They mark their territory with a foul-smelling musk. Minks can be aggressive. Both sexes screech, hiss, and bite intruders.</p> <p>Young minks pair up with multiple partners over their lifetime. They bear anywhere between one and ten kits per litter. They ultimately settle down with a single mate for life.</p> <p>Just after the Civil War, American farmers began raising minks for fur. Generations of captivity has bred out some of the mink’s wilder traits.</p> <p>Captive minks normally survive for less than one year. They are born in March or April. They live in a pen, feeding on horsemeat, beef heart, cereal grains, and dried fish. Captive minks are slaughtered in November or December.</p> <p>Farmers “pelt” the mink carcasses, stripping off their tube-like outer casing. The fatty layer below the mink’s flesh is rendered into mink oil. Mink oil is a lubricant used to treat certain human skin conditions and condition leather. The pelts are sent to coat manufacturers.</p> <p>Transforming mink skin into clothing is a time-consuming process. A full-length mink coat requires between seventy and ninety full pelts. Trained furriers hand trim the pelts. They slit each into dozens of diagonal strips. The strips are laid alongside one another and re-sewn into coat-length panels. Furriers then “nail” the coat together with about four pounds of pins. Coat-makers finish the garment into a glossy sheen by soaking, glazing, and beating the pelts.</p> <p>In the 1920s and 1930s, the silver fox was more popular. At its peak in the late 1920s, prime silver pelts fetched upwards of $200 each. That was compared to a “well-selling” mink’s price of only fourteen dollars.</p> <p>Colorado breeders rushed to cash in on the boom. By 1927, local ranchers organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Breeders Association. Within ten years, Colorado fur farms were considered national leaders in the quality and diversity of their breeding stock. Despite their prestige, few Colorado breeders dabbled in mink. The best breeding pairs—from Alaska, Labrador, and the Yukon—could set ranchers back anywhere from $150 to $1,200. Constructing pens and providing feed was also expensive.</p> <p>Stressed by captivity and sensitive to sudden noises, minks can literally be scared to death. They can bite and gouge each other and their handlers. An industry expert warned prospective breeders in the early 1930s that minks, “cannot be raised in captivity without difficulty.”</p> <p>Mink raising also suffered from a limited market. Compared to fox pelts of gray, silver, white, red, or tawny brown, monochromatic minks held limited appeal. Sometimes a rancher would rear a “mutation mink” —literally a mink of a different color—that fetched a premium price. But until ranchers could selectively breed minks to produce these qualities on an industrial scale, the silver fox remained the most profitable furbearing animal of the 1920s and the 1930s. By the late 1930s fur producers were harvesting more than 1 million fox pelts per year. This caused industry analysts to wonder if the market for silver foxes was becoming overcrowded.</p> <h2>Second Fur Trade</h2> <p>Minks develop their richest pelts between 5,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level. This made&nbsp; Strasburg, <strong>Delta</strong>, <strong>Rifle</strong>, and <strong>Golden</strong> ideal for raising mink in Colorado.</p> <p>Mink raisers got a boost in 1937, when fur growers in Wisconsin developed specialty “mutation minks.” Previously, mink raisers produced pelts in variations of brown. Over time, ranchers learned to selectively breed new stock in a variety of colors. Pelts ranged from snowy white to platinum blue to gunmetal gray to glossy black. The price of mutation pelts skyrocketed over natural ones.</p> <p>Between 1943 and 1946 the going price for single pelts rose from a range of six to twelve dollars to a range of twenty-two to forty dollars.</p> <p>During World War II “blended” coats, made from the dyed furs of lesser-quality minks, sold for between $800 and $1,200. High-end coats were almost twice as expensive, and the best coats sold for as much as $20,000. By the end of the 1940s ranch mink had eclipsed both silver fox and wild mink.</p> <p>Reinforced by returning veterans, Colorado’s second fur trade era reached its height in the late 1950s. Annual production rose from a statewide total of around 8,000 pelts in 1946 to roughly 65,000 pelts in a fifty-mile radius of Denver in 1958. Local fur ranches proliferated. In 1958, it was estimated there were 265.</p> <p>Cold War–era prosperity brought new maturity to the fur industry. Modern fur producers valued scientific breeding and progressive economic management strategies. During the 1950s and 1960s, trade publications filled their pages with articles on scientific advancements, genetics, and nutrition. One <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="spokesman" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8ggecink3hobm2" data-wsc-lang="en_US">spokesman</span> compared Colorado’s fur breeders to cattle raisers.</p> <h2>Decline</h2> <p>From its peak in 1958, the industry declined. In just three years, pelt production plummeted nationwide, from 5.7 million in 1969 to 3.2 million in 1971. Analysts attributed the sudden collapse to a price drop, sparked by a decline in demand. Suddenly, it cost more to raise a mink than its pelt was worth.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Colorado’s “Second <strong>Fur Trade</strong>” was driven by the growing popularity of mink fur coats, a luxury item that enjoyed great popularity during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Today, activist groups and prohibitively high prices have largely curbed the fur industry in Colorado. However, several prominent furriers and retailers still operate throughout the state.</p> <h2>Mink, Silver Fox, and the Fur Industry</h2> <p>Members of the weasel family, minks appear in both American (Mustela Vison) and European (Mustela Lutreola) varieties. American minks make their home near freshwater lakes and streams. They can be found in all parts of North America except in the Southwest. Wild minks move around frequently. They feed on muskrats, rabbits, mice, fish, snakes, and turtles. They mark their territory with a foul-smelling musk often considered to smell as bad as a skunk’s. Aggressive and territorial, minks of both sexes screech and hiss, discharge musk, and bite intruders. Young minks pair up with multiple partners over their lifetime. They bear anywhere between one and ten kits per litter. Eventually, they settle down with a single mate for life.</p> <p>Just after the Civil War, American farmers began raising minks for fur. Generations of captivity has bred out some of the mink’s wilder traits. Captive minks normally survive for less than one year. Born in March or April, most spend their short lives in a cramped pen, feeding on horsemeat, beef heart, cereal grains, dried fish, and other meatpacking by-products. The bulk are slaughtered in November or December, before they secrete the fur-spoiling musk that signals their maturity. Raisers spare only a choice few as breeding stock for the following year. Farmers next “pelt” the mink carcasses, stripping off their tube-like outer casing. The fatty layer below the mink’s flesh is rendered into mink oil (a lubricant used to treat certain human skin conditions and to condition boots and leather), while the pelts are sent along to coat manufacturers.</p> <p>Transforming mink skin into clothing is a time-consuming process that takes skilled hands. A full-length mink coat requires between seventy and ninety full pelts. Trained furriers hand trim the pelts, slitting each into dozens of diagonal strips. The strips are laid alongside one another and re-sewn into long, coat-length panels. Furriers then “nail” the coat together with about four pounds of pins. Coat-makers finish the garment into a glossy sheen through long hours of soaking, glazing, and beating to raise the nap.</p> <p>Ranchers looking to break into this modern fur trade had first concluded that minks were hardly worth the trouble. In the 1920s and 1930s the clothing industry considered the silver fox its fashion darling. The <strong>Denver</strong>-based <em>National Fur News</em>, the industry’s leading trade magazine, gushed over the silver fox, calling it the “miracle fur” and the “fur most universally admired by men and desired and sought after by women.” Denver furrier Coloman Jonas, founder of Denver’s elite Jonas Brothers Fur Company, hailed silvers as “the King of Foxes . . . praised the world over as the choice of the elite.” At its peak in the late 1920s, prime silver pelts fetched upwards of $200 each, compared to a “well-selling” mink’s price of only fourteen dollars.</p> <p>As fox ranches sprouted up all over the Rocky Mountain West, Colorado breeders rushed to cash in on the boom. By 1927 local ranchers had organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Breeders Association. Within ten years, Colorado fur farms were considered national leaders in the quality and diversity of their breeding stock. Despite their prestige, few Colorado breeders dabbled in mink. The best breeding pairs—from Alaska, Labrador, and the Yukon—could set ranchers back anywhere from $150 to $1,200. Constructing pens and providing feed was also expensive.</p> <p>Stressed by captivity and extremely sensitive to sudden noises, minks can literally be scared to death. They can bite and gouge each other and their handlers. An industry expert warned prospective breeders in the early 1930s that minks, “cannot be raised in captivity without difficulty.”</p> <p>Mink raising also suffered from a limited market. Compared to fox pelts of gray, silver, white, red, or tawny brown, monochromatic minks held limited appeal. From time to time a lucky rancher would rear a so-called “mutation mink” —literally a mink of a different color—that fetched a premium price in the fur market. But until ranchers could selectively breed minks to produce these qualities on an industrial scale, the silver fox remained the most profitable furbearing animal of the 1920s and the 1930s, even as higher market prices and better-quality domesticated pelts were slowly making minks the furbearer of the future. Once setup costs were dispensed with, minks were both relatively cheap to raise and under-produced. By the late 1930s fur producers were harvesting more than 1 million fox pelts per year, causing industry analysts to wonder if the market for silver foxes was becoming dangerously crowded.</p> <h2>Second Fur Trade</h2> <p>Minks develop their richest pelts between 5,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level, which made sites as varied as Strasburg, <strong>Delta, Rifle</strong>, and <strong>Golden</strong> ideal for raising mink in Colorado. Located 7,700 feet above sea level, the <strong>Genesee Mountain</strong> Fox and Mink Farms set the pace for successful mink cultivation.</p> <p>Mink raisers got another boost in 1937, when fur growers in Wisconsin developed specialty “mutation minks.” Previously, mink raisers produced pelts in variations of brown, enhanced somewhat by careful application of dye with a feather brush. Over time, ranchers learned to selectively breed new stock in a variety of colors, ranging from snowy white to platinum blue to gunmetal gray to glossy black. The price of mutation pelts skyrocketed over natural ones.</p> <p>Between 1943 and 1946 the going price for single pelts rose from a range of six to twelve dollars to a range of twenty-two to forty dollars.</p> <p>During World War II “blended” coats, made from the dyed furs of lesser-quality minks, sold for between $800 and $1,200. High-end coats were almost twice as expensive, and the best coats sold for as much as $20,000. By the end of the 1940s ranch mink had eclipsed both silver fox and wild mink, becoming the fashion standard for fur.</p> <p>Postwar demobilization and a return to normalcy benefited the fur industry greatly. As fur prices rose, more than a few returning GIs took interest in mink farming’s low overhead costs and high annual returns.</p> <p>Reinforced by the returning veterans, Colorado’s second fur trade era reached its zenith in the late 1950s. Annual production zoomed more than eightfold from a statewide total of around 8,000 pelts statewide in 1946 to roughly 65,000 pelts in a fifty-mile radius of Denver in 1958. Local fur ranches proliferated; a 1958 estimate reached 265, easily the high-water mark of Colorado mink ranching.</p> <p>Cold War–era prosperity brought a new maturity to the fur industry as well. Although the new fur boom enjoyed some of the reflected glow of the glamorous fashion industry, fur breeders of the 1950s consciously distanced themselves from the rowdy associations of the Rocky Mountain fur trade. Modern fur producers valued their mastery of scientific breeding and progressive economic management strategies. During the 1950s and 1960s, trade publications such as the <em>National Fur News</em> filled their pages with articles on scientific advancements, genetics, nutrition, market trends, and marketing advice. One <span class="wsc-grammar-problem" data-grammar-phrase="spokesman" data-grammar-rule="W_STYLE_INCLUSIVE" data-wsc-id="lia8gfcgwbru6ozzs" data-wsc-lang="en_US">spokesman</span> compared Colorado’s fur breeders to contemporary cattle raisers.</p> <h2>Decline</h2> <p>From its peak in 1958, the industry declined. In just three years, pelt production plummeted nationwide, from 5.7 million in 1969 to 3.2 million in 1971. Analysts attributed the sudden collapse to a price drop, sparked by a decline in demand. Suddenly, it cost more to raise a mink than its pelt was worth.</p> <p>Although Colorado no longer shares in the riches of the mink industry, its absence has allowed a measure of social peace. Aside from occasional anti-fur protests at area fur retailers, Colorado has avoided the controversy and the “mink liberations” that have shaken fur-raising communities. There is no guarantee of the future, however, as cycles of fashion and resistance come and go.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 06 Oct 2016 22:33:17 +0000 yongli 1927 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Chronic Wasting Disease http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chronic-wasting-disease <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chronic Wasting Disease</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1667--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1667.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/male-mule-deer"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RMNP_20160813_0042_1.jpg?itok=6AQCqvM2" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/male-mule-deer" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Male Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p><span class="subheading">Mule deer (</span><em class="subheading">Odocoileus hemionus</em><span class="subheading">) are very common</span> in Rocky Mountain National Park. They are smaller than the white-tailed deer and have a black-tipped white tail and white patch on the rump. Male mule deers have forked antlers.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1561--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1561.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/colorado-mule-deer"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/DSC01239.jpg?itok=KugeYpjq" width="1000" height="668" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/colorado-mule-deer" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Mule Deer</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado’s mule deer population has been declining due to growth of homes, roads, traffic, disease, and etc. Wildlife officials are seeking help.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/08/12/with-colorados-mule-deer-population-declining-wildlife-officials-seek-help/">More information...</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1665--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1665.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mule-deer-rocky-mountain-national-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RMNP_20160813_0001_0.jpg?itok=wmsauicO" width="1090" height="701" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mule-deer-rocky-mountain-national-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule Deer in Rocky Mountain National Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Mule deer often can be seen on tundra by Trail Ridge Road. This photo was taken on Tundra Communities Trail highest point, where elevation is <font size="-1">12,285 Feet. </font></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1666--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1666.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mule-deer-tundra"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RMNP_20160813_0031_0.jpg?itok=vdzx14HM" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mule-deer-tundra" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mule deer on tundra</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>An mule deer grazing on Tundra Communities Trail in Rocky Mountain National Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.rockymountainhikingtrails.com/tundra-communities-trail.htm">Tundra Communities Trail</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-02T15:37:40-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 2, 2016 - 15:37" class="datetime">Tue, 08/02/2016 - 15:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chronic-wasting-disease" data-a2a-title="Chronic Wasting Disease"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fchronic-wasting-disease&amp;title=Chronic%20Wasting%20Disease"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease that affects members of the deer family, causing erratic behavior and weight loss that eventually results in death. CWD is classified as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), a family of diseases that includes bovine wasting disease (mad cow disease) and scrapie, a similar disease that infects sheep. CWD affects members of the cervid family, such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose"><strong>moose</strong></a>, and multiple deer species. Colorado has been one of the epicenters of CWD since its discovery in 1967.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery, Description, and Spread</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1967 a group of scientists working at the Colorado Division of Wildlife facility in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> puzzled over why one of the <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a> they had in captivity started behaving strangely. Before long, the deer had died, and the scientists found it to be infected with a strange new disease. Several more infected mule deer were subsequently reported at Colorado facilities. Scientists knew little about CWD until 1978, when Elizabeth Williams, a researcher at the Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, classified CWD as a TSE and determined that it was caused by irregularly folded prions—certain proteins—within the deer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Produced by all mammals, prions are normally used and then broken down within an animal’s cells. When these prions are irregularly folded, the organism’s cells cannot properly break down the protein. When the prions are not broken down, they build up in neural and lymphatic tissue, causing abnormal behavior in the infected animal. This behavior can include a loss of fear of humans, diminished social interaction, increased drinking and urination, and increased salivation. The buildup of prions eventually leads to the animal’s death, the cause of which often appears to be pneumonia. This mistaken diagnosis is believed to be due to the excessive salivation caused by CWD. Infected cervids may show no sign of the infection for up to seventeen months, but when the infection sets in, the average survival time is a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1967, CWD has spread from captive cervid populations in Colorado to free-ranging elk, moose, and deer in many parts of the country. The disease can be spread between cervids via blood, saliva, and feces. Because of this, most of the disease’s spread can be attributed to healthy cervids eating the same plants as infected ones. The first case of the disease reported outside of Colorado occurred at the Sybille Wildlife Research Facility in Wyoming in 1979. Since then, the disease has spread to more than twenty US states and two provinces of Canada.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>CWD in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Significant research on CWD has been conducted at <strong>Colorado State University</strong>. Since the mad cow disease can mutate to affect humans, many of the studies deal with CWD’s potential to infect noncervid organisms. So far, scientists have infected cows, transgenic mice, and spider monkeys with CWD via cranial injections, showing that the disease can theoretically infect noncervid hosts. Fortunately, the only instances of this infection have been in lab environments. So far, there are no known cases of CWD being transmitted to a noncervid organism in the wild. Studies examining the potential transfer of CWD to humans have shown no conclusive evidence that the disease is a threat to people. Nonetheless, researchers have found that it is possible for the disease to mutate in a way that could infect humans or other animals, with drastic consequences.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CWD has a significant impact on Colorado’s deer and elk population. In areas with dense cervid populations, up to 30 percent of the population can be infected. Consequentially, large numbers are likely dying before they can reproduce. From 2003 to 2013 Colorado’s mule deer population has dropped by 36 percent, despite a reduction in hunting tags. Along with the mule deer, Colorado’s elk herds have started to decline in some parts of the state, despite a lack of predators. CWD is one possible contributing factor to these population decreases.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a> (CPW) and its predecessor agencies have attempted to manage the disease, to little avail. The research facility in Fort Collins failed in a first attempt to get rid of the disease in 1985. Then, in 2001, the Division of Parks and Recreation implemented a ten-year plan to prevent the spread of CWD as well as reduce the number of infected animals to 1 percent of the population. Methods included attempting to contain infected herds to the endemic area, killing and removing infected individuals from herds, and closely monitoring cervids being shipped in and out of the state. These efforts were largely ineffective; the disease remains prevalent and continues to spread. Officials continue to confine infected animals to historically infected areas and conduct further research on the disease.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From its discovery at a Fort Collins research facility to its rapid spread across a continent, chronic wasting disease has had a widespread impact on wildlife across Colorado and North America. Wildlife managers and scientists have been baffled, hunters frustrated, and some cervid populations within the state have begun to fall, all because of microscopic, misfolded prions. The history of this disease has only just begun, and Colorado is ground zero.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/bailey-shawn" hreflang="und">Bailey, Shawn</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chronic-wasting-disease" hreflang="en">chronic wasting disease</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elk" hreflang="en">elk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/deer" hreflang="en">deer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-parks-and-wildlife" hreflang="en">colorado parks and wildlife</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildlife-management" hreflang="en">wildlife management</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Adriano Aguzzi and Christina Sigurdson, “Chronic Wasting Disease,” <em>Molecular Basis of Disease</em> 1772 (2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paroma Basu, “<a href="https://news.wisc.edu/archive/cwd/">Soil-bound prions remain infectious</a>,” University of Wisconsin, May 30, 2003.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ermias Belay et al., “<a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/10/6/03-1082_article">Chronic Wasting Disease and Potential Transmission to Humans</a>,”<em> Emerging Infectious Diseases</em> 10, no. 6 (June 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance, “<a href="https://cwd-info.org/cwd-overview/">Chronic Wasting Disease: Implications and Challenges for Wildlife Managers</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance, “<a href="https://cwd-info.org/timeline/">Timeline</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/ResearchCWD.aspx">CWD Info &amp; Testing</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/thingstodo/Pages/Statistics.aspx">Hunting Statistics</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nicholas Haley et al., “Detection of Chronic Wasting Disease Prions in Salivary, Urinary, and Intestinal Tissues of Deer: Potential Mechanisms of Prion Shedding and Transmission,”<em> Journal of Virology</em> 85 (2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katie M. Lyon, “<a href="https://mountainscholar.orgbitstream/handle/10217/47291/Lyon_colostate_0053N_10432.pdf?sequence=1">Hunters’ Response to Chronic Wasting Disease in Four States</a>,” master’s thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bryan Richards, “Chronic Wasting Disease,” US Geological Survey, August 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elizabeth Williams, “Chronic Wasting Disease,”<em> Veterinary Pathology</em> 42 (2005).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State University, “<a href="https://www.nrel.colostate.edu/projects/modelingCWD/">The Laramie Foothills Mule Deer Project</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>University of Wyoming, Department of Veterinary Sciences, “Chronic Wasting Disease,” n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease. CWD affects <strong>elk,</strong> <strong>moose</strong>, and multiple types of deer.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery, Description, and Spread</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1967, a group of scientists found a captive <strong>mule deer</strong> behaving strangely. The deer later died. Scientists discovered it was infected with a new disease.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scientists didn't know much about chronic wasting disease until 1978. They discovered the disease was caused by irregularly folded prions. Those are certain proteins found in mammals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prions are normally used and broken down within an animal’s cells. When these prions are irregularly folded, the animal's cells cannot process the protein. The proteins build up. The buildup leads to the animal’s death.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Infected animals may not appear sick for months. Once the disease sets in, animals die within a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CWD has moved from captive animals to wild elk, moose, and deer. The disease is spread through blood and spit. Healthy animals can get the disease when they eat the same plants as infected ones.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1979, the disease was found in Wyoming. Since then, CWD has spread to more than twenty states.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>CWD in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Much of the research on CWD is being done at <strong>Colorado State University</strong>. Many of the studies deal with CWD’s potential to mutate and infect other types of animals. There are no known cases of CWD being transmitted to another type of animal in the wild. Studies have shown no evidence that the disease is a threat to people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CWD has had an impact on Colorado’s deer and elk population. From 2003 to 2013, Colorado’s mule deer population has dropped by 36 percent. Colorado’s elk herds have also started to decline in some parts of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong> has attempted to manage the disease. In 2001, a plan was put in place to prevent the spread of CWD. These efforts have not worked well.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease. It causes erratic behavior and weight loss that results in death. CWD affects <strong>elk</strong>, <strong>moose</strong>, and multiple deer species.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery, Description, and Spread</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1967, a group of scientists at the Colorado Division of Wildlife discovered a captive mule deer behaving strangely. Before long, the deer had died. Scientists discovered it was infected with a new disease. Several more infected <strong>mule deer</strong> were later reported. Scientists didn't know much about CWD until 1978, when they discovered the disease was caused by irregularly folded prions—certain proteins—within the deer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prions are normally used and then broken down within an animal’s cells. When these prions are irregularly folded, the animal's cells cannot process the protein. The proteins build up. The buildup leads to the animal’s death. Infected animals may show no sign of the disease for months. Once infection sets in, the average survival time is a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1967, CWD has moved from captive animals to free-ranging elk, moose, and deer. The disease can be spread by blood, saliva, and feces. Healthy animals can get the disease when they eat the same plants as infected ones. The first case of the disease reported outside of Colorado occurred in Wyoming in 1979. Since then, the disease has been found in more than twenty US states and two Canadian Providences.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>CWD in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Much of the research on CWD has been conducted at <strong>Colorado State University</strong>. Many of the studies deal with CWD’s potential to mutate and infect noncervid organisms. So far, scientists have infected cows, transgenic mice, and spider monkeys. However, the only instances of infection have been in a lab. There are no known cases of CWD being transmitted to a noncervid organism in the wild. Studies have shown no conclusive evidence that the disease is a threat to people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CWD has a significant impact on Colorado’s deer and elk population. From 2003 to 2013, Colorado’s mule deer population has dropped by 36 percent. Colorado’s elk herds have also started to decline in some parts of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong> has attempted to manage the disease. In 2001, the Division of Parks and Recreation put a ten-year plan to prevent the spread of CWD in place. These efforts have been largely ineffective.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chronic wasting disease has had a widespread impact on wildlife. The history of this disease has only just begun. Colorado is ground zero.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease that affects members of the deer family. It causes erratic behavior and weight loss that results in death. It is part of a family of diseases that includes bovine wasting disease (mad cow disease) and scrapie, a similar disease that infects sheep. CWD affects <strong>elk</strong>, <strong>moose</strong>, and multiple deer species. Colorado has been one of the epicenters of CWD since its discovery in 1967.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery, Description, and Spread</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1967, a group of scientists working at the Colorado Division of Wildlife facility in <strong>Fort Collins</strong> discovered a captive <strong>mule deer</strong> behaving strangely. Before long, the deer had died. Scientists discovered it was infected with a new disease. Several more infected mule deer were later reported. Scientists knew little about CWD until 1978, when Elizabeth Williams, a researcher at the Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, determined it was caused by irregularly folded prions—certain proteins—within the deer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Produced by all mammals, prions are normally used and then broken down within an animal’s cells. When these prions are irregularly folded, the organism’s cells cannot properly break down the protein. When the prions are not broken down, they build up in neural and lymphatic tissue, causing abnormal behavior. This behavior can include a loss of fear of humans, diminished social interaction, increased drinking and urination, and increased salivation. The buildup of prions eventually leads to the animal’s death. Infected animals may show no sign of the infection for up to seventeen months. Once infection sets in, the average survival time is a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1967, CWD has spread from captive populations in Colorado to free-ranging elk, moose, and deer in other parts of the country. The disease can be spread by blood, saliva, and feces. Most of the disease’s spread can be attributed to healthy animals eating the same plants as infected ones. The first case of the disease reported outside of Colorado occurred in Wyoming in 1979. Since then, the disease has spread to more than twenty US states and two Canadian Providences.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>CWD in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Significant research on CWD has been conducted at <strong>Colorado State University</strong>. Since mad cow disease can mutate to affect humans, many of the studies deal with CWD’s potential to infect noncervid organisms. So far, scientists have infected cows, transgenic mice, and spider monkeys. However, the only instances of infection have been in lab environments. So far, there are no known cases of CWD being transmitted to a noncervid organism in the wild. Studies examining the potential transfer of CWD to humans have shown no conclusive evidence that the disease is a threat to people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CWD has a significant impact on Colorado’s deer and elk population. In areas with dense cervid populations, up to 30 percent of the population can be infected. From 2003 to 2013 Colorado’s mule deer population has dropped by 36 percent. Colorado’s elk herds have also started to decline in some parts of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong> has attempted to manage the disease. In 2001, the Division of Parks and Recreation implemented a ten-year plan to prevent the spread of CWD. These efforts have been largely ineffective. Officials continue to conduct further research.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chronic wasting disease has had a widespread impact on wildlife across North America. The history of this disease has only just begun. Colorado is ground zero.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 02 Aug 2016 21:37:40 +0000 yongli 1560 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Rocky Mountain Elk http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountain Elk</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2221--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2221.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/rocky-mountain-elk"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Elk%20Media%202_0.jpg?itok=bkFO2PeG" width="1090" height="613" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/rocky-mountain-elk" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountain Elk</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Elk in grassy field.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2222--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2222.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/rocky-mountain-elk-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Elk%20Media%201_0_0.jpg?itok=MShDpVA3" width="1090" height="613" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/rocky-mountain-elk-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountain Elk</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Bull Elk courting Cow Elk in the Rocky Mountains.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-02T15:22:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 2, 2016 - 15:22" class="datetime">Tue, 08/02/2016 - 15:22</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk" data-a2a-title="Rocky Mountain Elk"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Frocky-mountain-elk&amp;title=Rocky%20Mountain%20Elk"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Rocky Mountain Elk (<em>Cervus canadensis nelsoni</em>) are large mammals in the deer family that live in Colorado’s forests. Revered as a symbol of the American West, they have played an important role in Colorado’s ecology and natural history. Each year, millions of people travel to <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a> and Colorado’s <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>National Forests</strong></a> to catch a glimpse of these animals. In addition to drawing tourists, the state’s elk populations also attract hunters from around the globe.</p><div style="position:absolute;right:-384060408px;"><p>A Rocky Mountain Elk, fenséges agancsával és nemes termetével, az online kaszinókban gyakran megjelenő szimbolikus ikonná vált. A vadonhoz és a nagysághoz való kötődéséről híres Rocky Mountain Elk képe egy csipetnyi vad vonzerőt kölcsönöz az <a href="https://playsafehu.com/gyumolcsos-jatekgepek/">Online Gyümölcsös Nyerőgépek</a> és más népszerű kaszinójátékok virtuális tájképének. Az online kaszinók stratégiailag használják a Rocky Mountain Elk képét, hogy a játékosokban a kaland és az izgalom érzését keltsék. A vadonban barangoló csodálatos állat látványa a szerencsejátékosok izgalomkereső ösztöneire hat, és arra csábítja őket, hogy belevágjanak az Online Gyümölcsös Nyerőgépek köré összpontosuló izgalmas játékélményekbe. A sziklás hegyi szarvas képe ráadásul vizuális jelként szolgál a játékosok számára, jelezve a kaszinójátékok vad és kiszámíthatatlan természetét, különösen az Online Gyümölcsös Nyerőgépek dinamikus birodalmában. Ahogyan a jávorszarvas szabadon kószál a vadonban, úgy a játékosok is az Online Gyümölcsös Nyerőgépek állandóan változó tájain navigálnak, ahol a szerencse minden egyes tárcsapörgetéssel megváltozhat.</p></div><h2>Ecology</h2><p>Historically, Colorado’s elk populations have oscillated widely. Elk<em>,</em> or <em>wapiti</em>—a Shawnee Indian term for the animals—moved across the Bering Strait from Asia at least 120,000 years ago. Their distribution and abundance in North America ebbed and flowed in relation to periods of glaciation, but they roamed from northern Canada into Mexico. Elk arrived in northern Colorado about 8,000–10,000 years ago and in southern Colorado about 4,000–5,000 years ago. Historical estimates suggest that the elk population might have exceeded 10 million prior to European arrival on the continent in 1492.</p><p>The North American elk is a gregarious grazer, feeding mostly on grasses and forbs instead of shrubs. Their current preference for forest cover is thought to be an innovation, as their herding behavior is typical of mammals that live in open country. Winter elk herds are large, ranging from fifty to several hundred individuals of both sexes. Winter herds disband as bulls move first to summer range, following the retreating<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong> snowline</strong></a> and the advance of green herbage. Cow and calves follow bulls to summer range, and the great winter herds break up into smaller bands.</p><p>The crisp air of late September carries the bugling of bulls, signaling the beginning of the rut, or mating, season. Contrary to popular belief, bugling is neither a challenge nor a threat. It is partly a release of tension built up during the bull’s seasonal changes; the shoulders and neck swell with the rut, and antlers sharpen. Bugling peaks in early October, and the most aggressive bulls assert authority over bands of five to fifteen cows. Another bull may challenge that authority through sparring, an antler-clashing battle for dominance.</p><p>Gestation takes about 250 days, and a single calf weighing about thirty-three pounds is born in June. With an odor seemingly detectable only by the mother, the calf remains motionless and is left alone as the mother forages. As typical of ungulates, the calves are mobile within hours of birth. The calf develops quickly and is usually weaned by late summer. At six months it may weigh 265 pounds. Cows are mature by their second autumn and usually begin reproducing after three years. Because of the social structure of the herd, bulls do not generally acquire cows and begin breeding until their fourth or fifth year.</p><p>At one time <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wolves-colorado"><strong>gray wolves</strong></a> preyed on elk, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lions</strong></a> still take a few annually. A pack of <strong>coyotes</strong> can kill a weakened elk or one immobilized by deep snow. As with deer, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose"><strong>moose</strong></a>, and caribou, elk harbor parasites, including flukes, tapeworms and roundworms, lice, botflies, and mites. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chronic-wasting-disease"><strong>Chronic wasting disease</strong></a><strong> </strong>(CWD)<strong>—</strong>a contagious neurological disease affecting the brains of deer, moose, and elk—is known in some Colorado elk populations, including those in Rocky Mountain National Park. CWD predominantly affects adult animals and typically results in dramatic behavioral changes. Infected elk are less social and may suffer from tremors, listlessness, nervousness, and excessive salivation, the latter which is thought to contribute to the spread of the disease. CWD’s common denominator is chronic weight loss, which ultimately leads to death.</p><h2>Human Interaction</h2><p>Where elk appeared in abundance, indigenous peoples hunted them for food, clothing, and tools. In Colorado, <strong>Navajo, </strong><a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a><strong>, Jicarilla Apache, </strong>Havasupai, Hopi, Zuni, and other peoples harvested elk in the southern <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a><strong> </strong>and the<strong> Four Corners </strong>region.</p><p>The pre-European period of abundance ended abruptly in the mid-nineteenth century. As white settlement and railroads moved westward, elk, <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a><strong>, </strong>deer, and <a href="/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a> were hunted to feed the growing western population and to suppress Native Americans. This reduced the elk population from an estimated 10 million to fewer than 100,000 in 1907 and approximately 90,000 in 1922. About one-third of those elk lived in the Yellowstone area and Canada.</p><p>Colorado’s elk had a similar experience. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 ushered in a period of intense exploitation that did not cease until the early 1900s, when Colorado began enacting strict hunting regulations to conserve its remaining elk. The <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> estimated that Colorado’s 1910 population contained 500 to 1,000 head of elk, with the largest herds in the <strong>White </strong>and <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> watersheds. The diminishing elk herds prompted Colorado to halt elk hunting throughout most of the state from 1903 to 1933. From 1912 to 1928, the Colorado Department of Game and Fish (the predecessor to <a href="/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife"><strong>Colorado Parks and Wildlife</strong></a>) reintroduced 350 elk from Jackson Hole, Wyoming, into fourteen areas, including the <strong>Hermosa Creek </strong>drainage north of <strong>Durango</strong> in 1912. During the 1930s, after elk populations had rebounded, the state trapped elk from abundant herds in southwest Colorado and transplanted them to other states to begin new herds.</p><h2>Return to Abundance</h2><p>Elk have been successfully restored to Colorado. In fact, with an estimated elk population of 280,000, the state hosts the largest elk population in North America. The relatively docile ungulates may be a reliable tourist draw, but excessively large elk populations can result in overgrazing that threatens ecosystem stability.</p><p>With humans having severely reduced the state’s population of mountain lions, wolves, and coyotes, state and federal wildlife officials use artificial strategies such as hunting and <a href="/article/elk-culling"><strong>culling</strong></a> to manage elk populations. About 250,000 hunters pursue elk each year in Colorado, harvesting nearly 50,000. Culling, meanwhile, involves killing off fertile females when the elk population approaches a predetermined peak population. The need for such lethal management strategies demonstrates that Colorado’s elk population has cycled back to abundance after its severe reduction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.</p><p><strong>Adapted from Scott Wait and Mike Japhet, “Wildlife of the San Juans: A Story of Abundance and Exploitation,” in </strong><em><strong>The Eastern San Juan Mountains: Their Geology</strong></em><strong>, </strong><em><strong>Ecology, and Human History</strong></em><strong>, ed. Rob Blair and George Bracksieck (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011) and David M. Armstrong, “Order Artiodactyla: Even-toed Hoofed Mammals,” in </strong><em><strong>Rocky Mountain Mammals: A Handbook of Mammals of Rocky Mountain National Park and Vicinity</strong></em><strong>, 3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</strong></p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elk" hreflang="en">elk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-elk" hreflang="en">colorado elk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-elk-colorado" hreflang="en">history of elk in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wildlife-management" hreflang="en">wildlife management</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-parks-and-wildlife" hreflang="en">colorado parks and wildlife</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elk-culling" hreflang="en">elk culling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wildlife" hreflang="en">colorado wildlife</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David M. Armstrong, <em>Rock Mountain Mammals: A Handbook of Mammals of Rocky Mountain National Park and Vicinity</em>, 3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</p><p>Rob Blair and George Bracksieck eds., <em>The Eastern San Juan Mountains: Their Geology, Ecology, and Human History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p><p>David M. Armstrong, James P. Fitzgerald, and Carron A. Meaney, <em>Mammals of Colorado</em> 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p><p>William L. Baker et al., “The Effects of Elk on Aspen in the Winter Range in Rocky Mountain National Park,” <em>Ecography </em>20, no. 2 (April 1997).</p><p>Pete Barrows and Judith Holmes, <em>Colorado’s Wildlife Story</em>. (Denver: Colorado Division of Wildlife, 1990).</p><p>Jerry J. Frank, <em>Making Rocky Mountain National Park: The Environmental History of an American Treasure</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013).</p><p>Bruce C. Lubow et al., “Dynamics of Interacting Elk Populations Within and Adjacent to Rocky Mountain National Park,” <em>The Journal of Wildlife Management</em>, 66, no. 3 (July, 2002).</p><p>Dale E. Toweill and Jack Ward Thomas, eds., <em>North American Elk: Ecology and Management</em> (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Rocky Mountain Elk are large mammals in the deer family. They live in Colorado’s forests. Each year, millions of people travel to Rocky Mountain National Park to see these animals. The state’s elk populations also attract hunters from around the globe.</p><h2>Ecology</h2><p>Colorado’s elk population has changed over time. Elk moved across the Bering Strait from Asia at least 120,000 years ago. Elk arrived in northern Colorado about 8,000–10,000 years ago. They came to southern Colorado about 4,000–5,000 years ago.</p><p>The North American elk is a gregarious grazer. They feed on grasses.</p><p>Winter elk herds are large. They range from fifty to several hundred animals of both sexes. Winter herds disband as bulls move to summer range. Cow and calves follow bulls. Large winter herds break up into smaller bands.</p><p>In September, bulls begin to bugle. This begins the rut, or mating, season. Bugling is neither a challenge nor a threat. It is a release of tension built up during the bull’s seasonal changes. These changes include the shoulders and neck swelling and antlers sharpening. Bugling peaks in early October. The most aggressive bulls gather five to fifteen cows. Another bull may challenge that authority through sparring. That's an antler-clashing battle for dominance.</p><p>Gestation takes about 250 days. A single calf weighing about thirty-three pounds is born in June. The calf remains motionless and is left alone as the mother eats. The calves can walk within hours of birth. The calf develops quickly. At six months, it may weigh 265 pounds. Cows are mature by their second autumn. They usually begin reproducing after three years. Bulls do not generally acquire cows and begin breeding until their fourth or fifth year.</p><p>At one time, gray wolves ate elk. Mountain lions take some every year. A pack of coyotes can kill an elk stuck in deep snow. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious disease affecting the brains of deer, moose, and elk. It can be found in some Colorado elk populations. CWD’s most common symptom is chronic weight loss. This leads to death.</p><h2>Human Interaction</h2><p>Where elk herds were large, native peoples hunted them for food, clothing, and tools. In Colorado, Navajo, Ute, and Hopi peoples hunted elk.</p><p>As white settlement moved west, elk, bison, deer, and bighorn sheep were hunted to feed the growing population. This reduced the elk population from about 10 million to fewer than 100,000 in 1907. About one-third of those elk lived in the Yellowstone area and Canada.</p><p>Colorado’s elk had a similar experience. The US Forest Service estimated that Colorado’s 1910 population was 500 to 1,000 head. Shrinking elk herds prompted Colorado to stop elk hunting throughout most of the state from 1903 to 1933. From 1912 to 1928, the Colorado Department of Game and Fish reintroduced 350 elk from Jackson Hole, Wyoming. After elk populations grew, the state trapped elk from herds in southwest Colorado. They took them to other states to begin new herds.</p><h2>Return to Abundance</h2><p>Elk have been brought back in Colorado. Colorado has an estimated elk population of 280,000.&nbsp; That's the largest elk population in North America.</p><p>Wildlife officials use strategies such as hunting and culling to manage elk populations. About 250,000 hunters pursue elk each year in Colorado, harvesting nearly 50,000. Culling involves killing off fertile females when the population reaches a certain number. The need for such strategies shows Colorado’s elk population has recovered.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Rocky Mountain Elk are large mammals in the deer family. They live in Colorado’s forests. Each year, millions of people travel to Rocky Mountain National Park to see these animals. The state’s elk populations also attract hunters from around the globe.</p><h2>Ecology</h2><p>Colorado’s elk populations have changed over time. Elk moved across the Bering Strait from Asia at least 120,000 years ago. Elk arrived in northern Colorado about 8,000–10,000 years ago. They came to southern Colorado about 4,000–5,000 years ago. The elk population might have exceeded 10 million prior to European arrival in 1492.</p><p>The North American elk is a gregarious grazer. Elk feed mostly on grasses instead of shrubs. Their current preference for forest cover is thought to be an innovation. Their herding behavior is typical of mammals that live in open country. Winter elk herds are large. They range from fifty to several hundred animals of both sexes. Winter herds disband as bulls move to summer range. Cow and calves follow bulls to summer range. Large winter herds break up into smaller bands.</p><p>The crisp air of late September carries the bugling of bulls. This signals the beginning of the rut, or mating, season. Bugling is neither a challenge nor a threat. It is a release of tension built up during the bull’s seasonal changes. These changes include the shoulders and neck swelling and antlers sharpening. Bugling peaks in early October. The most aggressive bulls collect bands of five to fifteen cows. Another bull may challenge that authority through sparring, an antler-clashing battle for dominance.</p><p>Gestation takes about 250 days. A single calf weighing about thirty-three pounds is born in June. The calf remains motionless and is left alone as the mother forages. The calves are mobile within hours of birth. The calf develops quickly and is usually weaned by late summer. At six months, it may weigh 265 pounds. Cows are mature by their second autumn. They usually begin reproducing after three years. Bulls do not generally acquire cows and begin breeding until their fourth or fifth year.</p><p>At one time gray wolves preyed on elk. Mountain lions still take a few annually. A pack of coyotes can kill a weakened elk or one immobilized by deep snow. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious disease affecting the brains of deer, moose, and elk. It can be found in some Colorado elk populations. CWD’s most common symptom is chronic weight loss. This leads to death.</p><h2>Human Interaction</h2><p>Where elk herds were large, indigenous peoples hunted them for food, clothing, and tools. In Colorado, Navajo, Ute, Jicarilla Apache, Havasupai, Hopi, Zuni, and other peoples harvested elk in the southern Rocky Mountains and the Four Corners region.</p><p>As white settlement and railroads moved westward, elk, bison, deer, and bighorn sheep were hunted to feed the growing western population. This reduced the elk population from an estimated 10 million to fewer than 100,000 in 1907. About one-third of those elk lived in the Yellowstone area and Canada.</p><p>Colorado’s elk had a similar experience. The US Forest Service estimated that Colorado’s 1910 population contained 500 to 1,000 head of elk. The shrinking elk herds prompted Colorado to halt elk hunting throughout most of the state from 1903 to 1933. From 1912 to 1928, the Colorado Department of Game and Fish reintroduced 350 elk from Jackson Hole, Wyoming into fourteen areas. After elk populations rebounded, the state trapped elk from herds in southwest Colorado and took them to other states to begin new herds.</p><h2>Return to Abundance</h2><p>Elk have been successfully restored to Colorado. With an estimated elk population of 280,000, the state hosts the largest elk population in North America. However, large elk populations can result in overgrazing that threatens ecosystem stability.</p><p>State and federal wildlife officials use artificial strategies such as hunting and culling to manage elk populations. About 250,000 hunters pursue elk each year in Colorado, harvesting nearly 50,000. Culling, meanwhile, involves killing off fertile females when the elk population approaches a certain number. The need for such lethal management strategies shows that Colorado’s elk population has recovered.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Rocky Mountain Elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni) are large mammals in the deer family that live in Colorado’s forests. They have played an important role in Colorado’s ecology and natural history. Each year, millions of people travel to Rocky Mountain National Park and Colorado’s National Forests to see these animals. In addition to drawing tourists, the state’s elk populations also attract hunters from around the globe.</p><h2>Ecology</h2><p>Colorado’s elk populations have changed over time. Elk moved across the Bering Strait from Asia at least 120,000 years ago. Elk arrived in northern Colorado about 8,000–10,000 years ago and in southern Colorado about 4,000–5,000 years ago. Historical estimates suggest that the elk population might have exceeded 10 million prior to European arrival in 1492.</p><p>The North American elk is a gregarious grazer, feeding mostly on grasses and forbs instead of shrubs. Their current preference for forest cover is thought to be an innovation. Their herding behavior is typical of mammals that live in open country. Winter elk herds are large, ranging from fifty to several hundred individuals of both sexes. Winter herds disband as bulls move to summer range. Cow and calves follow bulls to summer range, and the great winter herds break up into smaller bands.</p><p>The crisp air of late September carries the bugling of bulls, signaling the beginning of the rut, or mating, season. Contrary to popular belief, bugling is neither a challenge nor a threat. It is partly a release of tension built up during the bull’s seasonal changes; the shoulders and neck swell with the rut, and antlers sharpen. Bugling peaks in early October, and the most aggressive bulls assert authority over bands of five to fifteen cows. Another bull may challenge that authority through sparring, an antler-clashing battle for dominance.</p><p>Gestation takes about 250 days, and a single calf weighing about thirty-three pounds is born in June. The calf remains motionless and is left alone as the mother forages. As typical of ungulates, the calves are mobile within hours of birth. The calf develops quickly and is usually weaned by late summer. At six months it may weigh 265 pounds. Cows are mature by their second autumn and usually begin reproducing after three years. Bulls do not generally acquire cows and begin breeding until their fourth or fifth year.</p><p>At one time gray wolves preyed on elk, and mountain lions still take a few annually. A pack of coyotes can kill a weakened elk or one immobilized by deep snow. Elk harbor parasites, including flukes, tapeworms and roundworms, lice, botflies, and mites. Chronic wasting disease (CWD)—a contagious neurological disease affecting the brains of deer, moose, and elk—is known in some Colorado elk populations. CWD primarily affects adult animals and typically results in dramatic behavioral changes. Infected elk are less social and may suffer from tremors, listlessness, nervousness, and excessive salivation. CWD’s common denominator is chronic weight loss, which ultimately leads to death.</p><h2>Human Interaction</h2><p>Where elk appeared in abundance, indigenous peoples hunted them for food, clothing, and tools. In Colorado, Navajo, Ute, Jicarilla Apache, Havasupai, Hopi, Zuni, and other peoples harvested elk in the southern Rocky Mountains and the Four Corners region.</p><p>The pre-European period of abundance ended abruptly in the mid-nineteenth century. As white settlement and railroads moved westward, elk, bison, deer, and bighorn sheep were hunted to feed the growing western population. This reduced the elk population from an estimated 10 million to fewer than 100,000 in 1907. About one-third of those elk lived in the Yellowstone area and Canada.</p><p>Colorado’s elk had a similar experience. The US Forest Service estimated that Colorado’s 1910 population contained 500 to 1,000 head of elk. The diminishing elk herds prompted Colorado to halt elk hunting throughout most of the state from 1903 to 1933. From 1912 to 1928, the Colorado Department of Game and Fish reintroduced 350 elk from Jackson Hole, Wyoming into fourteen areas. After elk populations rebounded, the state trapped elk from herds in southwest Colorado and transplanted them to other states to begin new herds.</p><h2>Return to Abundance</h2><p>Elk have been successfully restored to Colorado. With an estimated elk population of 280,000, the state hosts the largest elk population in North America. However, large elk populations can result in overgrazing that threatens ecosystem stability.</p><p>State and federal wildlife officials use artificial strategies such as hunting and culling to manage elk populations. About 250,000 hunters pursue elk each year in Colorado, harvesting nearly 50,000. Culling, meanwhile, involves killing off fertile females when the elk population approaches a certain number. The need for such lethal management strategies shows that Colorado’s elk population has recovered.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 02 Aug 2016 21:22:52 +0000 yongli 1559 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Beaver http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Beaver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1546--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1546.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/north-american-beaver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Beavers%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=DsNa8-i_" width="688" height="344" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/north-american-beaver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">North American Beaver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The North American beaver (Castor canadensis), a keystone species in Colorado’s wetlands and waterways, has struggled to recover from excessive trapping during the nineteenth-century fur trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-01T14:28:41-06:00" title="Monday, August 1, 2016 - 14:28" class="datetime">Mon, 08/01/2016 - 14:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver" data-a2a-title="Beaver"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbeaver&amp;title=Beaver"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The North American beaver (<em>Castor canadensis</em>) is native to Colorado, and its role as both an environmental engineer and a keystone species has profoundly impacted the state’s ecology and history. Although their populations today are low, beavers continue to shape Colorado’s environments.</p> <h2>Ecology and Early History</h2> <p>Beavers are the largest rodents in North America, and the second largest in the world. On average, they weigh between forty and fifty pounds and measure about forty-eight inches in length. Active in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian</strong></a> areas (near waterways), the semiaquatic animals have developed waterproof fur and flat, scaly tails that function as a rudder, help with balance on land, and act as a lever in dam construction.</p> <p>The most environmentally significant activity beavers do is create dams. They use their large teeth to cut down shrubs and trees, which they use as building material. Beavers form nuclear families, and several families live together in a colony. Working together, these colonies interweave materials, creating complex and watertight structures. Beavers are resourceful creatures, and their methods for creating dams vary depending on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> levels and available materials.</p> <p>Beaver dams create ponds with stable water levels that perform a variety of functions. According to wildlife resource scientist Dietland Müller-Schwarze, the beaver pond is a “highway, canal, lock … escape route, hiding place, vegetable garden, food storage facility, refrigerator/freezer, water storage tank, bathtub, swimming pool, and water toilet.” Not only do the ponds create a suitable habitat for beavers, but they help create and expand <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>wetlands</strong></a>, providing habitat for other water-loving animals. This is why beavers are regarded as a keystone species–a species that disproportionately affects its environment and alters its ecosystem.</p> <p>Prior to European settlement, an estimated 60 million beavers ranged across much of what became the United States and Canada. In Colorado, beavers could be found up to heights of 10,500 feet. Over thousands of years, beavers have aggraded small river valleys in North America, dramatically altering water systems and shaping ecology. Beavers were considered very important by many Native American cultures over the centuries. For example, the Comanche prized beaver pelts and tied strips of beaver skin to their braids.</p> <h2>Westward Expansion and the Fur Trade</h2> <p>Together, beavers’ warm fur and Europeans’ fashion tastes spurred a demand for beaver pelts that lasted from the mid-sixteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century. With the destruction of beaver populations in eastern North America and the American acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the search for new beaver trapping grounds lured trappers westward to Colorado.</p> <p>The <strong>Rocky Mountains </strong>proved a bonanza for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> from 1822 to 1840. Mountain men, the name given to trappers in the Rocky Mountains, explored much of what was to become northern Colorado over the course of the 1830s and 1840s in search of beavers. As the 1830s progressed, and as beaver populations declined in other areas, the Colorado Rockies became the second-most-important trapping ground for the fur trade. Trappers and traders also became some of the first Europeans and Americans to settle in Colorado, driven by the abundance of beaver. By 1837, fur <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> had been established all along the Colorado Piedmont. Beavers thus played a large role in opening Colorado to white settlement and exploration.</p> <p>In 1840, mountain man Robert Newell declared the fur trade in the Rocky Mountains dead. The destruction of beaver populations throughout the Rockies, as well as domestic economic instability and global changes in fashion, had brought an end to the economic productivity of the trade. However, it was not until 1900 that Colorado lawmakers decided to restore the drastically low numbers of beavers in the state. State legislation then began to restrict beaver trapping to specific seasons.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Beavers are still a rare sight in Colorado and have never fully recovered from their nineteenth-century depletion, even declining in many areas since the 1940s. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a><strong>,</strong> beavers inhabit only 10 percent of suitable habitat. There are numerous reasons for this. Beavers are widely considered to be an inconvenience rather than an environmentally essential species. Even though the Rocky Mountain Fur Trade ended in the nineteenth century, beaver hunting has persisted, albeit on a much smaller scale. Under Colorado State Law, so-called nuisance beavers that cause damage to property can be killed or hunted. There is no limit on the number of beavers an individual can bag during the hunting season.</p> <p>Lack of adequate riparian plant life, such as willows, in Colorado is also a major factor in the stagnation of beaver populations. These plants are both essential food resources for beavers and greatly benefit from the stable water levels engineered by beavers. Rising populations of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> and cattle in riparian areas over the last century have led to increased grazing, which in turn has stunted the growth of riparian plants. Limiting elk and cattle grazing has been proposed as a solution to low beaver populations.</p> <p>Current Rocky Mountain National Park conservation and wildlife management plans do not directly focus on beavers. However, officials have taken beavers into consideration in the park’s “Elk and Vegetation Management Plan” of 2007. The plan states that once willow vegetation has resurged, natural recolonization of beavers may occur. The twenty-year plan also proposes that if natural recolonization does not happen, then reintroduction would be considered. This, however, has yet to happen, rendering the future of beavers in Colorado uncertain.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/reeve-holly" hreflang="und">Reeve, Holly</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beaver" hreflang="en">beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wetlands" hreflang="en">wetlands</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/north-american-beaver" hreflang="en">north american beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trapper" hreflang="en">trapper</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/LivingwithWildlifeBeaver.aspx">Beaver Problems</a>,” Press Release, June 29, 2000.</p> <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/Documents/WildlifeSpecies/LivingWithWildlife/NuisanceWildlife.pdf">Nuisance Wildlife Laws in Colorado</a>,” updated June 2015.</p> <p>Colorado Parks and Wildlife, “<a href="https://nocopf.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/SmallGame.compressed.pdf">2015 Colorado Small Game</a>.”</p> <p>Eric Jay Dolin, <em>Fur, Fortune, and Empire: The Epic History of the Fur Trade in America</em> (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011).</p> <p>Ben Goldfarb, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.19/the-beaver-whisperer">The Beaver Whisperer</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, November 9, 2015,.</p> <p>Fred R. Gowans<em>, Rocky Mountain Rendezvous: A History of the Fur Trade Rendezvous, 1825–1840</em> (Layton: G.M. Smith / Peregrine Smith Books, 1985).</p> <p>Keith G. Hay, “Succession of Beaver Ponds in Colorado 50 Years After Beaver Removal,” <em>Journal of Wildlife Management </em>74, no. 8 (2010).</p> <p>Helge Ingstad, <em>The Apache Indians: In Search of the Missing Tribe</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004).</p> <p>La Plata County, Colorado, “<a href="https://www.co.laplata.co.us/local_resources/agriculture/living_with_wildlife/living_with_beavers">Living with Beavers,</a>” n.d.</p> <p>Dietland Müller-Schwarze, <em>Beaver: Its Life and Impact,</em> 2nd ed. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/nature/beavers.htm">Beavers</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/management/elkveg_fact_sheet.htm">Elk and Vegetation Management Plan Fact Sheet</a>,” updated August 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/management/upload/rod_evmp_signed_2-15-08.pdf">Final Environmental Impact Statement: Elk and Vegetation Management Plan</a>,” February 15, 2008.</p> <p>D. J. Wishart, <em>The Fur Trade of the American West, 1807-1840: A Geographical Synthesis</em> (London: Croom Helm, 1979).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Don J. Neff, “A Seventy Year History of a Colorado Beaver Colony,” <em>Journal of Mammalogy</em> 40, no. 3 (1959).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>The North American beaver is native to Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecology and Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers are the largest rodents in North America. Beavers weigh between forty and fifty pounds. They are about forty-eight inches long. Beavers have developed waterproof fur and flat tails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers build dams. They use their large teeth to cut down shrubs and trees. Those plants become building material.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers form families. Families live in a colony. The colonies work together to create dams.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beaver dams help make ponds. The ponds are a home for beavers. They also help create wetlands where other animals live.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Westward Expansion and the Fur Trade</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers’ warm fur created a demand for pelts. That lasted from the mid-1500's to the mid-1800's. In the 1830s, Colorado became an important trapping ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The destruction of beaver populations brought an end to the trade.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The number of beavers remains low. There are several reasons. Many people consider beavers to be a nuisance. Beavers that damage property can be killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lack of willow trees is another reason for the decline of beavers. These plants are an important source of food.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>If there are more willows, the beaver population may grow. Until then, the future of beavers in Colorado is uncertain.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>The North American beaver (Castor canadensis) is native to Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecology and Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers are the largest rodents in North America. The average beaver weighs between forty and fifty pounds. They are about forty-eight inches long. Beavers have developed waterproof fur and flat and scaly tails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The most significant activity beavers do is create dams. They use their large teeth to cut down shrubs and trees, which they use as building material.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beaver dams create ponds that perform a variety of functions. Beaver ponds can be highways, hiding places, food storage, and bathtubs. They help create and expand wetlands, providing habitat for other animals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Before European settlement, an estimated 60 million beavers lived in North America. In Colorado, beavers could be found up to heights of 10,500 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Westward Expansion and the Fur Trade</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers’ warm fur and Europeans’ fashion tastes spurred a demand for pelts that lasted from the mid-1500's to the mid-1800's. With the destruction of beaver populations in eastern North America, trappers moved west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Rocky Mountains proved a bonanza for the fur trade from 1822 to 1840. Trappers explored much of what was to become northern Colorado in search of beavers. In the 1830s, the Colorado Rockies became the second-most-important trapping ground. By 1837, fur trading posts were all along the Colorado Piedmont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1840, the fur trade in the Rocky Mountains was declared dead. The destruction of beaver populations and changes in fashion brought an end to the trade.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The beaver population has never fully recovered. There are several reasons for this. Many people consider beavers to be a nuisance. Under Colorado State Law, beavers that damage property can be killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lack of plant life, such as willows, is a major factor in the decline of the beaver population. These plants are essential food for beavers. Rising populations of elk and cattle have led to increased grazing, which has stunted willow growth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Current conservation and wildlife management plans do not focus on beavers. Experts believe once willow vegetation has returned, the beaver population may grow. If that doesn't happen, beavers may be reintroduced. However, until that happens, the future of beavers in Colorado is uncertain.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>The North American beaver (Castor canadensis) is native to Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecology and Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers are the largest rodents in North America, and the second largest in the world. The average beaver weighs between forty and fifty pounds and measures about forty-eight inches in length. Active in riparian areas (near waterways), the semi aquatic animals have developed waterproof fur and flat and scaly tails that function as a rudder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The most environmentally significant activity beavers do is create dams. They use their large teeth to cut down shrubs and trees, which they use as building material. Beavers form nuclear families, and several families live together in a colony.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beaver dams create ponds with stable water levels that perform a variety of functions. Beaver ponds can be highways, hiding places, vegetable gardens, food storage, refrigerator/freezers, water storage tanks, bathtubs, swimming pools, and toilets. They help create and expand wetlands, providing habitat for other animals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prior to European settlement, an estimated 60 million beavers lived in North America. In Colorado, beavers could be found up to heights of 10,500 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Westward Expansion and the Fur Trade</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beavers’ warm fur and Europeans’ fashion tastes spurred a demand for pelts that lasted from the mid-sixteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century. With the destruction of beaver populations in eastern North America, the search for new beaver trapping grounds lured trappers westward to Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Rocky Mountains proved a bonanza for the fur trade from 1822 to 1840. Trappers explored much of what was to become northern Colorado over the course of the 1830s and 1840s in search of beavers. As the 1830s progressed, the Colorado Rockies became the second-most-important trapping ground for the fur trade. By 1837, fur trading posts had been established all along the Colorado Piedmont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1840, mountain man Robert Newell declared the fur trade in the Rocky Mountains dead. The destruction of beaver populations throughout the Rockies, as well as changes in fashion, brought an end to the trade. However, it was not until 1900 that Colorado lawmakers decided to restore the drastically low numbers of beavers. State legislation began to restrict beaver trapping to specific seasons.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beaver populations have never fully recovered. In Rocky Mountain National Park, beavers inhabit only 10 percent of suitable habitat. There are numerous reasons for this. Beavers are widely considered to be an inconvenience rather than essential. Under Colorado State Law, beavers that cause damage to property can be killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lack of adequate riparian plant life, such as willows, is also a major factor in the decline of the beaver population. These plants are essential food for beavers. Rising populations of elk and cattle have led to increased grazing, which in turn has stunted the growth of riparian plants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Current conservation and wildlife management plans at Rocky Mountain National Park do not focus on beavers, but do address issues created by elk in the 2007 "Elk and Vegetation Management Plan". Experts believe once willow vegetation has returned, the beaver population may increase. If that doesn't happen, reintroduction may be considered. This has yet to happen, leaving the future of beavers in Colorado uncertain.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 01 Aug 2016 20:28:41 +0000 yongli 1544 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org