%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--555--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--555.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/NordenskioldCliffPalacePhoto%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=ffo7Nzwy" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photograph was taken by Gustaf Nordenskiöld during his initial investigations of the Mesa Verde region in 1891.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--970--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--970.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lowry-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo3%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=omY2Vkiq" width="1000" height="634" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lowry-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lowry Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Lowry pueblo is an Ancestral Puebloan ruin with thirty-seven rooms, eight kivas, and one Great Kiva. It dates to around 1100 CE and could have had several dozen residents at its height.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1056--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1056.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10026526_0.jpg?itok=ozVyre_3" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Encampment, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Ute tipi camp near Denver, 1874. Note the pegs used to secure the base of the lodge in the foreground. William Henry Jackson photograph, History Colorado collections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1298--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1298.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/White-River-Ute-Indian-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=JscUomd-" width="1000" height="657" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The ruins of the White River Ute Indian Agency in 1879 shortly after the Meeker Incident. Courtesy of the Western History Collection, Denver Public Library, X-30699; the original is from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, December 6, 1879.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7711.jpg?itok=7_mqN0MH" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plaza, Bent&#039;s Old Fort Historic Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the plaza within Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site. In the 1830s and '40s, Native Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanos met in the plaza to conduct trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-20T11:41:25-07:00" title="Friday, January 20, 2017 - 11:41" class="datetime">Fri, 01/20/2017 - 11:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section" data-a2a-title="Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwalking-colorado-introduction-origins-section&amp;title=Walking%20Colorado%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Origins%20Section"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Hundreds of generations of Native American ancestors are represented in Colorado by scatters of artifacts along with the less portable evidence of shelter, the warmth of hearths, storage needs, and symbolic expression. We learn about them through archaeology and indigenous peoples’ oral traditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeologists define four broad eras in the history of Colorado and of the whole of the western United States. The most ancient is called the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, when hunting-oriented cultures embraced the challenging conditions and the sometimes-rapid changes occurring at the end of the Ice Age. This is followed by the <a href="/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a>, an era of relatively stable hunter-gatherer lifeways, represented by several cultures of semi-nomadic peoples. More radical changes characterize the transition into the <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong>,</a> when corn-based horticulture replaced foraging among a number of native peoples in the warmer parts of Colorado. Finally, the Historic period is the time frame when non-native explorers and settlers eventually displaced the native tribes in sometimes-violent encounters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Paleo-Indian (12,000–6500 BC)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of sites containing evidence for the hunting and butchering of late <strong>Ice Age</strong> animals—notably Columbian <strong>mammoths</strong>—between 13,000 and 18,000 years ago, if not earlier, have been preserved on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> of Colorado. The evidence is generally limited to distinctively broken long bones thought to indicate marrow extraction and perhaps the use of the fragmented bones as simple tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nomadic hunters of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> culture (or cultures) had spread across the breadth of the country by 13,000 years ago. Their seemingly sudden appearance over such vast spaces begs the question of whether this represents swift migrations into previously unpopulated lands or merely the rapid spread of their lithic (stone) tool technology—most readily recognized by their iconic <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a>—across an already thinly occupied landscape. The issue is still hotly debated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In a general sense, “archaeological cultures” are defined as patterned groups of artifacts and features within a given time frame and geographical territory. The Clovis culture is best known in Colorado from the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, where remains of butchered mammoths have been found. However much or little that Clovis hunters contributed to their demise, mammoths and many other large-bodied Ice Age beasts (“megafauna” such as horses, camels, and ground sloths) vanished from Colorado not long after 11,000 BC.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the large game species that survived the dramatic climatic changes at the end of the Ice Age was the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. Clovis and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong> Folsom</strong></a> hunters pursued a more massive species with longer horns, <em>Bison antiquus</em>, from which the modern bison evolved. In time, later Paleo-Indian groups developed sophisticated systems of communal bison hunting that allowed them to successfully dispatch as many as 200 animals in a single <strong>communal game drive</strong>. Some of the resulting kill and butchery sites are preserved today for archaeological study, famously so in the “River of Bone” feature at the <a href="/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"><strong>Olsen-Chubbuck site</strong></a> near Firstview in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cheyenne-county"><strong>Cheyenne County</strong></a>, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few Paleo-Indian sites in Colorado provide evidence of aspects of everyday life other than hunting. Best known is the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, a repeatedly used camp of the Folsom culture now designated as a National Historic Landmark. Lindenmeier also preserves less deeply buried layers of the later Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Formative periods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paleo-Indian camps rarely retain evidence of lightweight shelters, sometimes only indirectly recognized by the distribution of features and surrounding discarded artifacts. But at the <a href="/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer Site</strong></a> near Gunnison, the rock foundations of more substantial wood-framed and mud-covered houses of Folsom groups have been found on a mesa top. Archaeologists believe these are winter occupations where the mesa-top setting had the advantage of being above the valley bottom where cold air pools during calm winter nights. All of Colorado’s larger parks—<strong>North</strong>, <strong>Middle</strong>, and <strong>South Parks</strong>, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>—contain significant numbers of Paleo-Indian sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few hints of the spiritual beliefs of Paleo-Indian groups also survive. In a high mountain cave in central Colorado, the bones of a man who died more than 8,000 years ago are preserved. Many traditional societies worldwide consider caves to be symbolic portals to and from the spirit world, so Paleo-Indians and later groups could have held similar beliefs. A formal burial site dating to this period, not far from the Lindenmeier site in Larimer County, was a traditional “flexed” interment of a young woman, with the legs folded and the knees drawn up toward the chest. Red ocher coated the remains, and numerous stone tools were present along with a few ornamental artifacts of animal bone and tooth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Caches of artifacts—usually of flaked stone tools—have been found in isolated Paleo-Indian contexts at the Drake and Mahaffey sites in Colorado. Exceptionally well-made projectile points manufactured from materials gathered (or traded from) distant sources are present at the <strong>Drake Cache</strong> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>. Other sites like Mahaffey in <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> contain a mixed bag of tools, tool “preforms” (incomplete tool manufacture), and minimally modified stone flakes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Changes toward more “broad spectrum” survival strategies become widespread in the succeeding Archaic period. This generalized hunter-gatherer lifeway is marked by changing styles of artifacts and features found in the archaeological record.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaic (6500 BC–AD 200)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For thousands of years during the Archaic period, the hunter-gatherer way of life held sway as the predominant cultural tradition among Colorado’s resident peoples. The term <em>Archaic</em> holds connotations of primitive or outdated, but Archaic peoples were the ultimate survivalists. Highly adapted to their environments, their familiarity with a huge range of natural resources enabled a critical flexibility in the face of climate, floral, and faunal changes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Most if not all Archaic populations descended from preceding Paleo-Indian cultures. But regardless of their origins, Archaic cultures in Colorado shared certain basic technologies only slightly altered from Paleo-Indian forms. Thus, artifacts of stone, bone, antler, horn, wood, and other natural materials continued to be made in the absence of any metal or manufactured glass (<strong>obsidian</strong>, a natural volcanic glass, was used to a limited degree). Ceramic containers were not yet known, nor were hamlets or villages permanently occupied. So what was different about Archaic cultures?</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The differences were more a matter of degree than of kind. Hunting weapons continued to be spears propelled by <strong>atlatls</strong>, but the stone spear tips were smaller than Paleo-Indian forms and might be notched on the lower edges or corners. Spear points and other flintknapped tools were usually made from locally available rock types rather than from distant source materials. Use of a broad range of native plant species is clear, far more so than in earlier millennia. The seeds of wild plants were milled into flour using a pair of grinding stones (the <strong>mano and metate</strong>) made of sandstone and other abrasive rocks. Large game animals continued to be hunted, but a range of smaller game such as rabbits and prairie dogs also were sought; fish and birds such as wild turkeys were taken less frequently. Snares, deadfall traps, and nets may have been used more often than spears for smaller game.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Herd hunting of bison and other large herbivores using communal game drive systems endured, but in the Archaic period the evidence for this is more abundant in the subalpine and alpine heights of the Front Range than it is on the plains or western plateaus. The <strong>Kaplan-Hoover</strong> bison kill site in Larimer County is one of the few such lower elevation sites known in Colorado for this period. Camps were established in many of the same places used by their ancestors, but the use of shallow rockshelters as camps increased markedly. A few such as <a href="/article/franktown-cave"><strong>Franktown Cave</strong></a> and <a href="/article/mantles-cave"><strong>Mantle’s Cave</strong></a> were dry enough to protect perishable artifacts of hide, feather, plant fiber, and other rarely preserved materials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rockshelter and cave walls, and open cliff faces and boulders, were sometimes adorned with <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a>. Abstract and geometric designs are common and are interpreted as the work of shamans communicating with the spirit world. Representational images of people and animals also occur, sometimes with exaggerated features. Other spiritual aspects of Archaic cultures are seen in burial sites. Usually in isolated locations outside camps, Archaic groups buried their deceased in unlined pits using the same flexed body position as in Paleo-Indian times. Likely wrapped in hide, bark, or textile robes that have not preserved, the remains were often buried with the tools of everyday life such as seed milling implements, bone awls, hunting equipment, etc. Typically short in stature, Archaic people’s lifespans were also short, on average, after calculating the mortality rate of many children in the equation. But for those fortunate enough to survive childhood, a reasonably long life could be enjoyed. At the <a href="/article/yarmony-archaeological-site"><strong>Yarmony site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a>, an elderly woman 60 years old or more was buried with two sandstone manos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Yarmony and many other Archaic camps preserve the buried foundations of houses in a variety of forms. Semi-subterranean pithouses comparable to much later Basketmaker houses of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> have been found in the Colorado and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a> basins. Similar surface-level dwellings—wood-framed and capped with an insulating layer of mud—are also known from the same areas. A few sites contain rock slab foundations. Several styles of more temporary shelters have been found, some similar to the <a href="/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a> and<strong> <a href="/article/tipi-0">tipis</a></strong> found in much younger sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although credible numbers are hard to come by, archaeologists believe that Archaic population levels were never very high, perhaps a few tens of thousands statewide. Higher populations would have stretched the available resources to the limit, given the need to accumulate a store of goods to survive long winters. But late in the Archaic period the transition to farming began in the American Southwest and soon spread to southern Colorado. The earliest evidence of farming in Colorado, at about 400–350 BC, is found in sites near Durango such as the <a href="/article/falls-creek-rock-shelters-archaeological-site"><strong>Falls Creek Rock shelters</strong></a>. Once farming became more widespread, a very different era dawned: the Formative period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Formative (AD 200–1500)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The contrast between the archaeology of the Formative period and the earlier eras is striking. What transpired among the inhabitants of the region to cause such a radical shift in lifeways? It was the <em>Neolithic Revolution</em>, to use the label describing the foraging-to-farming transition in the Old World.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agriculture focused on the domestic crop triad of corn, beans, and squash, which afforded farmers occasional surpluses for storage, trade, and tribute. All three crops have their origins in the tropics of Mexico and do not thrive in the cool nights and erratic growing seasons of the northern Southwest. Farming in Colorado, then, was risky, and some groups such as the <a href="/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> hedged their bets by hunting and gathering whenever the need arose. Others, such as the <a href="/article/plains-woodland"><strong>Plains Woodland</strong></a> peoples on the plains, only farmed on occasion and in localized areas where success was more likely. The indigenous mountain residents never farmed, although they may have traded for some of the harvest and otherwise interacted with their more sedentary neighbors. Intermarriage was undoubtedly common if the trends of recent history are any guide.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The production of ceramics, particularly cooking jars, made farming even more viable. The varieties of beans grown, today marketed by a <strong>Dove Creek</strong> company as “Anasazi beans,” are storable pinto beans that require extended cooking times. Dropping hot rocks into broths held in water-proofed baskets was the only way for Paleo-Indian and Archaic chefs to cook soups and stews, but it was not an effective method for beans. But ca. AD 500, pottery cooking-jars changed the dynamic, allowing beans to become a welcome supplement to Formative diets. Pottery was not an invention of Colorado residents but instead spread into the state from the south and east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Another innovation of the Formative period was the bow and arrow, the origins of which are mysterious. Although there are hints of its use ca. 1400–1000 BC, the bow and arrow did not become an integral part of hunters’ gear until AD 200–500. The small stone “arrowheads” diagnostic of this weapon are found in profusion, including at farming villages where people tending fields could both control pests and supplement their meat and hide supply by “garden hunting” the animals attracted to the crops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The permanent occupation of sites that first occurred in the Formative necessitated more durable forms of housing. Pithouses were the first design solution but, eventually, slab-lined surface dwellings followed by coursed masonry construction techniques were developed by Ancestral Puebloans and by some Fremont, <a href="/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and <a href="/article/sopris-phase"><strong>Sopris</strong></a> farmers. Room shapes evolved from the round forms of ancient times to square or rectangular shapes that accommodated expansion of the house footprint. Such expansion was itself driven by the rising populations that crop surpluses made possible.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Inevitably, the growth of villages required forms of leadership not previously needed. Community-scale gatherings began to take place as a way of maintaining social cohesion and to validate the roles of leaders. The design of large spaces such as dance plazas and great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (“public architecture”) are the archaeological signatures of these developments by the seventh century AD. The Ancestral Puebloans best represent the trend, as their territory was the most densely settled, but hints of social ranking are also present among the less populous Apishapa and Fremont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A unique Southwestern development was the rise of the social system centered at <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> in northwestern New Mexico during the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Southwestern Colorado has a number of “Chaco outliers” such as <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock</strong></a> and <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> that display clearly Chacoan details such as <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House</strong></a> architecture built with distinctive wall construction methods, but these sites contain artifacts that strongly identify the inhabitants as locals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods, there is scant evidence of violence among Colorado’s residents. However, with rising populations that clustered into more crowded homes, the Formative period witnessed increasing conflict, particularly when the crops failed, stores of food shrank, and potable water sources dwindled. In addition to violence directly seen in some skeletal remains in the Four Corners region, there are other indirect indicators of stressful times. Some <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> rock art sites depict warriors with weapons, protective shields, and the probable taking of human trophies. Other <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> were built with an eye toward defense, a choice also followed by the Apishapa in southeastern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The end of the Formative period is defined by the end of farming in Colorado ca. AD 1400–1450. When the first Spanish explorers ventured into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> basin and San Luis Valley, the only native peoples they encountered were nomadic bands of <strong>Apaches</strong>, <strong>Pawnees</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/utes"><strong>Utes</strong></a>. Archaeological evidence confirms the lack of farming throughout Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Historic (AD 1500–1900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Much research has been done to connect the dots between the various Formative cultures and the native groups we know today. For their part, most modern tribes have little trouble recognizing the traditional sites of their ancestors. The physical evidence of this can be less convincing to archaeologists, however.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Such is not the case with the Ancestral Puebloans (formerly Anasazi) who have clear connections with a score of modern Pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona, each with its own cultural identity and traditions. The contraction of their territory began in the late thirteenth century, resulting in the near-total depopulation of southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah within a few decades.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A very different story describes Fremont history. The Fremont core territory in central and northern Utah was vacant by AD 1350, but Fremont groups living at the geographic margins—including in northwestern Colorado—strove to maintain their way of life into the sixteenth century. But by the time that Spanish explorers traveled there two centuries later, the Fremont were gone. Well-established bands of Utes and, farther north, <strong>Shoshones</strong> held these lands. The fate of the Fremont has been the source of much debate, but no consensus has emerged.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the Colorado <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>, the Apishapa, <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong>, <strong>and Itskari</strong></a> peoples also had challenges maintaining their lifeways. Territorial contractions were part of their history as well, with fewer sites found through the AD 1300s and early 1400s, a period of frequent droughts. It is likely that more favorable conditions farther east drove the migrations. Both oral traditions and archaeological evidence connect these groups to the Pawnee and other Caddoan-speaking relatives. But despite their desire to reclaim their western territories once conditions improved, by the fifteenth century another foraging culture had moved into the high plains region: ancestors of the Apache.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The mountains and large portions of the Western Slope are the homeland of the Utes, but their connection to the foraging culture(s) of the Formative period is complicated by a divergence of views about that connection. Ute people today are adamant that their ancestors have always dwelled in the mountain and plateau country of Colorado and Utah. Thus, they maintain that they are the descendants of Archaic and Paleo-Indian groups in their traditional homelands. Many (but not all) archaeologists, on the other hand, interpret the evidence of artifacts, features, and linguistic patterns as indicative of a recent arrival of Ute and Shoshone ancestors in the Rocky Mountain region within the past 700–1000 years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, nearly fifty federally-recognized tribes claim historical-traditional ties to parts of Colorado. Many of these tribes appear to have little relationship to the Formative cultures described in this Encyclopedia. But at one time or another, their presence here is documented by oral traditions or by non-native explorers, trappers, traders, miners, and homesteaders who populated the state in recent centuries. Those tribes not related to the Formative period cultures came to Colorado following different paths, pushed and pulled by events occurring in sometimes-distant lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>More than 400 years ago, <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-%201590–1790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> were the first of the non-native groups to cross Colorado’s modern borders. For these tribes, the Spaniards’ arrival was a matter of great novelty, from the horses they rode to their metal armor and weapons, not to mention their odd physical appearance. More sinister was the visitors’ insistence that they abandon their religions in favor of Christianity. No less important was another Spanish import: new <a href="/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> against which the tribes had no immunity. Spanish domination of the local tribes mostly affected Pueblos but also some Apaches and <strong>Navajos</strong>. Spanish settlers needed the tribes for their resources and labor, forcibly obtained in their system of slavery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other tribes that the Spanish were unable to subdue engaged them in trade. By the 1620s, the Utes were among these trading partners. They acquired some horses in the early decades, and also sold some captive natives to Spanish slaveholders. More important, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 brought a huge number of horses into native hands, giving a major boost to the equestrian lifeways that developed in Colorado. Territorial ranges were expanded and modified, trading relationships were transformed, the size of social bands increased, and the volume of goods that could be moved from camps grew significantly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1700, as more horses were being moved northward—the Utes and Apaches being middlemen in this trade—guns were moving southward out of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> country of the Missouri River valley toward Colorado. Given the questionable quality of these muskets, horses were the more important commodity and had a deeper impact on native societies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spanish exploration of western Colorado</strong></a> was facilitated partly by Ute guides and partly by Spanish traders with prior experience in Ute territory. Most notable were the travels of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-maría-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in the 1760s and the Dominguez-Escalante expedition of 1776, who followed well-established paths that later became known as the <a href="/article/old-spanish-national-historic-trail"><strong>Old Spanish Trail</strong></a> system. Many of the place names in western Colorado originate in this period: the Dolores, <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas</strong></a>, and Los Pinos Rivers; the La Plata Mountains; <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta County</strong></a>; <strong>Canyon Pintado</strong>; and the Escalante archaeological site, to name a few. The Spanish era in Colorado ended with Mexican independence in 1821–22, leaving only a single site representing more than a transitory presence: a fort constructed north of La Veta Pass in 1819 to monitor American activities on the border with New Spain.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Beginning of the End, or a New Beginning?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Spanish era in the Southwest waned, the Missouri River fur trade expanded into the southern Rocky Mountains. As far as Colorado’s native tribes were concerned, the fur traders and trappers of French and American extraction were less threatening to their way of life than the Spaniards. The tribes readily participated in the fur trade, albeit <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> pelts were rarely on their list of goods to provide. They were frequent visitors to the <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> of the region, particularly to <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Old Fort</strong></a> near present-day La Junta. Ute attacks ended trading activities at <a href="/article/fort-uncompahgre"><strong>Fort Uncompahgre</strong></a> in 1844 and <a href="/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a> in 1854, while an influx of settlers focused on an agricultural life established towns in the San Luis Valley and southeastern Colorado’s Arkansas River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Attempted settlement of the San Luis Valley came first, a northward migration from newly independent Mexico encouraged by the system of <a href="/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican Land Grants</strong></a>. Apaches and Utes, unhappy about encroachment on their hunting grounds, raided new settlements and farmsteads, most of which failed to survive. But with the American victory in the Mexican-American War of 1846, southern Colorado became US territory and the government acted quickly to end the raiding. The “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty with the Utah</strong></a>” signed in 1849 at Abiquiú, New Mexico Territory, promised <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Indian annuities</strong></a> in return for an end to the raiding and allowed for the establishment of military posts in the Ute homeland. The US government wasted little time building posts at Fort Union, New Mexico, and in 1852, <a href="/article/fort-garland"><strong>Fort Massachusetts</strong></a> in Colorado’s San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few years later, in 1858, gold was discovered in Little Dry Creek in present-day Englewood, within Ute and <strong>Arapaho</strong> territory. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> was in full swing the following year, and confrontations with the flood of immigrant miners, merchants, and other settlers were inevitable, as were the losses of tribes’ homelands. The <strong>Plains Indian Wars</strong> expanded into Colorado, with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864 perpetrated on a reservation established for the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong> only three years before, followed by a series of clashes around stage stations and homesteads. Final Colorado battles occurred at <a href="/article/beecher-island-battleground"><strong>Beecher Island</strong></a> (September 17–19, 1868) and <a href="/article/battle-summit-springs"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> (July 11, 1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1870 the plains of Colorado could no longer be called home by any tribe. All had been removed to reservations or federal trust lands in adjoining states. Ute and Shoshone lands in the mountains and Western Slope were likewise being whittled back during the 1860s and 1870s. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> reducing tribal lands contained similar provisions: free passage through tribal territories, allowance for the establishment of military posts and <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, return of stolen property or goods, permission for the tribes to continue hunting, encouragement of the tribes to settle down as farmers, and the promise of Indian annuities to cover shortfalls of critical resources.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government failed miserably at keeping their end of such bargains for a variety of reasons, including the misguided actions of Indian agents charged with meeting treaty terms. For the Utes, the most infamous agent was <a href="/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathanial Meeker</strong></a> at the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservation"><strong>Northern Utes</strong></a> at the agency were so dismayed—both by government failure to provide promised rations and Meeker’s demands and decisions—that the 1879 <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> resulted from their desperation and starvation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The consequences were swift in coming. Calls that “the Utes must go” culminated with the Northern Utes’ removal to Utah within two years. Reservation life was miserable, and there are clear signs that some Utes occasionally left the misery behind to revisit traditional hunting grounds in western Colorado. Recent research has found that such off-reservation activities took place into the early twentieth century. Today, only the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> tribes have reservations within Colorado. For all the other tribes in our history, Colorado remains a key part of their vibrant social memories.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Recent decades have seen a resurgence of Native American efforts to reclaim their cultural identities via the revitalization of crafts, native languages, oral traditions, ceremonies, and, literally, by reclaiming the remains of their ancestors. Passage of the federal Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in 1990 was matched the same year by the approval of an unmarked graves amendment to Colorado’s 1973 antiquities law. But Colorado’s native peoples do not dwell in the past. “We’re still here” is a common refrain and, like all Americans, they strive for a better future.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 1874, two men with the Wheeler Survey ascended <strong>Blanca Peak</strong> east of the San Luis Valley. Upon reaching the 14,345-foot summit, Wheeler’s men were surprised to find out they were not the first people to reach the crest. Low stone walls surrounding a depression had been built long before they arrived. We still don’t know who built those walls, or why. To the Navajo, Blanca Peak is their Sacred Mountain of the East, one of the natural features defining their spiritual world. The constructions on its crest may be from pilgrimages made by Navajo ancestors or by other mountaineers for a different purpose. But it is emblematic of the fact that there are few places in Colorado that our native tribes did not visit at one time or another, leaving physical traces of their presence from the subtle to the spectacular. Articles in the Origins section of the <em>Encyclopedia</em> tell these stories across at least 13,000 years of human history in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history" hreflang="en">history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancient-colorado" hreflang="en">ancient colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindian" hreflang="en">paleoindian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleo-indian" hreflang="en">paleo-indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anthropology" hreflang="en">anthropology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-period" hreflang="en">Formative Period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaic-period" hreflang="en">archaic period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone" hreflang="en">shoshone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spanish-exploration" hreflang="en">spanish exploration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Archaic Continuity in the Colorado Rockies: The Mountain Tradition,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William M. Bueler, <em>Roof of the Rockies: A History of Mountaineering in Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> “<a href="https://pafikotagorontalo.org/">Foundation of the Sacred Mountains</a>,” Wilson Aronilth, Jr., accessed January 9, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James H. Gunnerson and Dolores A. Gunnerson, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co2.Par.89322.File.dat/gunnerson_ethn.pdf"><em>Ethnohistory of the High Plains</em></a>, Cultural Resource Series 26 (Denver, CO: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/1550.pdf">Colorado Tribal Contacts</a>,” updated October 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://exhibits.historycolorado.org/ute-tribal-paths">The Utes Must Go</a>” (exhibit).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven R. Holen and Kathleen Holen, “The Mammoth Steppe Hypothesis: The Middle Wisconsin (Oxygen Isotope Stage 3) Peopling of North America,” in <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em>, eds. Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James D. Keyser, <em>Art of the Warriors: Rock Art of the American Plains</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Björn Kurtén and Elaine Anderson, <em>Pleistocene Mammals of North America</em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jason M. LaBelle and Christopher M. Johnston, eds., “The Lithic Caches of Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 81 (Summer/Fall 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lawrence L. Loendorf, <em>Thunder and Herds: Rock Art of the High Plains</em> (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David B. Madsen and David Rhode, eds., <em>Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ann L. Magennis, Michael D. Metcalf, and Kelly J. Pool, “Early Archaic Human Burials from the Colorado Rocky Mountains: Yarmony and the Red Army Rock Shelter,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Meltzer, “Pleistocene Overkill and North American Mammalian Extinctions,” <em>Annual Review of Anthropology</em> 44 (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cynthia Mosch and Patty Jo Watson, “The Ancient Explorer of Hourglass Cave,” <em>Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews</em> 5, no. 4 (1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark P. Muniz, “Exploring Technological Organization and Burial Practices at the Paleoindian Gordon Creek Site (5LR99), Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 49 (August 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma State University Library, “<a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers">Treaty with the Utah, 1849</a>,” ed. Charles J. Kappler, n.d..</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Swedlund and Duane Anderson, “Gordon Creek Woman Meets Kennewick Man: New Interpretations and Protocols Regarding the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 64 (October 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joe Ben Wheat, <em>The Olsen-Chubbuck Site: A Paleo-Indian Bison Kill</em>, Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 26 (Washington, DC: 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gordon R. Willey and Phillip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. Raymond Wood, ed., <em>Archaeology on the Great Plains</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Jan 2017 18:41:25 +0000 yongli 2188 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Bison http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3833--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3833.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/north-american-bison"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/2951113978_a2610f9dbd_k_0.jpg?itok=rrdBMyyp" width="1090" height="730" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/north-american-bison" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">North American Bison</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Once numbering in the millions, the North American <a href="/article/bison"><strong>Bison</strong></a> thrived on Colorado's <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> for centuries until overhunting and other environmental pressures brought them to the brink of extinction in the nineteenth century. Thanks to <strong>reintroduction efforts</strong> in the twentieth century, several bison herds now roam Colorado, and ranchers even raise them for meat.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3834--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3834.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bison-genesee-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bison_herd_at_Genesee_Park-2012_03_10_0603_0.jpg?itok=jJjdNsxE" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bison-genesee-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bison at Genesee Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Brought back from the brink of extinction, Colorado is now home to several <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds that are re-establishing the keystone species in their native shortgrass prairie habitat. These bison were photographed at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a> near <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>I-70</strong></a> in 2012.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-11-19T09:57:21-07:00" title="Saturday, November 19, 2022 - 09:57" class="datetime">Sat, 11/19/2022 - 09:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison" data-a2a-title="Bison"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbison&amp;title=Bison"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The American Plains Bison (<em>Bison bison</em>) are large mammals in the Bovidae family, recognizable for their large head, shaggy coats, pronounced hump,&nbsp;and close association with the American West. Bison are commonly and incorrectly referred to as "buffalo," which are Asian and African animals. North American bison have long grazed in Colorado and are a central part of the spiritual and physical world of Colorado’s Indigenous people.</p> <p>For millennia, vast herds of bison roamed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, until their numbers declined almost to extinction in the nineteenth century due to overhunting. Since then, however, their significance in American culture and their importance as a keystone species for the natural environment of the plains have prompted conservation efforts and a modest population resurgence. Today, those efforts have resulted in several <a href="/article/bison-reintroduction"><strong>managed bison herds</strong></a>&nbsp;across Colorado. In 2016 President Barack Obama named the bison the National Mammal of the United States.</p> <h2>Biology</h2> <p>Bison are diurnal animals, meaning they are active during the day. Historically, bison had distinct seasonal behaviors. In the winter, the gregarious mammals moved in small groups to seek forage and shelter, and in the summer months, they consolidated into massive herds for breeding and to protect the young. A much smaller population of free-ranging bison today continues these seasonal movements.</p> <p>Female bison, called cows, reach sexual maturity at about two to four years and typically give birth to only one calf at a time. The bison’s relatively slow reproduction rate compounded their decline when they were overhunted during the late nineteenth century. Calves are weaned off their mother’s milk after about one year. Male bison, called bulls, reach peak mass at about five to six years of age. Most bison do not live past twenty years.</p> <h2>Bison-Shortgrass Relationship</h2> <p>The Great Plains is the largest biome in North America. The High Plains, a part of that biome that extends across northeast Colorado to the foot of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, is an ideal environment for bison, the area’s keystone species. Bison have shaped the area to fit their needs. The shortgrass ecology of the High Plains consists of two primary types of grass, blue grama (<em>Bouteloua gracilis</em>) and buffalo grass (<em>Buchloë dactyloides</em>), both of which have shallow root systems and grow unimpeded by the aridity that characterizes the region. Bison themselves are selected for these dominant varieties based on the nutrition they provide and their tolerance to cyclical patterns of wet and dry years. The shortgrass provides bison with a crucial nutritional balance of protein and carbohydrates; as much as 90 percent of a bison’s diet consists of grasses and sedges.</p> <p>Further, the grazing of bison herds induces new growth for both blue grama and buffalo grass, while their droppings return critical fertilizer to the prairie soil. Their grazing patterns are more intentional than one would think, with herds returning to graze the same carefully selected areas. This symbiotic relationship is why bison have existed for many millennia on the High Plains and have long been a central resource for the people living there.</p> <h2>Bison and Indigenous Nations</h2> <p>Archaeological evidence from across Colorado confirms that bison were a staple food resource for people living in the region as far back as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> (more than 9,000 years ago). At the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jones-miller-bison-kill-site"><strong>Jones-Miller</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"><strong>Olsen-Chubbuck</strong></a> Bison Kill Sites, which date to about 8,000 BCE, Paleo-Indians herded bison into gulches, killed them, and butchered the bodies. At these and other sites, pot sherds, projectile <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>points</strong></a>, and bone debris indicate that the people who populated the High Plains hunted bison in cooperative groups and used their quarry for food, clothing, tools, and other materials. At the Massey Draw site near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, the large number of bones and the existence of modified organic materials for use as tools suggest that the site was a bison-processing encampment in the Middle <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic Period</strong></a> (~3,000-1,000 BCE). Similar killing and butchering techniques continued on the plains for thousands of years.</p> <p>In addition to its functional role as a food source, the bison is spiritually vital to many Western Great Plains Indigenous people. The nations most commonly associated with Colorado—including the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) people—all depended on the bison as a food source. They held, and still hold, the animals as an essential part of their physical and spiritual connection to the land. To the Arapaho, who call the bison <em>heneecee</em>, the animal provided food and shelter and was a key component of trade and commerce. The Cheyenne, who call the bison <em>hotoa’e</em> and hunted them in extended family units, traded meat and pemmican to the horticultural nations on the eastern Great Plains in exchange for corn and wild foods. In addition, the Nuche, who call the bison <em>coch</em> or <em>kucu</em>, left their mountain encampments each summer to hunt bison herds on the Great Plains. They hunted bison for their own needs as well as to establish trade with Spanish colonists, known as Ciboleros, who specialized in the trade of bison flesh at markets in New Mexico.</p> <p>Bison were the foundation of transactions among Indigenous groups and between Indigenous nations and Euro-American nations. In this way, the mammals’ abundance undergirded the more extensive networks of imperial commerce on the nineteenth-century plains, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>. Bison meat, hides, and tallow (fat) were principal commodities on the Great Plains. The market forces that came to bear on the region eventually spelled disaster for the bison in Colorado.</p> <h2>The Market for Bison</h2> <p>A variety of market factors drove the exploitation of the bison, including flesh for consumption or storage and bone ash for making fertilizer or to neutralize acids and clarify sugar, wine, and vinegar. However, in the early decades of the nineteenth century, demand for bison pelts surpassed these other uses as the main driver of the animal’s decline. Stemming directly from the already-established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> pelt trade, the bison robe market became dominant as beaver became rarer in the mountains and High Plains.</p> <p>The earliest American engagement with the bison robe market occurred in the early nineteenth century at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> along overland trails. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, on the Arkansas River in what is now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero County</strong></a>, was a well-known fur-trading post and commercial hub. There, white traders exchanged flour, firearms, textiles, and liquor for bison robes prepared by the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Indigenous peoples. In tandem with intensifying resource competition between bison and the growing herds of horses used to hunt them, the massive demand for robes contributed to a decline in bison, as Indigenous people were incentivized to overhunt the animal. By the 1850s, the decline in the robe market shuttered many of the fur-trading forts in Colorado, and Indigenous people who relied upon the once-innumerable resource began to starve and relocate as herds diminished.</p> <p>Several forces combined to keep bison numbers on a downward trajectory throughout the mid-nineteenth century. Increasing numbers of American colonists crossing the plains on overland trails used bison as a food source. The Comanche overhunted bison to sustain their raiding-and-trading empire and built huge horse herds that competed with the bison for grazing territory.</p> <p>As railroad tracks were laid across eastern Colorado during the 1870s, bison migration patterns were affected, and train strikes began killing bison who wandered across tracks. An increasing number of cattle and other ranch animals and the increasing amount of acreage put under cultivation reduced bison’s access to vital shortgrass prairie, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches bisected their grazing spaces. Droughts, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a><strong>s</strong>, blizzards, and disease contributed significantly to the diminishing number of bison in Colorado and the broader Great Plains, as did the forced removal of Indigenous people who had previously managed the herds and held bison in higher regard than newly arriving colonists. On top of all that, tanners developed a new method for creating bison leather in the early 1870s, creating an insatiable demand for hides. By the 1880s, bison had been nearly hunted out of existence on the High Plains.</p> <h2>Saving a Species: Bison in the Twentieth Century</h2> <p>At the turn of the twentieth century, the bison underwent a transformation in the minds of many non-Indigenous Americans. For decades, hunting of the animals had been encouraged to weaken Indigenous nations and make way for the so-called progress of railroads, farming, and ranching in the West. With the conquest of the region complete, however, many Americans began to see both the bison and Indigenous people as symbols of a disappearing mythical frontier, and they became nostalgic about these symbols.</p> <p>Perhaps the best example of this change in sentiment is that of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-f-%E2%80%9Cbuffalo-bill%E2%80%9D-cody"><strong>William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody</strong></a>, an army veteran who hunted bison for the Kansas-Pacific Railroad and the US Army only to make the animals an important part of his subsequent “Wild West” shows that celebrated the American frontier. Cody’s shows were immensely popular and gave bison staying power as symbols of a romanticized American West. Cody, who first helped kill the bison and then helped spur a national lamentation of their loss, is now buried on Lookout Mountain, near Golden, not far from where a reintroduced bison herd roams.</p> <p>Later, in 1934, the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> (CU) adopted the name “Buffaloes” to represent its sports programs and campus community, further tying the bison to the lives of contemporary Coloradans. The mascot was chosen due to a national naming contest by CU’s student newspaper, <em>Silver &amp; Gold</em>. Boulder resident A. J. Dickson was the first to submit the name “buffaloes.” For the first football game of the 1934 season, CU students paid twenty-five dollars to have a bison calf on the sidelines (it is not known where the calf was taken from, though it likely came from Genesee Park). Since 1967 CU has had a live female bison, nicknamed “Ralphie,” lead the football team onto the field at home games.</p> <p>In Colorado, conservation of the keystone species has been in progress since the early twentieth century. Beginning in 1908, the city of Denver rounded up a herd of eighteen bison for conservation. The Denver herd lived on the prairie of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/city-park"><strong>City Park</strong></a> and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-zoo"><strong>Denver Zoo</strong></a>, but as the herd grew, its home moved to a larger site at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/genesee-park"><strong>Genesee Park</strong></a> in 1914 and expanded to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/daniels-park"><strong>Daniels Park</strong></a> in 1938. The city of Denver and the Denver Zoo continue to manage the bison herd, occasionally gifting bison to the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ute, and other Indigenous nations with strong cultural ties to the animals. Collectively, these efforts protect the region’s biodiversity, support the recovery of the species, acknowledge Indigenous nations as equal partners in their protection, and provide the people of Colorado the opportunity to engage with one of their region’s most important species.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Bison reintroduction programs continue in Colorado, and the state herds have increased significantly in number and physical health. A short distance from Denver, Coloradans can view the bison herd at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/rocky-mountain-arsenal"><strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong></a>. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden,</strong></a> the overlook at exit 254 off <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> allows observation of the Genesee Park herd. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, bison viewing areas at Soapstone Prairie Natural Area and Red Mountain Open Space enable visitors to see a herd with genetic links to some of the last remaining wild bison in the Yellowstone region. The state of Colorado, the federal government, and many Indigenous nations continue to prioritize the reintroduction, study, and management of the prairie’s keystone species and the country’s national mammal.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/sean-mccollum" hreflang="und">Sean McCollum</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison" hreflang="en">bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo" hreflang="en">buffalo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-hunting" hreflang="en">bison hunting</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-extinct" hreflang="en">bison extinct</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-colorado" hreflang="en">bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-plains" hreflang="en">high plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-ecosystem" hreflang="en">plains ecosystem</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/national-mammal" hreflang="en">national mammal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/barack-obama" hreflang="en">barack obama</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/theodore-roosevelt" hreflang="en">theodore roosevelt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-herds-colorado" hreflang="en">bison herds colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/see-bison-colorado" hreflang="en">see bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/genesee-park" hreflang="en">genesee park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/are-there-bison-colorado" hreflang="en">are there bison in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/are-there-bison-left" hreflang="en">are there bison left</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/daniels-park" hreflang="en">daniels park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-zoo" hreflang="en">Denver Zoo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapho" hreflang="en">arapho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nuche" hreflang="en">nuche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-genocide" hreflang="en">indigenous genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/red-mountain-open-space" hreflang="en">red mountain open space</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soapstone-prairie-bison" hreflang="en">soapstone prairie bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soapstone-prairie-natural-area" hreflang="en">soapstone prairie natural area</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-county" hreflang="en">denver county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jefferson-county" hreflang="en">jefferson county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grama-grass" hreflang="en">grama grass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-grass" hreflang="en">buffalo grass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shortgrass-prairie" hreflang="en">shortgrass prairie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shortgrass-prairie-ecology" hreflang="en">shortgrass prairie ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/high-plains-ecology" hreflang="en">high plains ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buffalo-bill-cody" hreflang="en">buffalo bill cody</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison-robe-trade" hreflang="en">bison robe trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-f-cody" hreflang="en">william f cody</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www3.uwsp.edu/biology/VertebrateCollection/Pages/Vertebrates/Mammals%20of%20Wisconsin/Bison%20bison/Bison%20bison.aspx#:~:text=Length%20of%20bison%20ranges%20from,shoulder%20and%20the%20thoracic%20girdle.">Bison bison—American Bison</a>,” Biology Department, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, updated 2004.</p> <p>Kathleen A. Brosnan, <em>Uniting Mountain and Plain: Cities, Law, and Environmental Change Along the Front Range</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).<br /> <br /> Cheyennelanguage.org, “<a href="http://www.cheyennelanguage.org/words/animals/animals.htm">Animals</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Coleman Cornelius, “<a href="https://source.colostate.edu/northern-colorado-bison-project-uses-high-tech-breeding-to-halt-disease-and-conserve-an-icon/">Northern Colorado Bison Project Uses High-Tech Breeding to Halt Disease and Conserve an Icon</a>,” <em>Source </em>(Colorado State University), March 10, 2015.</p> <p>City of Denver, “Bison Conservation,”&nbsp; n.d.</p> <p>City of Fort Collins, “<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/bison">Laramie Foothills Bison Conservation Herd</a>,”&nbsp; n.d.</p> <p>Andrew Cowell and Alonzo Moss, Sr., Williams C’Hair, Wayne C’Hair, et al., “<a href="https://homewitharapaho.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/arapaho-dictionary1.pdf">Dictionary of the Arapaho Language</a>,” 2012.</p> <p>Catherine S. Fowler, “<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/465789">Some Lexical Clues to Uto-Aztecan Prehistory</a>,” International Journal of American Linguistics 49, no. 3 (July 1983).</p> <p>Andrew C. Isenberg, <em>The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920</em> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).<br /> <br /> Shanna Lewis, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/12/17/wild-bison-return-to-colorados-great-plains/">Wild Bison Return to Colorado’s Great Plains</a>,” CPR, December 17, 2020.</p> <p>Mountain Scholar, University Historic Photograph Collection, “Bison Image—1,”&nbsp; July 1930.</p> <p>Sarah M. Nelson, <em>Denver: An Archaeological History</em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).<br /> <br /> San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Library, “<a href="https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/americanbison/summary">American Bison <em>(Bison bison)</em></a>,”&nbsp; updated March 9, 2021.</p> <p>University of Colorado, “<a href="https://cubuffs.com/sports/2016/6/28/ralphie-history">Ralphie History</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2015/10/21/usda-helps-bring-bison-back-colorados-prairies">USDA Helps Bring Bison Back to Colorado's Prairies</a>,”&nbsp; February 21, 2017.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Dale F. Lott, <em>American Bison: A Natural History</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).<br /> <br /> Louis S. Warren, <em>Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show</em> (New York: Vintage Books, 2006).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sat, 19 Nov 2022 16:57:21 +0000 Nick Johnson 3831 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org The Civil War in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civil-war-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Civil War in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3825--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3825.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/battle-glorieta-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Battle_of_Glorieta_Pass_Action_at_Apache_Canyon_0.jpg?itok=6GBX4Ujn" width="1090" height="728" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/battle-glorieta-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Battle of Glorieta Pass</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Referred to as the "Gettysburg of the West," the Battle of Glorieta Pass pitted Union troops from Colorado against Confederates from Texas. The battle took place south of Santa Fe, New Mexico, in the spring of 1862. Although it was a stalemate on the field, the Colorado troops destroyed the Confederate supplies, ending the Confederacy's ambition to take the western territories.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3826--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3826.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/civil-war-soldier-statue-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Denver_Civil_War_Monument_by_Jakob_Otto_Schweizer_%28cropped%29_0.jpg?itok=yO_VvKJz" width="1090" height="2080" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/civil-war-soldier-statue-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Civil War Soldier Statue, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>From 1909 to 2020, a statue honoring the Coloradans who fought in the American Civil War stood outside the State Capitol building in Denver. It incorrectly listed the Sand Creek Massacre, in which Colorado troops slaughtered more than 200 women, children, and elderly Indigenous people, as a "battle" in the war. Civil Rights protesters took down the statue during demonstrations against police abuses and institutional racism in 2020.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-09-13T14:14:34-06:00" title="Tuesday, September 13, 2022 - 14:14" class="datetime">Tue, 09/13/2022 - 14:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civil-war-colorado" data-a2a-title="The Civil War in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcivil-war-colorado&amp;title=The%20Civil%20War%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Colorado’s role in the American Civil War (1861–65) was part of a broader geopolitical contest: control of the American Southwest. The war began in 1861, just two years after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> and mere months after Congress established the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>. Although the territory was largely pro-Union, the Confederacy and its <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/reynolds-gang"><strong>local sympathizers</strong></a> immediately realized Colorado's strategic and monetary value and wanted to take advantage of it.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Federal troops from Colorado turned back the Confederate invasion in New Mexico, ensuring that the Rocky Mountain <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold mines</strong></a> remained under US control. This paved the way for further conquest and development in Colorado and the rest of the West. The Civil War had wide-reaching effects, especially on Indigenous people. The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a>, passed during the war in part to promote free labor over slave labor in western territories, was a direct assault on Indigenous people’s sovereignty that increased tensions between whites and Native nations. Before the war was even over, Union troops committed the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>, one of the worst atrocities on US soil and an event that would influence future conflicts between Americans and Indigenous people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As it has elsewhere, the Civil War left a complicated legacy in Colorado, one that laid the foundation for the successes and struggles of the state to the present day. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The tensions that eventually placed Colorado in the western theatre of the Civil War were tied to the same issue that caused the war: the expansion of slavery. In 1848 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a> ended the Mexican-American War and added almost one million square miles to the United States. Southern politicians and elites wanted to expand slavery into this newly acquired land. The California Gold Rush followed in 1849, leading to the Compromise of 1850: Congress admitted California into the Union as a free state but reinforced the Fugitive Slave Act to satisfy southern complaints. In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed Jefferson Davis as Secretary of War. In that role, Davis, who would later become president of the Confederacy, wanted to create a southern transcontinental railroad that would cross New Mexico on its way to California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59 had put the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> on the map for many Americans. The resulting influx of white gold seekers and the myriad enterprises accompanying them created a need for law and order. After establishing a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho</strong></a>, the federal government organized Colorado Territory in February 1861, about a month and a half before the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter and ignited the Civil War in the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the outbreak of war, gold in Colorado and California and the latter’s Pacific ports represented valuable prizes for the new Confederacy. To win those prizes, the Confederates would need control of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>, whose Mountain Branch followed the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> through Colorado before turning south over <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/raton-pass-0"><strong>Raton Pass</strong></a> and into New Mexico<strong>. </strong>The trail was one of the major commercial routes in the West, and it was protected by Fort Union, the Army’s major supply depot north of Santa Fe. In addition, the scattered villages and towns of New Mexico territory were protected in the south by Fort Bliss near present-day El Paso, Texas, Fort Craig south of Albuquerque, and Fort Marcy at Santa Fe. The Confederate strategy was to invade north from Texas, take New Mexico and Colorado, and then turn west toward California.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Choosing Sides</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The outbreak of war east of the Mississippi River led the US government to relocate federal troops from the West for service in the East. Some officers resigned from the US Army to fight for the Confederacy. One was Major <strong>Henry Hopkins Sibley</strong>, who resigned on May 13, 1861. Colonel William Loring, Commander of the Military Department of New Mexico, quit on the same day, leaving Lt. Colonel <strong>Edward R. S. Canby</strong> of the Tenth Infantry to command federal troops in New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1860 Colorado had 30,000 non-Indigenous residents, 70 percent of whom were from northern states and territories. The territory was largely pro-Union. But as Colonel Canby begged for reinforcements, Territorial Governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a> explained that a “malignant secession element” of 7,500 Confederate sympathizers had to be controlled. In <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver City</strong></a>, Charley Harrison’s Criterion Bar was the pro-Confederacy headquarters, while other sympathizers from across the territory secretly gathered at Mace’s Hole north of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harrison was eventually arrested, fined, and exiled from the territory. Scattered skirmishes and other clashes between Union- and Confederate-aligned Coloradans continued throughout the war, although no major battles were fought in the territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle Lines</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In May 1861, Canby received orders to send four infantry companies from Colorado and New Mexico to Fort Leavenworth in eastern Kansas. He kept troops to garrison Albuquerque and Forts Craig, Marcy, Union, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a> in southern Colorado. In September, he appointed <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> as Colonel of the First Regiment of New Mexico volunteers, newly recruited from the territory’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> population. Canby left some troops at Fort Union to build an earthwork; the rest he sent to Albuquerque. But Sibley, now a Confederate Brigadier General, led an army out of Texas and up the Rio Grande, intending to take Colorado. Canby needed more troops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>He appealed to Gilpin for volunteer troops to replace and support his garrisons. Gilpin was newly appointed by President Abraham Lincoln. Before he left Washington for Colorado, Secretary of War Simon Cameron assured Gilpin that the federal government would cover the costs of raising troops to defend the territory. Upon arriving in Denver City in May 1861, Gilpin raised two companies of volunteers, which grew by August to become the First Regiment of <strong>Colorado Volunteers</strong>. He appointed Denver lawyer John Slough as Colonel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With their own weapons and civilian clothes, the recruits assembled at Camp Weld along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> upstream from Denver City. Gilpin covered their expenses by issuing $375,000 in promissory notes, payable by the federal government, earning First Colorado the nickname “Gilpin’s Pet Lambs.” Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase refused to honor Gilpin’s promissory notes, and Denver merchants went to Washington to demand payment. Gilpin followed to explain his actions. The Treasury Department honored the notes, but President Lincoln fired Gilpin on March 18, 1862, and replaced him with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.     </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fortunately for Canby, Gilpin had other troops to send. Independent of the First Colorado, two companies of volunteers assembled in August at <strong>Cañon City</strong>, led by Captains Theodore Dodd and James Ford. In September, Gilpin ordered them to Fort Garland in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. They arrived in December 1861 and mustered into federal service, rounding out Colorado’s federal forces.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle of Valverde    </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sibley’s Confederate force entered New Mexico on February 7, 1862, with 2,515 men, most of them Texans, and fifteen artillery pieces. While in overall command, Sibley was derided by his soldiers as “a walking whiskey keg” who somehow managed to be sick in a wagon during every battle in New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The wagon road from Fort Bliss to Santa Fe ran along the east side of the <strong>Rio Grande River</strong>. Fort Craig lay on the west side of the river. Canby had a garrison of 3,810 soldiers, a mix of regular US army troops, New Mexico militia volunteers, and Dodd’s company of Colorado troops. On February 21, 1862, Canby tried to block Sibley’s advance near the abandoned village of Valverde, resulting in a day-long battle that claimed more than 100 casualties on both sides.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sibley’s men won the battle of Valverde, but Canby still had 3,000 men in a strong position, and the Confederates had to give up on the food and fodder in Fort Craig, provisions they had counted on for their advance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, federal forces abandoned Albuquerque and Santa Fe, falling back up the Santa Fé Trail to Fort Union. The Texans occupied Santa Fe on March 10, 1862, and turned their sights on Fort Union. Acting Governor <strong>Lewis Weld</strong> of Colorado sent the First Colorado Volunteers to reinforce Fort Union’s garrison of 800 men. On March 11, the Volunteers arrived at Fort Union, which they found in a dangerous position. The fort was tilted toward the hills to the west, where Confederate artillery could shoot exploding shells straight into the star-shaped earthwork. Believing the only possible defense was offense, Colonel Slough outfitted and resupplied his men, marching them down toward Santa Fe on March 22, 1862.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle of Glorieta Pass         </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Slough led a combined force of 1,342 men, including assorted regulars and volunteers from Colorado and New Mexico. Unaware of the Union reinforcements, Confederate Major Charles Pyron probed forward from Santa Fe with a smaller battalion of 400 men and two six-pounder cannons. Slough sent an advance force of 418 infantry and cavalry, led by Major <strong>John Chivington</strong>, to try to find the Texans. On the night of March 25, the federals captured four Texans at Kozlowski’s Ranch, east of Glorieta Pass. Advancing west the next morning into Apache Canyon, Chivington captured thirty-two more Texans, opening the Battle of Glorieta Pass.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pyron set up his cannons on the road in Apache Canyon but soon had to pull back as the Union forces threatened to surround his position. Pyron’s new position was behind an arroyo, spanned by a bridge that the Confederates burned. In front of his guns, with the arroyo at their front, Pyron’s cavalry formed a defense.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the most dramatic moment in Colorado’s Civil War, Company F of the First Colorado mounted a cavalry charge, leaping its horses over the arroyo and rolling over the Confederate line. In hand-to-hand fighting, Pyron got his cannons away to the rear. Night fell, ending the fighting in Apache Canyon and the first day of the Battle of Glorieta Pass. The federals lost five killed and fourteen wounded. Of Pyron’s 420 men, four were killed, twenty wounded, and seventy-one taken prisoner, the costliest single day of battle in the New Mexico campaign.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Texans withdrew to Johnson’s Ranch at the west end of Apache Canyon, and Chivington’s command pulled back for water to Pigeon’s Ranch at the east end. Both sides agreed to a truce for the night and prepared to repel an assault by the enemy the next day. Neither side attacked.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chivington did move farther east, to Kozlowski’s Ranch, for more water.  Slough arrived there at 11:00 pm with the rest of the regiment. Then, at 3:00 am on the 27<sup>th</sup>, Confederate Colonel Scurry reinforced Pyron, taking command of the now 1,000 men at Johnson’s Ranch. Unaware of Scurry’s arrival, Slough planned a two-pronged attack for the 28<sup>th</sup>. Chivington was to lead 490 men on a sixteen-mile march over the mesa that formed the southern flank of Apache Canyon. His guide would be New Mexican volunteers led by Lt. Colonel Manuel Chaves. As Slough fought the Confederates on the Santa Fé Trail, Chivington’s command would fall upon the Texans’ rear.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the early morning of the 28<sup>th</sup>, the Colorado troops advanced, with Chivington’s command splitting off to the south just before Pigeon’s Ranch. At the same time, the Texans left their supplies behind at Johnson’s Ranch as they struck at the federals. At 11:00 am, the two forces met west of Pigeon’s Ranch and began a six-hour artillery duel, with infantry pushing against each other’s lines. Without Chivington, Slough had 850 men to Scurry’s 1,000. Outnumbered, the federal forces had to fall back to avoid encirclement by the Texan infantry slowly. The Union position was eventually forced back five miles to Kozlowski’s Ranch. By about 5 pm, the Texans held the field at Pigeon’s Ranch, and the day was a tactical victory for the Confederates.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, in the meantime, Chivington’s command had arrived on the bluff above Johnson’s Ranch and found that the Texans had left the entire Confederate supply train undefended below them. At 4 pm, they swept down into the canyon, captured the guards, and destroyed eighty wagons, a cannon, all the Texans’ food and supplies, and 500 mules and horses. Freeing federal prisoners, the Colorado troops retraced their steps, arriving at Kozlowski’s Ranch at 10 pm on the 28th.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Slough was ordered to return to Fort Union, where he resigned, and Chivington took command. Casualty counts vary, but contemporary sources estimate that the federal troops lost forty-nine killed, sixty-four wounded, and twenty-one taken prisoner. On the Confederate side, Scurry reported thirty-six Texans killed, sixty wounded, and twenty-five captured.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Without food and ammunition, the Texans could go no farther. They retreated to Santa Fe, and then south to Albuquerque. They headed back to Texas, loosely pursued by federal forces. An afternoon sandstorm ended an inconclusive artillery duel at the village of Peralta on April 16. Canby saw no reason to engage the retreating Confederates, and the last defeated Confederates straggled into Texas on July 8.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Engagements</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, now-Colonel Chivington was put in charge of the Military District of Colorado. The Colorado Volunteers shifted from patrolling for Confederates to patrolling for Indigenous parties who sought to repel the invaders from their homelands. In November 1862, the First Colorado was converted into cavalry. Chivington kept them in Colorado, centered on <strong>Fort Lyon</strong> (formerly Fort Wise), but that post’s commander sent some of the garrison east to Kansas. The First spent the rest of the war guarding wagon trails in Colorado and Kansas; in July of 1863, Major <strong>Ned Wynkoop</strong> led four companies to patrol the Oregon Trail all the way to Fort Bridger in southeastern Wyoming.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dodd’s and Ford’s Companies of the Second Colorado arrived at Fort Lyon from New Mexico in April 1863, joining six companies recruited by Colonel Jesse Leavenworth; Theodore Dodd became second in command. On April 11, 1863, Lt. George Shoup and a recruiting party of eleven men encountered a camp of three Confederate “guerrillas” near present-day <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, killing one, wounding one, and capturing the last. The War Department soon authorized a Third Colorado Infantry regiment. The Third Infantry later merged with the Second Infantry and was sent to Missouri to fight irregular enemy forces there. After outfitting as cavalry near St. Louis in December of 1863, Second Colorado deployed across Missouri, combatting Confederate guerrillas known as “bushwhackers.” Over the next year, the volunteers fought in several pitched battles as they defended St. Louis and Kansas City from advancing Confederates.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Colorado, assorted pro-Confederate guerrillas tried to operate, but territorial troops and vigilantes hunted them down as outlaws.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Saving the Union to Massacring the Innocent        </h2>&#13; &#13; <div>&#13; <p>In 1864 Governor Evans and Chivington wanted to remove the Cheyenne and Arapaho people from Colorado’s eastern plains. This objective arose from increased tensions after the 1851 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> was revised in 1861. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave white immigrants “free” land that many Cheyenne and Arapaho still considered theirs. Following the directives of the 1861 treaty, <strong>Moketaveto</strong>’s Cheyenne and <strong>Hossa</strong>’s Arapaho camped near Fort Lyon in November 1864. They had an American flag raised over the camp, indicating their allegiance to the treaty and distinguishing their camp from other warrior groups who resisted the new treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In early June 1864, a party of Indigenous warriors—possibly Arapaho—<strong>killed a young family</strong> who worked for a homesteader on the plains outside of Denver. The murders were most likely reprisals from the earlier killing of an Indigenous man that day, but Denver residents blamed the Cheyenne and Arapaho. With a family killed and scattered attacks on wagons and homesteads occurring throughout the summer, Evans saw in the fears of the trespassing white population an opportunity to rid the territory of both the Cheyenne and Arapaho. He authorized Chivington to enlist a new Third Colorado Cavalry for 100 days, and Chivington, who hated Indigenous people as much as he hated Confederates, went on the warpath. On November 29, 1864, he found and attacked the peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho camp at Fort Lyon, killing more than 200 women, children, and elders in what became known as the Sand Creek Massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Praised as heroes in Denver, Chivington and the Third were seen as bloodthirsty murderers in the eastern United States. Chivington resigned to avoid a military court martial while war exploded across the plains. On January 7, 1865, 1,000 Cheyenne and Lakota fell on <strong>Julesburg</strong>, and on February 2, they burned the town before moving north out of Colorado. The so-called “<strong>Colorado War</strong>” resumed in March through July. President Andrew Johnson fired Evans over his role in precipitating Sand Creek.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s experience in the Civil War can best be described as a successful defense of empire. When the war started, the territory was essentially defenseless and held a vast amount of vulnerable wealth; as the war came to its doorstep, Coloradans mounted a furious and successful defense of that wealth, even as Confederate sympathizers sought to sabotage it from the inside.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the successful defense of the gold fields came federal military activity on a scale never before seen in the territory. With Indigenous people already facing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> and starvation due to poorly understood and enforced <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and the contempt of white settlers and politicians, the militarization of Colorado after the Civil War led to destruction and disaster for the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and eventually the Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) who lived in the Rocky Mountains. Eventually, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Treaty of Medicine Lodg</strong>e</a> in 1867 forced Colorado’s Cheyenne and Arapaho to cede their remaining land in the territory and assigned them to reservations in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, for Colorado’s invading American population, the Civil War had dried up eastern sources of capital needed to fund mining, even as it helped them feel more secure in what was still a fledgling territory. Foreign technology arrived with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathaniel-p-hill"><strong>Nathaniel Hill</strong></a>’s <strong>smelter </strong>in 1867, reviving the mining industry. With North and South at peace, the transcontinental<strong> railroad</strong> was finished and linked to Denver in 1870. Emancipation and a growing mining economy caused Colorado’s Black population to increase substantially from 1870 to 1900.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado achieved statehood in 1876. In 1898, as troops boarded trains in Denver to fight in the Spanish-American War, Union veterans lined one side of Seventeenth Street and Confederate veterans assembled on the other side. As a show of unity, they boarded the train together, seemingly burying the hatchet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The past is still with us, of course. Despite the train station moment and other reconciliation between whites, the racism that brought the Civil War to Colorado has lingered in the state to the present. <strong>Redlining</strong>, or excluding Black residents from buying homes in certain neighborhoods, persisted throughout Denver and other cities, as did institutional discrimination in housing, education, and employment. Several Colorado towns, including <strong>Golden</strong>, <strong>Louisville</strong>, <strong>Loveland</strong>, and parts of Colorado Springs, were known at various times as “Sundown” towns—places where Black people were not welcome and would be run out of town at sundown. Police violence is still disproportionately aimed at Colorado’s Black residents and people of color.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Sand Creek Massacre was later erroneously listed as a “battle” on the plaque of a statue commemorating Colorado’s Civil War veterans. Chivington’s actions were considered horrific even during his time, but the plaque remained, igniting controversy until activists removed the statue during the 2020 <strong>Civil Rights</strong> demonstrations in Denver. As of this writing, streets, university buildings, and even mountains once named for those associated with the Sand Creek Massacre have either been renamed or are being evaluated for renaming in an ongoing reconciliation process.</p>&#13; </div>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/geoffrey-hunt" hreflang="und">Geoffrey Hunt</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/civil-war-colorado-0" hreflang="en">civil war in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-civil-war-history" hreflang="en">colorado civil war history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/confederates-colorado" hreflang="en">confederates in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/confederate-history-colorado" hreflang="en">confederate history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/maces-hole" hreflang="en">maces hole</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nuche" hreflang="en">nuche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-laramie" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/santa-fe-trail" hreflang="en">Santa Fe Trail</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moketaveto" hreflang="en">moketaveto</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hossa" hreflang="en">hossa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hungate-murders" hreflang="en">hungate murders</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/redlining" hreflang="en">redlining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/george-floyd-protests" hreflang="en">george floyd protests</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sundown-towns" hreflang="en">sundown towns</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/golden" hreflang="en">golden</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/louisville" hreflang="en">louisville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/loveland" hreflang="en">loveland</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/battle-glorieta-pass" hreflang="en">battle of glorieta pass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-chivington" hreflang="en">John Chivington</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-evans" hreflang="en">John Evans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-gilpin" hreflang="en">William Gilpin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-volunteers" hreflang="en">colorado volunteers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-army-colorado" hreflang="en">us army colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-removal" hreflang="en">indigenous removal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-lyon" hreflang="en">Fort Lyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ned-wynkoop" hreflang="en">ned wynkoop</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande-river" hreflang="en">rio grande river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lewis-weld" hreflang="en">lewis weld</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache-canyon" hreflang="en">apache canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/henry-hopkins-sibley" hreflang="en">henry hopkins sibley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edward-canby" hreflang="en">edward canby</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ers-canby" hreflang="en">ers canby</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hh-sibley" hreflang="en">hh sibley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Don E. Alberts, <em>The Battle of Glorieta: Union Victory in the West</em> (College Station, Texas: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Don E. Alberts, <em>Rebels on the Rio Grande: the Civil War Journal of A. B. Peticolas </em>(Albuquerque: Merit Press, 1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ovando Hollister, ed. Richard Harwell, <em>Colorado Volunteers in New Mexico, 1862 </em>(Chicago: R.R. Donnelly and Sons Co., reprinted 1962).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nolie Mumey, <em>Bloody Trails Along the Rio Grande: the Diary of Alonzo Ferdinand Ickis </em>(Denver: Old West Publishing Co., 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Christopher M. Rein, <em>The Second Colorado Cavalry: A Civil War Regiment on the Great Plains</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Micah Smith, “<a href="https://www.denver7.com/news/local-news/sundown-towns-uncovering-colorados-dark-past-dangers-for-black-people-staying-out-after-sunset">Sundown towns: Uncovering Colorado’s dark past, dangers for Black people staying out after sunset</a>,” <em>Denver 7</em>, February 26, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Clarke Whitford, <em>Colorado Volunteers in the Civil War: the New Mexico Campaign in 1862 </em>(Denver: State Historical and Natural History Society, 1906).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Flint Whitlock, <em>Distant Bugles, Distant Drums: The Union Response to the Confederate Invasion of New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series I, 9 </em>(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880; reprinted 1985 by Historical Times, Inc.).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Eugene H. Berwanger, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22The%20Rise%20of%20the%20Centennial%20State:%20Colorado%20Territory,%201861-76%20%22" title="Find in a library with WorldCat"><em>The Rise of the Centennial State: Colorado Territory, 1861–76 </em></a>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ray C. Colton, <em>The Civil War in the Western Territories: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 13 Sep 2022 20:14:34 +0000 yongli 3823 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Godfrey’s Ranch http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Godfrey’s Ranch </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3704--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3704.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Matilda_and_Holon_Godfrey_0.jpg?itok=O43nSVHh" width="614" height="516" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Holon and Matilda Godfrey</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1863 Holon and Matilda Godfrey set up a trading post in northeast Colorado along the Overland Stage Line. On January 7, 1865, a party of Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors attacked the stop as part of a campaign against white settlers in retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre in late 1864.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3705--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3705.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fort_Wicked_historical_marker.jpeg?itok=D7wJNFjT" width="1000" height="879" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Wicked Historical Marker</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This marker stands near the place in Logan County (northeast Colorado) where a violent clash occurred between settlers Holon and Matilda Godfrey and Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors in January 1865. The warriors attacked the Godfreys' stage stop as part of retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre of November 1864, in which Colorado troops murdered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho, many of them women and children.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-07-28T13:14:13-06:00" title="Thursday, July 28, 2022 - 13:14" class="datetime">Thu, 07/28/2022 - 13:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch" data-a2a-title="Godfrey’s Ranch "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgodfreys-ranch&amp;title=Godfrey%E2%80%99s%20Ranch%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>On January 14–15, 1865, immigrant Holon Godfrey found his family homestead in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> under attack by about 100 Indigenous warriors engaged in a campaign of reprisal attacks after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of November 1864. The fierce battle at Godfrey’s Ranch was an example of a common cycle of violence during the American conquest of Colorado: as white immigrants invaded and occupied Indigenous land, both whites and Indigenous people suffered attacks and reprisals, of which Native Americans bore the brunt. The fight for Godfrey’s Ranch reflects deeper stories of opportunity, expansion, and the violent consequences of occupation.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Drawn West</h2> <p>Holon Godfrey’s early life was one of westward migration. Born in New York in 1812, he moved to Chicago in 1844 to learn carpentry in the growing city, a skill that would prove useful on the plains. With the onset of the California Gold Rush, he was counted among the many thousands of forty-niners spellbound by opportunity. In 1858 gold again captivated Godfrey in the form of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. Colorado’s gold rush must have been lackluster for Godfrey, as he eventually settled near Julesburg, a stage stop along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a>, where he and his family supplied the stop from their fields. Gold had not once, but twice, tempted the Godfreys west. But land ultimately proved more alluring.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862 encouraged labor and land out west. It was also a direct assault on Indigenous sovereignty, as its facilitation of white occupation put more pressure on Indigenous nations such as the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong>, many of which were struggling to survive on the contested Colorado plains. The Godfreys, incentivized by the act, moved once again to a spot along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> approximately thirty miles from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-morgan"><strong>Fort Morgan</strong></a>. Here the Godfreys ranched and operated their own stagecoach station paired with a general store. As violence along western trails increased, the Godfreys built adobe walls, plenty of gunports, and even a watchtower.&nbsp;</p> <h2>“Free” Land and Failed Treaties</h2> <p>By the time the Godfreys arrived, Indigenous peoples <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/plains-woodland"><strong>had lived</strong></a> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Colorado Great Plains</strong></a> for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>thousands of years</strong></a>, with the Cheyenne and Arapaho being the latest residents in the early to mid-nineteenth century. The 1851 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> recognized the Cheyenne and Arapaho as legitimate sovereign nations, with much of eastern Colorado as part of their domain. But the Colorado Gold Rush attracted far more whites to what became Colorado Territory. As these immigrants brought different ideas of land possession and contested Indigenous claims, often violently, the US government decided to replace the 1851 treaty with a new one that sought to nullify Indigenous sovereignty in the area.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> of 1861 readdressed the situation, severely reducing the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a reservation between the <strong>Arkansas</strong> and Smoky Hill Rivers in southeastern Colorado. Warrior bands and younger Cheyenne and Arapaho did not accept this treaty. Living on a relatively small reservation would destroy important aspects of their culture, such as horse raids to supplement herds and gain societal prestige, as well as hunting to provide enough food. The <em>Hotamétaneo'o</em>, or <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, was one such warrior society that championed continued raiding and drew many young men to their ranks. They were opposed by peace-seeking leaders such as <strong>Moketaveto </strong>(Black Kettle) of the Cheyenne and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a> (Left Hand) of the Arapaho.</p> <p>On the morning of November 29, 1864, Colonel <strong>John </strong><strong>Chivington</strong>’s soldiers massacred Moketaveto’s and Niwot’s peaceful bands at their camp on Sand Creek. The horrific event left the Cheyenne and Arapaho scattered across the plains right at the onset of winter.</p> <h2>A Swift Campaign and Wicked Fight</h2> <p>&nbsp;Arduous weather, poorly fed and declining pony herds, and reduced game typically discouraged the Cheyenne and Arapaho from waging war in the winter. Decades of land encroachment, neglected treaties, and the recent mass murder at Sand Creek caused them to break with that tradition. The fragmented and enraged Cheyenne and Arapaho began assembling allies by extending the war pipe. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>, also known as <em>Ho-my-ike</em>, was at Sand Creek and participated in the ensuing battles. He identified the recipients of the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho’s overtures. The Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, specifically the Dog Soldiers, and several bands of the Lakota, including Spotted Tail’s Brules and Pawnee Killer’s Ogallala, joined in a war council. The council decided to target <strong>Julesburg</strong>.</p> <p>The target was a purposeful selection, as Julesburg not only held a military installation but was also a communication hub, with a prominent stagecoach stop as well as telegraph lines connecting Denver and the greater Pacific Coast to the eastern United States. After the initial Indigenous attack on Julesburg on January 7, 1865, fourteen soldiers and four civilians were dead, miles of telegraph lines were in ruins, and the surrounding area was pillaged.&nbsp;</p> <p>George Bent aptly called the weeks after the attack a panic. Without telegraph lines for communication, and with a weakened military post, the Overland Trail was vulnerable to raids from Fort Morgan well into Nebraska. The Indigenous coalition fragmented into smaller and sporadic raiding parties that decimated ranches and stage stops above and below Julesburg.&nbsp;</p> <p>On January 15, 1865, a war party made its way to Godfrey’s fortified ranch. About 100 warriors succeeded in stealing cattle as they were fired upon from the gunports in the adobe ranch house. Holon Godfrey’s hired hands took cover within the adobe walls, and his wife and daughters helped reload rifles. The war party turned to fire, setting the prairie grass ablaze, and even used flaming arrows against the ranch. Neither tactic succeeded against the adobe bastions. Anticipating a siege, a Mr. Perkins, who was employed by the Godfreys, made a desperate ride to Fort Morgan about thirty miles away. He made it to the town and was able to send for help, but by the time a detachment of soldiers arrived back at Godfrey’s Ranch, the fighting had ended.</p> <p>While they had successfully defended their own home, the residents at Godfrey’s Ranch helplessly watched American Ranch, about two miles away, succumb to a lethal attack that resulted in seven casualties. Reinforcements arrived after the belligerents had already left. Considering its staunch defense, the ranch was christened as “Fort Wicked.” Another story has it the Cheyenne referred to Holon Godfrey as “Old Wicked,” a name he repurposed.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>After the winter campaign of 1865, the Cheyenne found themselves once again split, with most of the Southern Cheyenne heading south for quieter country, while the Northern Cheyenne joined their allies in continued raiding and warfare on the northern plains. Perhaps such defiant holdouts as the one at Godfrey’s Ranch, along well-established routes, convinced the Indigenous warriors to take the fighting elsewhere. For the most part, the Overland Trail remained unthreatened until 1869 with the Battle of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a>.&nbsp;</p> <p>The Godfreys soon moved again, this time near present-day LaSalle, Colorado. They have since been remembered and even celebrated as pioneers, with the Godfreys’ defense of their ranch along the Overland Trail enshrined as a stirring defense of the American homestead. The Godfrey name has been inscribed on the land, with Godfrey’s Bluffs in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a> and Godfrey’s Bottoms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld County</strong></a> memorializing their “wicked fight” in 1865. A marker for the Godfrey stage stop stands near the intersection of US 6 and CR 2.5 in Merino.&nbsp;</p> <p>Yet every victory flaunted by immigrants and their successors pushed Indigenous peoples another step closer to destitution. Diminished access to hunting grounds, scarce game, and poorly supplied reservations led to suffering and death for the plains’ previous occupants. The wicked fight at Godfrey’s Ranch exemplifies the larger conquest of the Great Plains, including opportunities for white immigrants, the fraught nature of homesteading, and the violent displacement of Indigenous peoples.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lovell-neil" hreflang="und">Lovell, Neil</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gofreys-ranch" hreflang="en">gofreys ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wicked" hreflang="en">fort wicked</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">Dog Soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-wars" hreflang="en">Indian Wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wars" hreflang="en">colorado wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morgan-county" hreflang="en">Morgan County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/phillips-county" hreflang="en">Phillips County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/logan-county" hreflang="en">logan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-history" hreflang="en">indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ranching" hreflang="en">ranching</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George Bird Grinnell,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22The%20Fighting%20Cheyenne%22"><em>The Fighting Cheyenne</em></a>&nbsp;(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968).&nbsp;</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Spotted Tail’s Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>Nell Brown Probst, <em>Forgotten People: A History of the South Platte Trail</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1979).&nbsp;</p> <p>National Archives and Records Administration, Holon Godfrey Indian Depredation Claim #2559, Record Group 123, n.d.</p> <p>Luella Shaw, <em>True History of Some of the Pioneers of Colorado</em> (Denver: Press of Carson-Harper Company, 1909).&nbsp;</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John H. Moore,&nbsp;<em>The Cheyenne</em>&nbsp;(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).</p> <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Southern Cheyenne</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>.</p> <p>Elliot West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Jul 2022 19:14:13 +0000 yongli 3703 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Canyons of the Ancients National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/canyons-ancients-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-12-02T11:27:53-07:00" title="Thursday, December 2, 2021 - 11:27" class="datetime">Thu, 12/02/2021 - 11:27</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/canyons-ancients-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Canyons of the Ancients National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcanyons-ancients-national-monument&amp;title=Canyons%20of%20the%20Ancients%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Stretching west and northwest from <strong>Cortez</strong> to the Utah border, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument was established in 2000 and boasts the densest collection of archaeological sites in the United States. An estimated 30,000 sites—including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a>—represent concrete evidence of the more than 10,000 years of habitation of the Southwest, particularly by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people who flourished from about 750 to 1300 CE. Also valued for its geology, flora, and fauna, the sprawling 176,000-acre monument is beset by complex management problems that include private inholdings (private land within the monument’s boundaries) and active drilling leases.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Natural Environment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nestled in the southwest corner of Colorado, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument occupies a rugged landscape of mesas and canyons covered with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pinyon-juniper</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a>, as well as isolated, unvegetated rock outcrops. The geology of the site evokes "the very essence of the American Southwest," according to the presidential proclamation declaring it a monument, owing to its mesas, sandstone cliffs, and deeply incised canyons. It is also a crucial habitat for a number of species, such as the Mesa Verde night snake and the long-nose leopard lizard.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The harsh nature of this landscape has greatly contributed to the preservation of the area’s archaeological sites, which provide an unsurpassed opportunity for scholars and the public to see how different cultures adapted to life in the American Southwest before the European invasion.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Human Habitation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 7500 BCE, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indians</strong></a> lived in the area that is now Canyons of the Ancients. By 1500 BCE, the Basketmaker culture—an <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic-period</strong></a> antecedent of the Ancestral Puebloans—was prevalent throughout the region (these terms are Euro-American classifications of time and cultures; Indigenous people of the Southwest have their own names for these time periods and people).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Around 750 CE, the Ancestral Pueblo began to establish farming and year-round villages. These villages eventually became part of a prehistoric cultural region that includes <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. Occupation of the site fluctuated and changed as the Pueblo people went through different phases of cultural development. The densest inhabitation occurred from 1150 to 1300 CE, when the Ancestral Pueblo began living in large, multistory masonry dwellings. These dwellings could include dozens of rooms and be part of larger villages that also encompassed natural features such as reservoirs and springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eventually dry conditions compromised agricultural efforts, making survival difficult for the Ancestral Pueblo and necessitating a move to more arable lands in present-day New Mexico and Arizona, where the twenty-five descendant tribes and pueblos reside. After the departure of the Ancestral Pueblo, migratory Nuche (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) and Diné (<strong>Navajo</strong>) people were known to inhabit the area during cooler months. The descendants of these groups still inhabit the Four Corners region.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Preservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Canyons of the Ancients was an area of archaeological and Indigenous interest for more than 125 years before its proclamation as a national monument in 2000. It has more than 6,355 recorded sites in its 176,000 acres, including some areas with hundreds of sites per square mile. As with other archaeologically rich parts of the Southwest, much early “archaeological” exploration by Euro-Americans was essentially looting or grave-robbing. Values such as scholarly rigor, tribal collaboration, and preservation gradually displaced ad hoc amateur collecting over the course of the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1985 Canyons of the Ancients was designated an Area of Critical Environmental Concern, a designation used by the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong> (BLM) to recognize areas that require special management attention “to protect important historical, cultural, and scenic values, or fish and wildlife or other natural resources.” In 1999 Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt recommended it be named a national monument.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On June 9, 2000, President Bill Clinton declared Canyons of the Ancients a national monument under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act of 1906</strong></a>. Local residents, worried about loss of access to the lands, were initially opposed to the proclamation. Despite some restrictions put in place in recent years, these fears have been largely unfounded. Monument status did result in a rise in formalized visitation to the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Interpretation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Average visitation to the monument is now roughly 45,000 people per year. Most visitors check in at the Canyons of the Ancients Visitor Center and Museum, located in <strong>Dolores</strong>. The visitor center incorporates two twelfth-century archaeological sites as well as permanent and temporary exhibits about the Ancestral Puebloans and the research that is ongoing at the monument. The rest of the monument is largely in the backcountry, meaning that the majority of the sites are accessible only via hiking and are not interpreted by staff. A handful of notable locations within the monument have interpretive material available for visitors, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lowry-site"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a>, <strong>Painted Hand Pueblo</strong>, <strong>Sand Canyon Pueblo</strong>, and Sand Canyon.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The scope of the studies being conducted at the monument makes it one of the most intensely studied landscapes in the world. The monument already hosts more than 6,000 recorded sites, but there are an estimated 30,000 total sites within the monument’s boundaries. These sites range in size and significance from cliff dwellings, villages, and great kivas to agricultural fields, check dams, and reservoirs. The monument also has a collection of more than 3 million objects and records from archaeological projects in southwest Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Several current projects involve Lowry Pueblo. In partnership with the <strong>University of Colorado—Denver</strong>, the BLM is working to digitally document and create three-dimensional models and scaled drawings of the pueblo. In addition, in 2017 the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore started a project to document the surrounding landscape using hand drawings, photographs, GIS maps, and 3D computer reconstructions.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Management</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Management of Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is complex. It is overseen by the BLM and has several private inholdings that amount to more than 16,000 acres. It also has the unique distinction of including within its boundaries a separate national monument, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep</strong></a>, which is managed by the National Park Service and covers approximately 400 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite its designation as a national monument, the landscape continues to be used not only by scholars and recreational visitors, but also for hunting, livestock grazing, and energy development. As of 2020, the monument contains 193 oil, natural gas, and carbon dioxide wells—the monument sits on top of one of the largest carbon dioxide deposits in the world—and more than 80 percent of the monument is under lease for mineral extraction. The leases predate the national monument, and the BLM is obligated to honor the mineral extraction rights while trying to preserve the monument’s archaeological sites. Many drilling sites within the monument are no longer in use but have yet to go through reclamation, a process of restoring the land to its approximate original state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sites within the remote monument still occasionally suffer from looting and vandalism. In 2017 a fifty-seven-year-old visitor damaged and took artifacts from a site in Sandstone Canyon; he was apprehended by BLM officers and later sentenced to one year in federal prison.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On April 26, 2017, President Donald J. Trump signed an executive order calling for the review of national monuments larger than 100,000 acres, including Canyons of the Ancients. The order generated controversy, particularly in the West, where most large monuments are located. Colorado’s congressional delegation requested that Canyons of the Ancients remain unchanged, and on July 21, 2017, Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke announced that the size of the monument would stay the same.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coronavirus-colorado"><strong>COVID-19</strong></a> pandemic of 2020–21, the BLM began offering online reservations for self-guided tours at Canyons of the Ancients. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/perkins-luke" hreflang="und">Perkins, Luke</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canyons-ancients-national-monument" hreflang="en">canyons of the ancients national monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-national-monument" hreflang="en">hovenweep national monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bureau-land-management" hreflang="en">Bureau of Land Management</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lowry-pueblo" hreflang="en">lowry pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/painted-hand-pueblo" hreflang="en">painted hand pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-canyon-pueblo" hreflang="en">sand canyon pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-canyon" hreflang="en">sand canyon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Administration of William J. Clinton, “<a href="https://eplanning.blm.gov/public_projects/lup/65701/99009/119999/2000-0609_7317_Presidential_Proclamation_CANM.pdf">Proclamation 7317—Establishment of the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” June 9, 2000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/blm-offers-online-reservation-system-for-canyons-of-the-ancients-museum/">BLM Offers Online Reservation System for Canyons of the Ancients Museum</a>,” <em>Journal</em>, March 16, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, “<a href="http://npshistory.com/publications/blm/canyons-of-the-ancients/mgr-rpt-2017.pdf">Annual Manager's Report- Fiscal Year 2017</a>” (Dolores, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado State Office, US Bureau of Land Management, “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Canyons_of_the_Ancients_National_Monumen/1Q4yAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=Canyons+of+the+Ancients+National+Monument:+Proposed+Resource+Management+Plan+and+Final+Environmental+Impact+Statement.+Resource+Management+Plan&amp;pg=RA11-PA1&amp;printsec=frontcover">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument: Proposed Resource Management Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement</a>,” Dolores, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Department of the Interior, “<a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/monument-review-secretary-zinke-recommends-no-modifications-canyons-ancients">Share Monument Review: Secretary Zinke Recommends No Modifications to Canyons of the Ancients</a>,” July 21, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kindra McQuillan, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.9/john-podesta-legacy-maker/monumental-changes">Still Quiet at Canyons of the Ancients</a>," <em>High Country News</em>, May 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Andre Miller, “<a href="https://westernpriorities.org/resource/mapping-the-legacy-of-drilling-in-a-protected-monument/">Mapping the Legacy of Drilling in a Protected Monument</a>,” March 12, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/cortez-man-sentenced-for-looting-on-canyons-of-ancients-national-monument/">Cortez Man Sentenced for Looting on Canyons of Ancients National Monument</a>,” <em>Journal</em>, June 10, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/programs/national-conservation-lands/colorado/canyons-of-the-ancients">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Tourism, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/dolores/attractions-entertainment/museums/canyons-of-the-ancients-national-monument-visitor-center-and-museum-blm">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument Visitor Center and Museum</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>TripSavvy, “<a href="https://www.tripsavvy.com/canyons-of-the-ancients-national-monument-guide-4163884">A Guide to Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” updated June 26, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Visit Mesa Verde Country, “<a href="http://mesaverdecountry.com/things-to-do/canyons-of-the-ancients/">Canyons of the Ancients</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 02 Dec 2021 18:27:53 +0000 yongli 3650 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Origins of Mesa Verde National Park http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/origins-mesa-verde-national-park <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Origins of Mesa Verde National Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-28T13:00:41-06:00" title="Thursday, October 28, 2021 - 13:00" class="datetime">Thu, 10/28/2021 - 13:00</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/origins-mesa-verde-national-park" data-a2a-title="Origins of Mesa Verde National Park"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Forigins-mesa-verde-national-park&amp;title=Origins%20of%20Mesa%20Verde%20National%20Park"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> was established in 1906 as the country’s ninth national park. The site was visited and considered sacred by multiple Indigenous nations before it began attracting interest from white Americans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. While male scientists and treasure hunters sought to extract artifacts and knowledge from the site, two Colorado women—Virginia Donaghe McClurg and Lucy Peabody—sought to preserve it. Their campaign marshaled the conservationist spirit that gripped many white Americans at the time, including President Theodore Roosevelt, and culminated in Mesa Verde’s designation as a national park.</p> <p>Today, Mesa Verde National Park hosts more than 500,000 visitors per year and remains a sacred and important place for multiple Indigenous nations, especially the Pueblo people of New Mexico. On account of the park’s history as a colonized landscape, the story of how two white women spearheaded Mesa Verde’s creation raises important questions about what it means to “preserve” a site, who should do the preserving, and for whom these sites are preserved.</p> <h2>Colonization and Preservation</h2> <p>As with many other national parks, the establishment of Mesa Verde National Park was rooted in the process of <strong>settler-colonialism</strong> unfolding across the western United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As they violently displaced Indigenous nations and built cities, farms, mines, and railroads, white Americans found beauty in certain places and sought to protect them from industry and development.</p> <p>By the late nineteenth century, the collection of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>, and other structures built by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people at Mesa Verde began to attract interest from white Americans. Located in southwest Colorado, the site was then on land belonging to the Nuche (<strong>Ute</strong> people) and was still important to the <strong>Navajo</strong> and Pueblo people. However, white scientists and explorers repeatedly trespassed and took artifacts, either for study or sale. Imbued with notions of white supremacy, the young discipline of archaeology often blurred the lines between investigation and plunder.</p> <h2>Virginia McClurg and Lucy Peabody</h2> <p>Neither a scientist nor a treasure hunter, Virginia McClurg saw the site differently, maintaining that its value came from what was there instead of what could be taken from it. The first of the two women to visit the cliff dwellings, she became the site’s earliest white champion. She was the daughter of prosperous easterners, and her life mirrored that of many female reformers of the late nineteenth century who were both ambitious and willing to join various organizations in search of change. Educated in Virginia, McClurg established herself as a travel writer while still in her twenties and remained unmarried until she was in her thirties. Poor health brought her west to Colorado in 1879, where she attended classes at <strong>Colorado College</strong>, founded a private school, and reported intermittently for newspapers. In 1889 she married <strong>Gilbert McClurg</strong>, settled in Colorado, and eventually gave birth to a son.</p> <p>McClurg’s interest in the cliff dwellings began in 1882, when the <em>New York Daily Graphic</em> asked her to visit Mesa Verde to investigate Colorado’s “lost” cities and buried homes. Fascinated by the structures, McClurg outfitted her own expedition to the cliff dwellings in 1886 to gather scientific evidence that might justify the site’s protection.</p> <p>McClurg’s contemporaries included white men such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a>, a rancher who stumbled upon Mesa Verde’s cliff dwellings in 1888, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, a Swedish scientist who studied the site in the 1890s. Both men extracted artifacts from the site, and Nordenskiöld was briefly arrested for doing so. Nordenskiöld was actually interested in documenting Ancestral Pueblo culture, but many others simply plundered the site, leading McClurg to denounce “many instances of thoughtless vandalism.” McClurg was especially critical of Wetherill, whom she later referred to as a farmer who “casts away the walls from a prehistoric pueblo to line his irrigating ditch.” In contrast, she saw Mesa Verde as an area that needed more protection, in addition to study.</p> <p>After McClurg published sketches of her trip, she became a minor celebrity. In 1893 she was the only woman invited to speak in the Anthropological Building at the Chicago World’s Fair. Seven years later, she established the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association (CCDA), a women’s group modeled after the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, the country’s first historic preservation organization. McClurg became regent of the CCDA, with Lucy Peabody as vice regent. Peabody was an influential <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> retiree who had served as secretarial assistant in the Bureau of American Ethnology before her marriage. Despite its intentions, the CCDA had limited interactions with the Indigenous people who still considered Mesa Verde to be the home of their ancestors.</p> <p>McClurg’s first goal was for the CCDA to obtain legal rights to Mesa Verde via a land lease from the <strong>Weeminuche Ute</strong>. In 1899 she traveled to the<strong> Southern Ute Indian Reservation </strong>in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county"><strong>Montezuma County</strong></a> to convince Ute leader <strong>Ignacio</strong> and his son Acowitz to lease the cliff dwellings to her. She offered him $300 a year for thirty years with $300 up front. Chief Ignacio was reluctant and demanded $9,000 on the spot. Unable to oblige, McClurg went home empty-handed. A year later, she sent Alice Bishop to Navajo Springs to try again. Bishop was successful, but US secretary of the interior Ethan Hitchcock declared the agreement illegal because private citizens did not have the authority to negotiate a treaty with tribes. The following year, the CCDA submitted the lease to the Department of the Interior a second time, only to have it rejected once again. In response, the CCDA lobbied elected officials. McClurg met with Colorado senators <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/henry-teller"><strong>Henry Teller</strong></a> and <strong>Edward Wolcott</strong> to discuss political strategies and appealed directly to President Theodore Roosevelt. McClurg wrote the president a romantic sonnet in which she described the Ancestral Puebloans as a “peaceful race” who “toiled in fields with patient industry.”</p> <p>Meanwhile, Lucy Peabody traveled to Washington, DC, to investigate the possibility of establishing a national park at the site despite McClurg’s wish that Mesa Verde become a state park. While there, Peabody secured a bill that left the CCDA out of the park’s new administration, which created a rift between McClurg and Peabody. In her 1904 annual address to the CCDA, McClurg said, “there are members of the association who are in favor of [a national park]—others a state or Association’s control . . . each may work in the field which suits her best—and time will show which plan will be crowned with success.” All of these plans failed to recognize Indigenous sovereignty over the site. In the meantime, the women of the CCDA worked hard to publicize and further colonize the site. By 1903 the CCDA created the first accurate map of the cliff dwellings, built a wagon road down the <strong>Mancos Canyon</strong>, and constructed a shelter at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a><strong>.</strong></p> <p>By 1905 the CCDA had convinced both the public and Congress that a national park should be established at Mesa Verde. That year, Colorado representative <strong>Herschel Hogg</strong> submitted the first Mesa Verde National Park bill to survive a congressional committee. The following year, Colorado senator <strong>Thomas Patterson</strong> submitted a bill to the Senate. McClurg, though she preferred a state park, reluctantly gave her blessing.</p> <h2>Conflict Over Management</h2> <p>That is, until February 1906, when McClurg suddenly withdrew her support for the new park. Contemporaries and historians alike have struggled to understand her sudden change of heart. Newspapers of the period derided her. The papers accused McClurg of being obsessed with her own celebrity. On February 23, 1906, for example, <strong><em>The</em></strong><em> <strong>Denver Post</strong> </em>scolded McClurg and told her to “put all that tremendous energy of yours into the fight to get Uncle Sam to take up this wonderful bit of ancient, ancient history and preserve it for the wonder and pilgriming of the whole world.” A day later, the <em>Post</em> published a political cartoon that illustrated the paper’s belief that federal officials—embodied by the elderly male figure of Uncle Sam—would better care for the site. In the cartoon, a young woman, identified as Miss Colorado, happily and dutifully surrenders a model of the cliff dwellings to Uncle Sam, saying, “They’ll be safer in your care, Uncle!”</p> <p>McClurg worried that federal intervention would damage the site—a concern that was not without merit. In 1881 the US Army sent Captain Moses Harris to Yellowstone to suppress illegal activities at the park. Since Harris’s arrival, residents of Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho had complained about the army’s management of the park. McClurg was reticent to see the cliff dwellings managed by the army; rather, she hoped for Mesa Verde to be legally protected and financially supported by either the state or federal government while remaining under the direction of the clubwomen. She envisioned a new kind of partnership between government organizations and women’s clubs, one that provided women with an official role in state and federal bureaucracies, and thus famously declared, “Let [Mesa Verde] be a woman’s park.”</p> <p>The <em>Post </em>insisted that no private individuals, especially women, were fit to manage the site. It told readers to “think of turning the Yosemite over to the custodianship of any band of the best meaning and the cleverest women, or men, either, in the world! Women die and women get married and lose interest in political life . . . so do men. The government of the United States lives!” Undeterred, McClurg continued to denounce the Hogg Bill, and the CCDA was divided, with one faction of clubwomen supporting McClurg and the other supporting Peabody.</p> <p>In an apparent effort to sway public opinion toward her vision, McClurg concocted a conspiracy theory. She argued that the Hogg Bill was a thinly disguised congressional plot, a furtive means by which to acquire more Indigenous land. McClurg argued that the CCDA would never attempt something so heartless. She declared, “there has never been any plan to park Mesa Verde, which did not include the Indians remaining on their land.” There was, however, no truth to McClurg’s accusations, and despite her efforts, Congress passed Hogg’s bill in 1906 with widespread public approval. The bill came the same year as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a>, designed to protect sites of archaeological interest from unscientific plundering and inspired by the increased publicity of places like Mesa Verde.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The CCDA did not officially disband until McClurg’s death in 1931. At that point, Mesa Verde was managed by the <strong>National Park Service (NPS)</strong>. Peabody, not McClurg, was lauded as the heroine who “founded” Mesa Verde National Park—despite the fact that the dwellings had been created and maintained by generations of Indigenous people. In 1906 the American Anthropology Association thanked Peabody for her role in the preservation of the great monuments of ancient culture without mentioning McClurg.</p> <p>Still, despite the best intentions of McClurg and the CCDA, the entire enterprise of creating the park amounted to a colonial project that placed an Indigenous site under the control of the US government. Today, Indigenous scholars argue that the national park system is itself a product of the dispossession and abuse of Indigenous peoples and cultures that occurred throughout Colorado and the American West in the nineteenth century. In this context, although it can still be seen as a monumental achievement, the two women’s work to create Mesa Verde National Park is more complicated and controversial than often considered.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/swanson-mary" hreflang="und">Swanson, Mary</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/founding-mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">founding of mesa verde national park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/virginia-mcclurg" hreflang="en">virginia mcclurg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lucy-peabody" hreflang="en">lucy peabody</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ignacio" hreflang="en">Ignacio</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/settler-colonialism" hreflang="en">settler colonialism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/theodore-roosevelt" hreflang="en">theodore roosevelt</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antiquities-act" hreflang="en">antiquities act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spruce-tree-house" hreflang="en">spruce tree house</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/four-corners" hreflang="en">four corners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“Contending Factions in Cliff Dwellings Society: Association May be Disrupted as a Result of Differences Between Mrs. McClurg and Mrs. Peabody Over Method of Preserving Mesa Verde Ruins,” <em>Rocky Mountain Daily News</em>, February 13, 1906.</p> <p>Editorial Cartoon, <em>The </em><em>Denver Post</em>, February 24, 1906.</p> <p>“Make It a National Park,” <em>The </em><em>Denver Post</em>, February 23, 1906.</p> <p>Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, “Two Annual Addresses by the Regent of the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association,” Denver, 1904, Virginia McClurg Collection, Colorado Springs Pioneer Museum, Colorado Springs.</p> <p>“Regents Slurs on Hard Work: Regent of Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association Sharply Replies to Editorial Attack,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, March 11, 1906.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Krista Langlois, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/49.17/features-archaeology-indigenous-knowledge-untangles-the-mystery-of-mesa-verde">Indigenous Knowledge Helps Untangle the Mystery of Mesa Verde</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, October 2, 2017.</p> <p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park</a>.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Oct 2021 19:00:41 +0000 yongli 3629 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Grand Junction Indian Boarding School http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction-indian-boarding-school <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Grand Junction Indian Boarding School</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-06-29T15:25:54-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 29, 2021 - 15:25" class="datetime">Tue, 06/29/2021 - 15:25</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction-indian-boarding-school" data-a2a-title="Grand Junction Indian Boarding School"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgrand-junction-indian-boarding-school&amp;title=Grand%20Junction%20Indian%20Boarding%20School"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a> Indian School opened its doors to students in 1886 as the seventh school in the federal off-reservation residential boarding school system for Indigenous youth. The Grand Junction campus was the first boarding school in the mountain west and began operating just four years after the founding of the city. Like all off-reservation schools, education at the Grand Junction Indian School was both academic and industrial. Graduates received the equivalent of an eighth-grade education and specialized trade skills that would theoretically enhance Indigenous livelihoods on and off the reservations; however, the school’s broader purpose was the erasure of Indigenous culture, causing immense harm to Indigenous peoples’ ability to maintain their languages and customs.</p> <h2>History and Life of the School</h2> <p>Thomas B. Crawford, Grand Junction’s first postmaster, donated the roughly 170 acres of land east of the city on which the school would be built. Not long after, the first building was erected. This three-wing building served as a combination schoolhouse, dorm, teacher’s quarters, and dining hall. The early years of the Grand Junction campus’s life were marked by low enrollment. For one, the school was tasked with educating the same Utes who had been forced out of Colorado five years earlier, and, second, enrollment was limited to boys at first. Ute people resisted sending their children to the school, and, once there, Ute students periodically tried to escape. Like other Indigenous boarding schools, the Grand Junction school forbade students from speaking Indigenous languages, made sure children dressed in the Western manner, and forced them to worship in the Christian tradition.&nbsp;</p> <p>Commissioner of Indian Affairs Thomas Morgan visited the fledgling campus in 1890, pledging more material support. With the addition of new faculty, a girls’ dormitory, a dairy barn, a laundry facility, and a beekeeping area, the school was reinvigorated. It began to be known as the “Teller Institute,” after Colorado senator <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/henry-teller"><strong>Henry Teller</strong></a>, an advocate of Indigenous education and a critic of US Indigenous policy. From this point until its closure in 1911, the Teller Institute grew in stature, adding students from several neighboring states as well as new programs, indoor plumbing, sidewalks, and other amenities. With its plumbing and sidewalks, the Teller school was cleaner and more sanitary than Grand Junction itself. Enrollment hovered around 200 students per year.</p> <p>A key feature of the boarding schools was “outing,” where students worked in local industry as part of their educations. Boys typically worked as blacksmiths, farriers, and farmers, while girls were employed in local homes as domestic workers or as stenographers and typists. The agricultural economy of the early twentieth-century <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-valley-irrigation"><strong>Grand Valley</strong></a> was perfect for outing, and many Indigenous boys found work in local orchards and ranches. A 1910 letter from school superintendent Charles Burton to the commissioner of Indian Affairs indicates students in the outing program were earning a total of $3,000–4,000 yearly and saving local orchards from having to import laborers into the valley. Most boys in the boarding school system were paid between $5 and $15 monthly, with girls making $2–$8 over the same period.</p> <p>But life at the school was not all work and no play: The school fielded baseball, football, and track teams and put on music recitals and other performances for <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> residents. The girls had a mandolin band that proved to be regionally popular, and the school published a newspaper, the <em>Reveille</em>, using its own printing equipment. It also appears that, at Grand Junction at least, some Indigenous arts were nurtured by the faculty, despite the overarching goal of ethnocide. In a 1909 report, Estelle Reel, national superintendent of Indian Schools, notes Teller Institute students were “encouraged to preserve the legends and traditions of their respective tribes, and to practice and keep alive the tribal music and industries.”</p> <h2>Closing the Grand Junction School</h2> <p>The federal off-reservation boarding school model fell into disfavor in the early 1900s. The government decided the schools were too expensive to maintain and were not producing enough graduates. Schools were either shut down or handed off to religious bodies or other private organizations. Grand Junction’s closure came in 1911, along with the other Colorado boarding school, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-lewis-college"><strong>Fort Lewis</strong></a>. The last 165 students at Grand Junction left for different opportunities. Eleven students were sent to <strong>Rocky Ford</strong> for work under the supervision of Charles Dagenette (a member of the Peoria Tribe), an alumnus of the well-known Carlisle Boarding School and then-supervisor of Indian Employment in Colorado. A few students were sent to other federal schools. Most students, however, were sent home to their respective reservations. At the time of closure this included Tohono O’odham, Dine (Navajo), San Juan Southern Paiute, Hopi, and several of the New Mexico Pueblos. Other nations represented at the school over the years included the Ute, San Carlos Apache, Jicarilla Apache, and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago).</p> <p>After the closure of the Fort Lewis and Grand Junction campuses, Congress granted them to the state of Colorado, along with all buildings and infrastructure. The grant came with certain stipulations: the campuses had to be maintained in perpetuity as institutions of education, and Indigenous people were to have access to the institutions free of charge. Fort Lewis became Fort Lewis College, and to this day it is committed to providing free education to Indigenous students. The Grand Junction campus was originally slated for conversion into a western campus of the State Agricultural College (now<strong> Colorado State University</strong>). After these plans fell through, the Grand Junction campus fell into disrepair.</p> <p>In 1921, after receiving congressional permission to convert the dilapidated school into an asylum, the state of Colorado rehabilitated the main campus buildings and opened the <strong>State Home and Training School for Mental Defectives</strong> to alleviate the overcrowded facility at <strong>Wheat Ridge</strong>. Over the years, most of the original buildings were torn down and replaced with more modern facilities, though three nineteenth-century buildings remain standing. The State Home continued life as the Grand Junction Regional Center until its closure by the <strong>Colorado legislature </strong>in 2016.</p> <h2>Cemetery</h2> <p>In its waning years, the Grand Junction school and its students were not well cared for. A 1909 inspection report to the Office of Indian Affairs indicates that the heating and plumbing systems at the school were in dire need of repair and that the school engineer did not have the expertise to get the work done. The accidental saturation of the land by canal water, coupled with a hard freeze, led to cracked foundations and ruined basements in most of the buildings.</p> <p>This lack of care led to one of the most poignant elements of the school’s story. Children who died while attending residential boarding schools were often buried in school cemeteries, never to see their homes again. Deceased students at Grand Junction were no exception, and a minimum of twenty students were buried on campus over the years. Somehow, the cemetery was lost during the idle decade. A single oral history taken from a Grand Junction resident in 1993 suggests some of the dead were unearthed and reinterred at <strong>Orchard Mesa Cemetery, </strong>but no known documentary evidence corroborates this account. This anecdote could possibly pertain to non-Indigenous teacher Lue Childs, a 1900 victim of typhoid. Childs died on campus in early July, and her remains were later transported to Orchard Mesa for burial. The location of the Indigenous children’s cemetery remains unknown. No known map or photograph of the campus bears any indication of its whereabouts.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>What will become of the now-shuttered Grand Junction campus is also unknown. A 2019 act signed by Governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jared-polis"><strong>Jared Polis</strong></a> indicates the property could be sold. Neither the 2016 act that ordered the facility to close, nor the follow-up 2019 act, accounts for the historic nature of the property or its legacy to Indigenous peoples and Coloradans of any ethnicity. As a result, <strong>Colorado Mesa University</strong>, the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong>, and the <strong>Colorado Commission of Indian Affairs</strong> have initiated efforts to find and preserve the cemetery and to commemorate Indigenous children’s experiences at the Grand Junction Indian School. These efforts are ongoing.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/seebach-john" hreflang="und">Seebach, John</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-junction-indian-school" hreflang="en">grand junction indian school</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/teller-institute" hreflang="en">teller institute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-history" hreflang="en">ute history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/genocide" hreflang="en">genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ethnocide" hreflang="en">ethnocide</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Charles Burton, superintendent Grand Junction Indian School, to Robert G. Valentine, commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, January 5, 1910, box no. 1, PI-163 E-121, Central Classified Files 1907–39, Grand Junction, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, record group 75, National Archives Bldg., Washington, DC.</p> <p>Charles L. Davis, supervisor, to Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, December 31, 1909, box no. 1, PI-163 E-121, Central Classified Files 1907–39, Grand Junction, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, record group 75, National Archives Bldg., Washington, DC.</p> <p>F. D. C. Hauke, second assistant commissioner of Indian Affairs, to Frederick S. McKay, Colorado Springs, Colorado, October 11, 1912, box no. 1, PI-163 E-121, Central Classified Files 1907–39, Grand Junction, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, record group 75, National Archives Bldg., Washington, DC.</p> <p>Donald A. MacKendrick, “Cesspools, Alkali and White Lily Soap: The Grand Junction Indian School 1886–1911,” <em>Journal of the Western Slope</em> 8, no. 3 (Summer 1993).&nbsp;</p> <p>Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian Schools, to Robert G. Valentine, commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC, July 17, 1909, box. no. 1, PI-163 E-121, Central Classified Files 1907–39, Grand Junction, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, record group 75, National Archives Bldg., Washington, DC.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>David Wallace Adams, <em>Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875–1928</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).</p> <p>Jon Reyhner and Jeanne Eder, <em>American Indian Education: A History</em>, 2nd ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2017).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 29 Jun 2021 21:25:54 +0000 yongli 3587 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3290--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3290.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mexican-session-1848"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Treaty%20of%20Guadalupe%20Hidalgo%20Media%201_0.png?itok=h_XrIUVa" width="1090" height="721" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mexican-session-1848" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mexican Session, 1848</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War in 1848 and resulted in the Mexican cession, a total of 525,000 square miles ceded to the United States by Mexico.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T14:39:42-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 14:39" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 14:39</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-guadalupe-hidalgo&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Guadalupe%20Hidalgo"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Signed on February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In the treaty, the Republic of Mexico agreed to cede 55 percent of its territory, some 525,000 square miles, to the United States. This land eventually became the present states of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah, as well as a large portion of western and southern <a href="/article/colorado-overview"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the treaty, Mexican citizens living in the ceded territory became US citizens. The treaty paved the way for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a> (former citizens of Mexico and their descendants) to immigrate to what is now southern Colorado. There, in the San Luis Valley, they established the first permanent towns and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> canals in what became Colorado. After the war, the US government also broke up <strong>land grants</strong> in southern Colorado that were previously awarded by the Mexican government.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Republic of Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. The new nation immediately established trade relations with the United States. A steady stream of goods and livestock traveled between the countries via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-fé-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>, part of which crossed what is now southern Colorado. However, tensions between the nations began to escalate, especially in Texas, where immigrant American slaveholders ran up against Mexico’s antislavery laws. Anglo-Texans seceded from Mexico in 1836, creating the independent Republic of Texas, which was formally annexed by the United States in 1845.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Spain had before it, Mexico tried to secure its northern frontier by encouraging citizens to settle there. It established communities in northern New Mexico and attempted to settle the San Luis Valley. However, American Indians, especially the <strong>Comanche</strong>, Apache, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>, drove away would-be colonists and controlled much of Mexico’s northern reaches in the 1840s. Sensing an opportunity to gain new territory for the United States, President James K. Polk goaded Mexico into war in 1846 by sending troops into a disputed boundary zone between the two nations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With northern Mexico decimated by Comanche attacks, the US Army swiftly moved through the Mexican Republic, while the American Navy blockaded important ports such as Veracruz. US forces captured Mexico City on September 15, 1847. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed early the next year in Villa Guadalupe Hidalgo, a town north of Mexico City.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Effects in Colorado and Beyond</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To many Americans at the time, the addition of so much land opened new opportunities, but it also renewed the competition between those who sought to expand slavery to the western territories and those who sought to stop its spread or abolish it altogether. This tension eventually led to the <strong>American</strong> <strong>Civil War</strong> in 1861. The new lands also presented another challenge because they were already occupied by hundreds of distinct Indian nations, none of whom were prepared to allow Americans unchecked influence over their homelands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo led to the first permanent towns in what became Colorado, largely because it allowed the US government to begin treating with local Indian nations. In 1849 local Ute bands signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of Abiquiú</strong></a>, which allowed Hispano and white farmers, ranchers, and merchants to live in the San Luis Valley. The Abiquiú Treaty also gave the United States permission to set up military forts in the valley. In 1852 Fort Massachusetts was built on the valley’s eastern edge; it was eventually moved and renamed <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a> in 1858.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After 1849 Hispano families began moving north from New Mexico into the San Luis Valley. In 1851 they established <strong>San Luis</strong>, Colorado’s oldest continuously occupied town. In 1854 Mexican-American War veteran <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lafayette-head"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a> brought Hispano families from Abiquiú, New Mexico, to found the town of Guadalupe in present <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos County</strong></a>. In 1858 Hispano residents built Colorado’s first Catholic church in the village of <strong>Conejos</strong>. Many of these early residents brought with them enslaved indigenous people, especially Navajos and Apaches. Indigenous slavery, an institution inherited from the Spanish occupation of the American Southwest, still existed in the San Luis Valley into the 1860s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Besides greatly increasing the size of the nation, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo established the foundation for the modern economic, political, and cultural development of southern Colorado. However, this development came at the expense of the Ute and other American Indians, who were forced to give up much of their ancestral homelands and subjected to slavery and cultural genocide. Today, the Utes still live in southwest Colorado, and Hispano families and communities remain an integral part of southern Colorado’s economy and identity.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-american-war" hreflang="en">Mexican-American War</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-war" hreflang="en">mexican war</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-american-war-colorado" hreflang="en">mexican-american war colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo" hreflang="en">treaty of guadalupe hidalgo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo-colorado" hreflang="en">treaty of guadalupe hidalgo colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-abiquiu" hreflang="en">treaty of abiquiu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano" hreflang="en">hispano</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-land-grants" hreflang="en">mexican land grants</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Frederic J. Athearn, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/blm/co/17/contents.htm"><em>Land of Contrast: A History of Southeast Colorado</em></a>, Bureau of Land Management Cultural Resources Series, No. 17 (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, Colorado, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Guadalupe-Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia Britannica</em>, updated January 26, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Ralph Carr, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine_v25n1_January1948.pdf">Private Land Claims in Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Magazine </em>25, no. 1 (January 1948).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/western-territories-map">Map of United States Including Western Territories (1848)</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia Simmons, “<a href="https://alamosanews.com/article/rabbitbrush-rambler-no-spanish-land-grants-here">No Spanish Land Grants Here</a>,” <em>Alamosa News</em>, January 16, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&amp;doc=26&amp;page=transcript">Transcript of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 20:39:42 +0000 yongli 3270 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Fort Laramie http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Fort Laramie</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3288--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3288.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-laramie-wyoming"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Treaty-of-Fort-Laramie-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=Ab8PwQd-" width="1000" height="671" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-laramie-wyoming" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Laramie, Wyoming</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A fur trade post-turned military fort, Fort Laramie in southern Wyoming was the site of two major treaties with Native Americans, one in 1851 (Arapaho, Cheyenne, Sioux) and another in 1868 (Sioux and Arapaho).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x 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field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:50:09-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:50" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Fort Laramie"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-fort-laramie&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Fort%20Laramie"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Signed in 1851, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was made between the US government and several Indigenous nations of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>—including the <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Lakota</strong>—who occupied parts of present southern Wyoming and northern Colorado. The treaty was part of the government’s efforts to protect a growing stream of whites heading west and to establish a military presence in the region. The treaty gave the Cheyenne and Arapaho sovereignty over the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>Platte River</strong></a> basin as long as the Indians allowed free passage of white migrants and allowed the government to build roads and forts on their land. However, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 made the treaty obsolete, as whites moved onto Cheyenne and Arapaho land that was supposedly protected.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the eighteenth century, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease outbreaks</strong></a> and conflicts over the fur trade disrupted the Indian nations of the upper Midwest, prompting some to abandon the region in search of a better life. The Arapaho and Cheyenne people moved from a relatively settled life in western Minnesota to a more nomadic life in pursuit of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> on the Great Plains. They reached present-day Colorado by the early nineteenth century, after being pushed westward by the Sioux, who also came to occupy the plains of Wyoming and Colorado around the same time.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1834, during the height of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the American West, American traders William Sublette and Robert Campbell established what became Fort Laramie in present-day Wyoming, at the confluence of the Laramie and <strong>North Platte</strong> Rivers. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Sioux often gathered there to trade bison robes for weapons, iron cookware, coffee, and other American goods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1840s, increasing numbers of white migrants began traveling west to settle in the newly acquired territories of Oregon and California. Fort Laramie, then known as Fort John, became a popular waystation for migrants traveling the <strong>Great Platte River Road</strong>. Their wagon trains drove away game, trampled grazing grasses for bison, and consumed timber and other important resources on the Great Plains. This put the migrants in competition with the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other local Indians.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Initially, Plains Indians attacked the wagon trains, but after intentional shows of force by the US military, Indian leaders took a more diplomatic stance, allowing white travelers passage in exchange for food and gifts. Firearms, for instance, were a valuable gift because they allowed the Indians to more effectively battle their rivals and more efficiently hunt smaller game, as the bison herds were rapidly diminishing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1849, with white migration ramping up during the California Gold Rush, the US government saw the need to establish treaties with Indian Nations across the Plains in order to secure peaceful passage for its citizens and set the stage for the American colonization of the interior West. That year, anticipating the need for a more robust military presence in the region, the government bought Fort John from the American Fur Company and renamed it Fort Laramie; it also pursued <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>negotiations with the Utes</strong></a>, another Indian nation in what became Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Negotiations at Horse Creek</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the direction of superintendent of Indian Affairs D. D. Mitchell, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a> Thomas Fitzpatrick spent most of 1850 traveling among the various Indian Nations along the Platte Rivers, delivering gifts and inviting leaders to a peace treaty council. The next year, on August 31, more than 9,000 Plains Indians representing nine nations came to the designated treaty campground on Horse Creek, about thirty-five miles east of Fort Laramie.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Negotiations began once Mitchell and Fitzpatrick arrived. Each Indian nation was asked to designate a federally recognized “chief” who would negotiate and sign treaties on behalf of his people. On September 17, the final Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed by leaders of the Arapaho, Arikara, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ventre, Mandan, Shoshone, and Lakota nations. Each nation was assigned a territory that generally overlapped with where its people already lived and hunted, though all nations were permitted to hunt on each other’s land. In exchange for their continued sovereignty over their own affairs, Indian nations agreed to keep the peace between themselves and with Americans, and to allow the government to build forts and roads in their territories. As compensation for previous intrusions on Indian land, the government promised to distribute $50,000 in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> among all nine nations for ten years, provided they adhere to the terms of the treaty. Each nation then selected delegates to tour the eastern United States; these trips were designed to showcase the wealth and power of the United States so that Indian nations would abide by the treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After issuing a hefty parting gift of food and supplies to each Indian nation in attendance, Fitzpatrick and Mitchell must have thought that the Treaty of Fort Laramie would indeed bring, as the treaty promised, “effective and lasting peace” to the Great Plains. But whatever peace it did bring quickly unraveled over the ensuing decade. As more whites joined the westward migrations during the 1850s, bison and other Plains resources became even scarcer. The Plains Indians grew increasingly dependent upon annuity payments that often failed to materialize or were unevenly distributed among the nations, resulting in starvation and hostility.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The government’s failure to deliver the promised annuities undercut the treaty’s two fundamental goals: to preserve peace between Indian nations and between Indians and whites. As their food sources diminished and government annuities failed to supplement the loss, the Indian nations began to fight each other for the best hunting grounds and raid more wagon trains for supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Gold Rush and Treaty of Fort Wise</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, the discovery of gold near present-day <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> in 1858 set off a new stream of white migrants to Cheyenne and Arapaho land at the feet of the Rockies. The Colorado Gold Rush brought fresh outbreaks of disease to both Indian nations and increased the stress on local resources. It also made the Treaty of Fort Laramie obsolete, as Americans now coveted territory that was supposedly protected under its terms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To secure the gold fields and the routes leading to and between them, the US government renegotiated with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> in 1861. Unlike the Treaty of Fort Laramie, which allowed Indian nations to retain some measure of sovereignty over extensive territory, the Treaty of Fort Wise relegated the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a much smaller tract in eastern Colorado, where they lived under government supervision.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The new arrangements caused a division within both tribes between those who wanted to fight for control of their land and those who preferred peace through negotiations, however unfair. This split contributed to the increase in hostilities between both tribes and the US military during the 1860s and to atrocities such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-laramie" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american" hreflang="en">native american</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/north-platte-river" hreflang="en">north platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wise-treaty" hreflang="en">fort wise treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/medicine-lodge-treaty" hreflang="en">medicine lodge treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-platte-river-road" hreflang="en">great platte river road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agents" hreflang="en">indian agents</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming" hreflang="en">Wyoming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakota" hreflang="en">lakota</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fola/learn/historyculture/index.htm">Fort Laramie: Crossroads of a Nation Moving West</a>,” updated March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>State Historical Society of North Dakota, “<a href="https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-1-changing-landscapes/topic-4-reservation-boundaries/section-2-treaty-fort-laramie-1851">Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Loretta Fowler, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AR002">Arapaho, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Cheyenne, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://indians.org/articles/plains-indians.html">Plains Indians</a>,” Indians.org, American Indian Heritage Foundation.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:50:09 +0000 yongli 3269 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Teenokuhu (Friday) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Teenokuhu (Friday) </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:44:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:44" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday" data-a2a-title="Teenokuhu (Friday) "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fteenokuhu-friday&amp;title=Teenokuhu%20%28Friday%29%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Teenokuhu (ca. 1822–81), known to English speakers as “Friday” or “Friday Fitzpatrick,” was a nineteenth-century Northern Arapaho leader. As a boy, Teenokuhu (Arapaho for “sits meekly”) was separated from his band and adopted by Thomas Fitzpatrick, a white trapper who took him to St. Louis. After receiving an American education, he returned to his people and became leader of a band that lived along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>, near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>. Among his people, Teenokuhu was recognized as a great hunter and warrior. For Americans, he frequently served as a translator and intermediary in treaty councils and other interactions. He generally favored peace with Americans, so his fellow Arapaho reportedly called him the “Arapaho American.”</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Teenokuhu was probably born in 1822 or 1823. In 1831, when he was said to be around eight or nine years old, the Arapaho boy was separated from his band when a fight broke out at a gathering of Arapaho, Blackfeet, and Atsina people along the Cimarron River in what is now southeast Colorado. Thomas Fitzpatrick, an American fur trapper, found him and two other boys on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and decided to take Teenokuhu back with him to St. Louis. He named the boy “Friday” after the day of the week he found him. In St. Louis, Friday attended school for two years. Friday learned English and frequently traveled with Fitzpatrick on his trips west, impressing one of the trapper’s colleagues with his “astonishing memory, his minute observation and amusing inquiries.”</p> <p>On one of these trips—likely in 1838—Fitzpatrick’s party encountered an Arapaho band, and one of the women recognized Teenokuhu, claiming him as her son. With Fitzpatrick’s approval, Friday opted to return to his people. He soon gained a reputation as a great <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunter and warrior, earning praise in battles against the Pawnee, Shoshone, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Interpreter and Intermediary</h2> <p>According to fellow Arapaho Sun Road, Friday played an important diplomatic role during the 1840s and 1850s. In July 1843, he translated for the party of American explorer <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> in what is now northern Colorado, and the next spring he performed a similar duty for Rufus Sage on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a>. In September 1851, Friday was at the council in Kansas that eventually produced the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>, but he and several other Arapaho and Cheyenne leaders left early to serve as delegates to Washington, DC. The US government hoped the Indian leaders would be impressed enough by American military power to adhere to the terms of the treaty, signed in October while Friday was on his way to Washington.</p> <p>Friday continued his role as intermediary throughout the 1850s, interpreting for an Arapaho-Mormon encounter in Wyoming in 1857 and for Little Owl’s band during a visit to <strong>Ferdinand V. Hayden</strong>’s surveying party in 1859. His consistent calls for peace with whites, even as they grew more hostile toward his people during the 1860s, drew the ire of other Northern Arapaho leaders. By that time, the Northern Arapaho had been mostly forced out of Colorado by political campaigns that sought land for whites to mine or farm. These campaigns were punctuated with violent acts, such as the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864. By the late 1860s, only Friday’s band of Northern Arapaho remained in Colorado, numbering about 175 along the Cache la Poudre.</p> <h2>The Council Tree</h2> <p>Standing in a meadow near the confluence of the Cache la Poudre and Boxelder Creek in what is now southeast Fort Collins, a massive <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> tree served as a meeting place for Friday’s Arapaho band. The tree was remarked upon by early white residents of the valley, including the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteader</strong></a> Robert Strauss, who arrived in 1860. Strauss claimed the land where the tree stood, but he did not interrupt its use by the local Arapaho. They continued to meet under the tree until the late 1860s, when territorial governor <strong>Alexander Hunt</strong> forced Friday to move his band north of the Platte River. There, they rejoined the two other Northern Arapaho bands under Medicine Man and Black Bear.</p> <h2>Displacement</h2> <p>By the time Friday’s band moved north to Wyoming, the Northern Arapaho were in dire straits. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>Disease outbreaks</strong></a>, the loss of hunting territory to whites, and war with the US Army had thinned their numbers to the point where they needed help from other Indian nations to survive. In his customary role of interpreter, Friday helped Northern Arapaho efforts to retain their lands in Wyoming during the late 1860s and 1870s. Eventually, most of the Northern Arapaho attached themselves to Red Cloud’s <strong>Lakota</strong>, who lived on a reservation in Montana.</p> <p>During the late 1870s, partly to improve their own lot and partly to increase their people’s leverage with the government, some young Arapaho men became scouts for the US Army, including Friday’s son Bill.</p> <h2>Wind River Reservation</h2> <p>In September 1877, Friday made his last trip to Washington, DC, where he and other Northern Arapaho persuaded President Rutherford B. Hayes to let their people remain in Wyoming. In October the Northern Arapaho returned to Wyoming to live alongside the Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation. Friday lived on the reservation with his people until his death in May 1881.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/friday" hreflang="en">friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/teenokuhu" hreflang="en">teenokuhu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-arapaho" hreflang="en">northern arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-history" hreflang="en">arapaho history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-friday" hreflang="en">chief friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre" hreflang="en">cache la poudre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/camp-collins" hreflang="en">camp collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/council-tree" hreflang="en">council tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone" hreflang="en">shoshone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wind-river" hreflang="en">wind river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wyoming" hreflang="en">Wyoming</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin Duggan, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/08/29/arapaho-tribal-history-honored-fort-collins-site/89550934/">Tribal History Honored at Fort Collins’ Council Tree Site</a>,” <em>Coloradoan</em> (Fort Collins), August 29, 2016.</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, “Arapaho and Cheyenne Perspectives: From the 1851 Treaty to the Sand Creek Massacre,” <em>American Indian Quarterly </em>39, no. 4 (Fall 2015).</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, <a href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;rgn=full%20text;idno=heb03666.0001.001;didno=heb03666.0001.001;view=pdf;seq=89;node=heb03666.0001.001:8.2;page=root;size=100"><em>Arapaho Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority</em></a> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> <p>Kansas Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/arapaho-reservations/19272">Arapaho—Reservations</a>,” <em>Kansapedia</em>, updated December 2017.</p> <p>Diane Merkel and Dietmar Schulte-Möhring, “<a href="https://american-tribes.com/Articles/ART/1851Delegation.htm">Delegation of 1851/1852</a>,” American-Tribes.com, n.d.</p> <p>WyoHistory.org, “<a href="https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/arapaho-arrive-two-nations-one-reservation">The Arapaho Arrive: Two Nations on One Reservation</a>,” June 23, 2018.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://windriver.org/destinations/wind-river-indian-reservation/">Wind River Reservation</a>.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:44:52 +0000 yongli 3268 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Medicine Lodge Treaties http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Medicine Lodge Treaties</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:40:49-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:40" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:40</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties" data-a2a-title="Medicine Lodge Treaties"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmedicine-lodge-treaties&amp;title=Medicine%20Lodge%20Treaties"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties were a series of three <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> between the US government and the <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Plains Apache</strong>, Southern <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and Southern <strong>Arapaho</strong> American Indian nations, signed in October 1867 along Medicine Lodge Creek, south of Fort Larned, Kansas. By treating with multiple tribes at once, the government hoped to reestablish peace across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> so that the transcontinental <strong>railroad</strong> could be completed without costly military campaigns. The Indian nations, suffering from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> outbreaks, internal political crises, and diminishing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds, sought supplies and protection from the government, even if they did not wish to give up their lands.</p> <p>The treaties at Medicine Lodge created two new reservations in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) for the above-mentioned five nations. After the treaties, the Cheyenne and Arapaho largely withdrew from Colorado’s plains and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a>, where they had lived since the late 1700s. The treaties also forced Indian children to attend boarding schools, a practice that became more widespread over the next eighty years. Although the treaties removed American Indians from the path of the railroad, they failed to establish peace and had disastrous effects on the lives and culture of Indigenous people on the Great Plains.</p> <p><strong>Origins</strong></p> <p>The 1860s was a period of intense conflict between whites and Plains Indians, as whites repeatedly invaded Indian homelands. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 drew gold seekers and other white immigrants to the region, while in 1862 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead</strong></a> Act and the Pacific Railroad Act spurred even more immigrants as well as construction of a transcontinental railroad across the Great Plains. These incursions diminished critical resources on the Plains, especially the bison, upon which the Plains Indians depended.</p> <p>Other political and economic developments exacerbated tensions between whites and Indians. Kansas (1861) and Nebraska (1867) both gained statehood during the decade, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> continued to grow thanks to new technology that revived its mining industry. The end of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> in 1865 also allowed the government to divert more resources to the development and conquest of the American West.</p> <p>Indigenous nations were divided on how to respond to increased pressure from white immigrants and the US military. Some leaders, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Moketaveto</strong> (Black Kettle) and the Arapaho <strong>Hosa</strong> (Little Raven), believed that maintaining peace was necessary in the face of a superior fighting force. Others, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Tall Bull</strong> and the <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, believed that the Americans could not be trusted to preserve peace and must be violently resisted.</p> <h2>Treaties and Conflicts</h2> <p>In 1861 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> assigned the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho a reservation in eastern Colorado Territory. That changed after US cavalry slaughtered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho as they camped at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre-0"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>, on the edge of the reservation, in late 1864. In 1865 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Little Arkansas Treaty</strong></a> promised reparations for the massacre and sought to move both tribes to a reservation spanning northern Indian Territory (present Oklahoma) and southern Kansas.</p> <p>However, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers never agreed to this treaty, and tensions only increased after the US military built two new forts near important Cheyenne sites in Kansas. To intimidate the Indians into another treaty, General Winfield Scott Hancock was sent to western Kansas in the spring of 1867. When his troops arrived at a Cheyenne-Lakota camp near Fort Larned, the Indians fled, fearing another Sand Creek Massacre. Hancock, who had little experience with Indians, was insulted and ordered the abandoned camp burned. Reprisals from Indigenous nations—a series of conflicts dubbed “Hancock’s War”—finally prompted the government to send a peace commission to Fort Larned in the fall of 1867.</p> <h2>Treaty Negotiations</h2> <p>The peace commission’s goal was to “establish security for person and property along the lines of railroad now being constructed to the Pacific.” Leading the negotiations would be acting Indian affairs commissioner Nathaniel G. Taylor, Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri, General William T. Sherman, and Christian reformer Samuel F. Tappan, among others. Numbering 165 wagons, 600 men, and 1,200 horses and mules, the US government’s treaty delegation reflected a sizable investment in peace instead of warfare. For about two weeks in October 1867, the government supply train fed a camp of more than 5,000 Indians along Medicine Lodge Creek, southeast of Fort Larned.</p> <p>The government could afford to be generous because it was the most powerful player in the negotiations. The military had already established forts in the region, the tribes were fractured along lines of peace and warfare, and the bison herds were diminishing so rapidly that the tribes would likely be open to securing government <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> to help them survive.</p> <p>The tribes shared the same difficult position, but each pursued its own objectives at the negotiations. Kiowa and Apache leaders, for instance, pointed to their peoples’ peaceful relations with Americans to lobby for annuities and to avoid being sent to reservations. Comanche leaders objected to the reservations but were willing to sign as long as the government fulfilled its promises; otherwise, as the Comanche leader Tosahwi said, they would “return with our wild brothers to live on the prairie.”</p> <p>By October 21, two agreements had been reached with bands of Apache, Comanche, and Kiowa. Several days later, the Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs arrived, signing their own treaty on October 28. The treaties created two reservations in western Indian Territory—one for the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, and one for the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne. Tribes would be allowed to hunt off the reservations, but only as long as the bison existed—a cruel caveat, as the bison were on the brink of extinction. The Indian nations<strong>.}</strong> also had to “compel their children, male and female, between the ages of six and sixteen years” to attend US boarding schools, “to insure the civilization of the tribes.”</p> <p>The treaties provided for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agents</strong></a> who would distribute annuities, including a full set of clothes for every Indian each year, as well as more than $20,000 in additional provisions for thirty years. As a final token of goodwill, the US peace commission distributed more than $150,000 in gifts to the assembled tribes, including clothes, blankets, weapons, tools, and tobacco.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties achieved the government’s main objective of moving the Plains Indian nations out of the way of the transcontinental railroad. However, they did not bring peace to the plains, for two main reasons: government agents and Indian leaders interpreted the treaties differently, and not all Plains Indians were represented at the Medicine Lodge council.</p> <p>For starters, the Cheyenne and Arapaho either misinterpreted or disagreed with the location of their new reservation, and so for two years they did not have one. In a letter to the interior secretary in August 1869, new Indian affairs commissioner Ely S. Parker wrote that the tribes not only “did not understand the location of the reservation,” but also “had never been upon said reserve” and “did not desire to go there.” Instead, Parker recommended another location that the Indians selected along the North Fork of the Canadian River. President Ulysses S. Grant immediately approved the new reservation.</p> <p>In addition, although the treaties provided for blacksmiths, agricultural equipment, and housing on the reservations, most Plains Indians neither wanted nor intended to use any of those resources. Most considered the reservation or agency to be a seasonal gathering place instead of a permanent home. Kiowa and Comanche, for example, continued to live off the reservation, hunting bison and taking cattle and other livestock from white settlements.</p> <p>Meanwhile, by the time of the Medicine Lodge Treaties, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers’ strong alliance with the Lakota had made them into the region’s premier fighting force. They had no interest in a peace treaty; neither did the Kwahada band of Comanche, who still held some power on the southern plains.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>Having failed to control the Plains Indians by treaty, the government again used force. In 1869 it built Fort Sill, a military post in southern Indian Territory, in an attempt to discourage raiding. Later that year, the army decisively defeated the Dog Soldiers at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> in northeast Colorado.</p> <p>By then, however, President Grant was pursuing a “peace policy,” preferring cultural warfare over military campaigns. Mandatory boarding-school education, as described in the Medicine Lodge Treaties, played a central role in what was in effect the government’s campaign of cultural genocide.</p> <p>While their children were sent off to schools to be stripped of their culture, American Indians saw their reservation lands further reduced under the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act</strong></a> of 1887 and in the runup to the creation of the state of Oklahoma in 1907.</p> <p>Today, the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho people continue to live on the reservation established for them in the aftermath of the Medicine Lodge Treaties.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa" hreflang="en">kiowa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/medicine-lodge-treaty" hreflang="en">medicine lodge treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ulysses-s-grant-0" hreflang="en">ulysses s grant</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american" hreflang="en">native american</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">cheyenne dog soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakota" hreflang="en">lakota</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/40th-congress/session-1/c40s1ch32.pdf">An Act to Establish Peace With Certain Hostile Indian Tribes</a>,” 40th Congress, Sess. I, Ch. 32, July 20, 1867.</p> <p>Lorraine Boissoneault, “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-1867-medicine-lodge-treaty-changed-plains-indian-tribes-forever-180965357/">How the 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty Changed the Plains Indian Tribes Forever</a>,” <em>Smithsonian Magazine</em>, October 23, 2017.</p> <p>Colorado Virtual Library, “<a href="https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/digital-colorado/colorado-histories/beginnings/chief-little-raven-peacemaker/">Chief Little Raven: Peacemaker</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210752/page/1">The Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 25, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>“<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuGmR_p8bgcC&amp;pg=PA251&amp;lpg=PA251&amp;dq=DEPARTMENT+OF+THE+INTERIOR,+Office+of+Indian+Affairs,+June+19,+1869&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=zmcW4o-TmH&amp;sig=ACfU3U1pWsiz3JcvA9YF7uAQ3dh6J_XxFw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiTx-H4vb3mAhVNa80KHQgzDxMQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=DEPARTMENT%20OF%20THE%20INTERIOR%2C%20Office%20of%20Indian%20Affairs%2C%20June%2019%2C%201869&amp;f=false">Indian Territory: Cheyenne and Arapaho Reserve</a>,” letters dated June 19 and August 10, 1869, in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1878 </em>(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1878).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/hancocks-war.htm">Hancock’s War</a>,” updated April 22, 2019.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/medicine-lodge-treaty.htm">Medicine Lodge Treaty</a>,” updated December 17, 2018.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210757/page/1">The Peace Commission: Second Session of the Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 28, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Jacki Thompson Rand, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=ME005">Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867)</a>,”<em> Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, n.d.</p> <p>&nbsp; “<a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101078161559&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=1">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Tribes of Indians</a>,” October 28, 1867.</p> <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p> <p>Kerry R. Oman, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3353&amp;context=greatplainsquarterly">The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867–1868</a>,” <em>Great Plains Quarterly </em>22 (winter 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4080">Speaking From Medicine Lodge: Two Native American Opinions on Removal, White Culture, and Government Relations</a>,” The History Engine.</p> <p>Elliott West, “<a href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/ap-us-history/period-6?modal=/history-resources/essays/american-indians-and-transcontinental-railroad">American Indians and the Transcontinental Railroad</a>,” AP US History Study Guide (Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:40:49 +0000 yongli 3267 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Little Arkansas Treaty http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Arkansas Treaty</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3316--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3316.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=lD0qXZ-D" width="600" height="805" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mrs. John Prowers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Walking Woman, also known as Amache, was the daughter of Southern Cheyenne leader Lone Bear, who was killed in the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. Amache, who later married Colorado rancher John Prowers, was one of several Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians who were promised reparations for the massacre in the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3318--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3318.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/little-raven"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=af1euXaY" width="600" height="847" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/little-raven" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Raven</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Little Raven led an Arapaho band on the Front Range of Colorado during the mid-nineteenth century. His people were among several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands slaughtered by US troops during the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. He signed the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865, hoping that his people would receive the promised reparations for the massacre. To this date, the descendants of the massacre victims have not received what was promised.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:37:19-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:37" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty" data-a2a-title="Little Arkansas Treaty"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flittle-arkansas-treaty&amp;title=Little%20Arkansas%20Treaty"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Little Arkansas Treaty refers to a pair of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> signed between the US and Indigenous nations in Kansas in mid-October 1865: one with the <strong>Southern Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Southern Cheyenne </strong>nations and one with the <strong>Comanche</strong> and<strong> Kiowa</strong>. Of the two, the treaty signed on October 14 with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, was the most significant within Colorado because it removed the two Indigenous nations to a new reservation in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and offered them reparations for the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of the previous year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Little Arkansas Treaty remains contested today, as the Interior Department apparently mismanaged funds allocated for the reparations. Descendants of those killed in the Sand Creek Massacre have been fighting for these lost reparations throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In February 1861, just two weeks after the US government established <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>. Representatives of both nations agreed to forfeit their bands’ land in northern Colorado and live on a reservation in eastern Colorado. Despite the treaty, episodes of white-Indigenous violence still occurred, so in September 1864, the Southern Cheyenne leader <strong>Black Kettle</strong>, among others, visited <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to make a peace agreement with territorial governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In late November 1864, a group of several hundred Cheyenne and Arapaho, including Black Kettle’s band, camped at Sand Creek near Fort Lyon, along the boundary of the reservation. Believing themselves to be under the protection of the fort, the men left to hunt <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> one morning and came back to a horrific scene—US troops under Colonel <strong>John Chivington</strong> had attacked the camp, slaughtering at least 230 women, children, and elders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cheyenne and Arapaho retaliated over the next several months, burning ranches and other white settlements, including the town of <strong>Julesburg</strong>. After a lengthy investigation, the US government condemned the Sand Creek Massacre and decided to offer reparations to the afflicted parties in exchange for peace. In addition, with the end of the <strong>Civil War</strong> in 1865, the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado was part of the government’s renewed focus on pacifying the indigenous population of the American West to make way for <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a>, <strong>railroads</strong>, mines, and cities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Meeting on the Little Arkansas</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To accomplish the joint goals of reparations and removal, the United States sent a treaty delegation—led by Colonel Henry Leavenworth and including Colorado notables <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a>—to the banks of the Little Arkansas River, where they arrived on October 4, 1865. There the party waited until several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands arrived on October 11, with their numbers eventually totaling more than 4,000. Among them were Black Kettle’s Cheyenne and <strong>Little Raven</strong>’s Arapaho—both of whom had been at Sand Creek—as well as five other Cheyenne bands and six other Arapaho bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho was concluded on October 14. In addition to calling for an end to hostilities between the parties, the treaty established a small reservation for both Indigenous nations in what is now western Oklahoma. However, the government had already removed other Native peoples to that area and would have to move them again to make space for the newcomers. Until then, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were allowed to “reside upon and range at pleasure throughout … that part of the country they claim as originally theirs, which lies between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> listed at twenty dollars per person for forty years, the Little Arkansas Treaty included reparations for the “gross and wanton outrages” of the Sand Creek Massacre. These included monetary reparations, as well as grants of 640 acres within the old 1861 reservation to members of affected families, including the Bent children and the extended family of <strong>John Prowers</strong> and his Cheyenne wife, <strong>Amache</strong>. The treaty also promised 320-acre grants within the new reservation to the leaders of bands killed at Sand Creek, including Black Kettle, and 160-acre grants to “each other person of said bands made a widow, or who lost a parent,” in the massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho—which was later amended to include a small number of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>—a second treaty was signed with leaders from the Comanche and Kiowa nations on October 18.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The American delegates at the Little Arkansas council were eager to acknowledge and make amends for the tragedy at Sand Creek, but the US government did not follow up on those promises. For one thing, the treaty’s promises to the Indigenous nations, while wholly justified, went beyond what was typical at the time and would incur costs that still had to be approved by the Senate. Samuel Kingman, an American observer at the council, noted that the Cheyenne-Arapaho treaty was “very liberal in its terms to the Indians, probably more so than will be sanctioned by the [S]enate.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, in 1866 Congress appropriated $39,050 to cover the specific reparations outlined in the treaty. It is not known whether this amount would have been sufficient, but it did not matter; instead of issuing that money to the individuals listed in the treaty, the Interior Department gave some of the money to the tribes and, according to a modern legal assessment, “returned the rest” to the Treasury as “surplus.” The promised land grants did not materialize, either. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> of 1867, which the government saw as a replacement for the Little Arkansas Treaty, did not address the missing Sand Creek reparations. By 1869 most of the Cheyenne and Arapaho had left Colorado for their new reservation in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Descendants of the Sand Creek Massacre victims have long sought to reclaim the reparations listed in the Little Arkansas Treaty. Congress considered bills to pay out reparations in 1949, 1957, and 1965, but none passed. In 2013 Homer Flute, Robert Simpson, Jr., and Dorothy Wood—all members of the <strong>Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Trust</strong>—filed a lawsuit against the federal government to recoup the lost reparations. A district court dismissed the case, agreeing with US attorneys who argued that the government was no longer responsible for the reparations. The descendants’ lawyers had argued that a recent law did, in fact, allow their case to be heard, and they appealed to the US Tenth Circuit Court. In 2015, however, the appellate court affirmed the dismissal. In 2016 the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case, resulting in yet another denial of justice for one of the worst atrocities in American history.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-indians" hreflang="en">colorado indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-little-arkansas" hreflang="en">treaty of little arkansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-prowers" hreflang="en">john prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Avalon Project, “<a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/char65.asp">Treaty With the Cheyenne and Arapaho; October 14, 1865</a>,” Yale Law School, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Berry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/government-seeks-to-end-claims-from-1864-s-sand-creek-massacre">Government Seeks to End Claims From 1864’s Sand Creek Massacre</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 10, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>FindLaw, “<a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-10th-circuit/1721456.html">Flute v. United States</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>First People, “<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheComancheAndKiowa1865.html">Treaty With the Comanche and Kiowa, October 18, 1865</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gorski, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/07/11/sand-creek-massacre-descendants-sue-federal-government-for-reparations/">Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Sue Federal Government for Reparations</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kansas State Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kancoll.org/khq/1932/32_5_kingman.htm">Diary of Samuel A. Kingman at Indian Treaty in 1865</a>,” originally published in <em>Kansas Historical Society </em>1, no. 5 (November 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alexander Sokolosky, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1337&amp;context=olr">Rebuilding Trust? The Sand Creek Massacre and the Federal-Tribal Trust Relationship in <em>Flute v. United States</em></a>,” <em>Oklahoma Law Review </em>70, no. 4 (2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>DocsTeach, “<a href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/treaty-of-little-arkansas-river-october-14-1865-ratified-indian-treaties-341-14-stat-703-between-the-us-and-arapahoe-and-cheyenne-indians-black-kettle-band-granting-lands-in-reparation-for-the-sand-cr">Treaty of Little Arkansas River, October 14, 1865 …</a> ,” National Archives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Konnie LeMay, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/what-led-to-the-sand-creek-massacre-check-out-this-timeline">What Led to the Sand Creek Massacre? Check Out This Timeline</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, November 28, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:37:19 +0000 yongli 3266 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indigenous Treaties in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indigenous Treaties in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3789--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3789.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/land-taken-conquest-colorado-1861-80"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IndLandCessions_CO_0.jpg?itok=YbKiL_zI" width="1090" height="841" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/land-taken-conquest-colorado-1861-80" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Land Taken In Conquest of Colorado, 1861-80</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map showing the boundaries and dates of land taken from Indigenous nations via a series of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties </strong></a>and agreements, 1861-80. A black "R" indicates the year the land was designated as a reservation for one or more Indigenous nations. The only Indigenous reservations in Colorado today are the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a> reservations, formed in the state's southwest corner in 1880.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:31:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:31" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado" data-a2a-title="Indigenous Treaties in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findigenous-treaties-colorado&amp;title=Indigenous%20Treaties%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Treaties with Indigenous people&nbsp;played a major role in the conquest and formation of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>. Backed by the constant threat&nbsp;of military force, the series of treaties and agreements signed between the federal government and various Indigenous groups&nbsp;between&nbsp;1849 and&nbsp;1880 separated Indigenous people from their land,&nbsp;allowing&nbsp;for the American&nbsp;development of the state. The government rarely delivered on promises made in treaties, meaning that many&nbsp;resulted not only in&nbsp;dispossession and&nbsp;displacement, but also starvation, desperation,&nbsp;cultural erasure, and death among&nbsp;Indigenous nations.</p> <h2>What Is a Treaty?</h2> <p>Merriam-Webster’s dictionary defines a <em>treaty</em> as a “contract in writing between two or more political authorities,” implying equal power relationships between the parties. In the context of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the US National Archives defines Indigenous&nbsp;treaties as “agreements between individual <em>sovereign</em> Indigenous nations and the US,” again indicating that each signer recognized the other as a self-governing entity. This was akin to the United States’ treaties with other nations; for example, the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War in 1783 was as much about Britain recognizing the United States’ <em>sovereignty­</em> as it was about ending the war.<br> <br> An additional feature of a treaty is that it does not take immediate effect once signed; instead, it must be approved by some authoritative body of the respective nations, such as Congress or Parliament. However, the United States generally did not think treaties had to be approved by Indigenous governing bodies.</p> <h2>History of Indigenous Treaties</h2> <p>The US government’s first treaty with an&nbsp;Indigenous&nbsp;nation was made with the Delaware during the Revolutionary War and was ratified by Congress in 1778. After the war, President George Washington set the precedent of continuing to deal with Indigenous people&nbsp;as sovereign nations using the treaty-making authority provided to the president in the Constitution. In 1832, when the state of Georgia sought to expel the Cherokee, the Supreme Court upheld Indigenous sovereignty when it ruled that the Cherokee Nation was “a distinct community occupying its own territory.” Then-president Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future presidents followed it, dispatching dozens of treaty commissions into Indigenous&nbsp;territories over the ensuing decades.</p> <p>Throughout the nineteenth century, however, many politicians and capitalists seriously challenged the idea that Indigenous people belonged to independent nations. They argued that Native Americans were backward people standing in the way of national expansion and progress. These attitudes were often reflected in treaty language, such as when the government ordered the Ute people&nbsp;to stop “their roving and rambling ways” in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of Abiquiú</strong></a>, or when the Cheyenne and Arapaho were asked to allow the construction of railroads across their land in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>.</p> <p>Congress finally nullified Indigenous sovereignty in 1871 via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0"><strong>Indian Appropriations Act</strong></a>. Thereafter, the government no longer signed “treaties” with Indigenous nations—only “agreements,” which held far less legal and diplomatic weight, since they were not acknowledged to be made by equal parties. Indigenous Americans regained a measure of autonomy in 1934 under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal"><strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong></a>, but today many tribes still consider nineteenth-century treaties to be legally binding and are working to reclaim unfulfilled rights and promises made in those treaties.</p> <h2>Treaties in Colorado</h2> <p>The need for treaties in what became Colorado arose from the US government’s desire to protect whites traveling west and secure a peaceful environment for them in newly acquired territories. For instance, the 1849 Treaty of Abiquiú, the government’s first treaty with the Ute people, was part of a larger effort to pacify the provisional territory of New Mexico, which had been acquired as a result of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> (1846–48).</p> <p>In 1850, when New Mexico Territory was established, most of present-day Colorado was occupied by three Indigenous Nations: the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> in the mountains and canyonlands, and the <strong>Arapaho </strong>and<strong> Cheyenne</strong> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. The territory of these three groups overlapped, especially their hunting or wintering sites along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. Bands of <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Lakota</strong>, and <strong>Kiowa </strong>also lived and hunted within the present boundaries of the state.</p> <p>At the same time, thousands of whites were crossing what is now northern Colorado in wagon trains bound for Oregon or California. They had to respect the sovereignty of the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who often let wagon trains pass in exchange for food or gifts. As immigration increased, however, whites began competing for the same resources—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, timber, grass—as Indigenous people, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease outbreaks</strong></a> decimated&nbsp;Indigenous&nbsp;populations. In response, some Indigenous people began attacking wagon trains, and the US government acted to protect them. The resulting Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, acknowledged Native American&nbsp;sovereignty along the wagon routes and promised annuities to offset Indigenous people's diminishing food base—as long as&nbsp;they gave travelers free passage across their lands.</p> <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought even more whites to the region, further straining the resource base of local Indigenous people. The establishment and growth of Colorado Territory during the 1860s and 1870s produced a series of conflicts between whites and Indigenous people that were only briefly abated by new treaties and agreements, each of which took more land from the state’s original inhabitants; discussion of these conflicts follow.</p> <p><strong>Treaties and Agreements with Indigenous Nations of Colorado, 1849–80</strong></p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1849 – Treaty of Abiquiú brokers temporary peace between whites and Ute bands in the San Luis Valley.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1851 – Treaty of Fort Laramie protects Cheyenne and Arapaho sovereignty along westward wagon roads in northern Colorado in exchange for allowing US citizens and government to travel and build forts on Indigenous land.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1861 – Colorado Territory established; <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> ends government-recognized sovereignty of Cheyenne and Arapaho, creating a reservation for them in eastern Colorado.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1863 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>Conejos Treaty</strong></a> sees the Tabeguache band of Utes relinquish claims to the Front Range of the Rockies and Middle Park. Government designates Ouray as de facto leader of all Utes.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1865 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Little Arkansas Treaty</strong></a> offers reparations for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of 1864 and reserves the right of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to hunt in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley in western Kansas and southeast Colorado.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1867 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> remove the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Plains Nations to so-called Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1868 – <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Ute Treaty of 1868</strong></a> creates a consolidated reservation for all of Colorado’s Ute bands on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1871 – Indian Appropriations Act ends treaty making with Indigenous nations.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1873 – <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, the first nontreaty accord between the government and the Utes, cedes the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States. The southern Ute bands are given their own reservation.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1880 – After the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879, US government forces northern Ute bands to sign an agreement removing them from the state; southern Ute bands remain on their reservation in southwest Colorado.</p> <h2>Themes</h2> <p>Treaties made with Colorado's Indigenous people bear the same hallmarks of the US government’s other treaties with Native Americans, including the elevation of “peace chiefs” over “war chiefs” within Indigenous societies; forced assimilation (cultural genocide); and unfulfilled promises such as “perpetual peace” (Treaty of Abiquiú), permanent land tenure, and material welfare.<br> <br> The US Congress had to approve Indigenous treaties, but councils and other parallel bodies within Indigenous&nbsp;nations were not granted the same right. Instead, the US government often ignored internal Indigenous politics and chose certain leaders as de facto representatives of their people. When these chosen leaders signed a treaty, the US government took it as an indication that the entire Indigenous nation agreed to the treaty terms, which was often not the case. This discrepancy produced confusion on both sides and dissent within Indigenous nations.</p> <p>In particular, treaties often pitted Indigenous leaders who preferred peace (“peace chiefs”) against those who favored armed resistance (“war chiefs”). Peace chiefs typically became wealthier and earned more prestige among their people, while war chiefs were vilified&nbsp;in the white press and hunted by the US military for defending their ancestral lands. For example, among the Southern Cheyenne of Colorado, <strong>Black Kettle</strong> emerged as a prominent “peace chief,” while the “war chief” <strong>Tall Bull</strong> led his Dog Soldiers on a prolonged campaign against the US military.</p> <p>A similar dynamic played out among the Ute people of western Colorado, with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> being one of the most lauded “peace chiefs” in US history, while <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a> was seen as a “war chief.” As a result, Colorow attracted fewer followers and was despised by many whites. The division between “peace chiefs” and “war chiefs” was poorly understood by US military and political leaders, which often led to atrocities,&nbsp;such as the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864.</p> <p>In addition, by offering agricultural tools or Western education and medicine, most government treaties reflected, at best, a profound misunderstanding of Indigenous culture and, at worst, outright contempt for it. The presumption that Indigenous people&nbsp;would eventually want to live like whites was one of the reasons most treaties failed to bring about the peace and mutual benefit they aspired to.</p> <p>Although many Indigenous nations were initially willing to sign treaties, the US government’s abdication or violation of those treaties produced a mutual distrust that often gave way to outright hostility to the treaty process. The government had a habit of framing every treaty with an Indigenous nation as permanent, only to come back to the same nation with more demands later on. The treaties of Abiquiú and Fort Laramie, for example, were heralded as diplomatic watersheds that would ensure lasting peace between the parties. Their failure to do so hardly stopped government officials from proffering similar optimism about future treaties. Ute leaders who signed the Treaty of 1868 received silver peace medals during a visit to Washington, DC; twelve years later, however, the military forced a large population of&nbsp;Utes out of the state.</p> <p>Ultimately, the superior force of the US military gave the government considerable leverage during treaty negotiations; Indigenous leaders often faced the impossible choice of giving up ancestral lands or being killed. Colorado's Indigenous agreements and treaties can thus be seen as testaments to the extraordinary resiliency and pragmatism of Indigenous people.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-treaties" hreflang="en">indian treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-people-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous people colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-treaties-colorado" hreflang="en">indian treaties colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian-history" hreflang="en">american indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indians-colorado" hreflang="en">indians colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jicarilla" hreflang="en">jicarilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/friday" hreflang="en">friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agencies" hreflang="en">indian agencies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-reservations-colorado" hreflang="en">indian reservations colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorow" hreflang="en">colorow</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">cheyenne dog soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-sovereignty" hreflang="en">indian sovereignty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-congress" hreflang="en">us congress</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p> <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p> <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p> <p>Merriam-Webster, “<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty">treaty</a>,” updated January 8, 2020.</p> <p>National Archives, “<a href="https://www.archives.gov/research/native-americans/treaties">American Indian Treaties</a>,” updated October 4, 2016.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>State Historical Society of North Dakota, “<a href="https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-1-changing-landscapes/topic-4-reservation-boundaries/section-2-treaty-fort-laramie-1851">Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://utulsa.edu/academics/academic-calendar/schedule-of-courses/">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Utah Tribe of Indians</a>,” December 30, 1849.</p> <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Loretta Fowler, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AR002">Arapaho, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Cheyenne, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kerry R. Oman, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3353&amp;context=greatplainsquarterly">The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867–1868</a>,” <em>Great Plains Quarterly </em>22 (Winter 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://indians.org/articles/plains-indians.html">Plains Indians</a>,” Indians.org, American Indian Heritage Foundation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=363524">Treaty With the Utah-Tabeguache Band, 1863</a>,” in <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties </em>Vol. II (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheUte1868.html">Treaty With the Ute, March 2, 1868</a>,” FirstPeoples.us, n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:31:52 +0000 yongli 3265 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-18T22:34:26-06:00" title="Wednesday, March 18, 2020 - 22:34" class="datetime">Wed, 03/18/2020 - 22:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites" data-a2a-title="Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites&amp;title=Sand%20Wash%20Basin%20Tool%20Stone%20Sites"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p align="left">Located northwest of Craig in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moffat-county"><strong>Moffat County</strong></a>, the Sand Wash Basin is an area of Bridger Formation rock outcrops that prehistoric peoples mined extensively as a source for stones to make tools with. Bridger Formation chert is typically light to dark brown, though some of the chert in the basin is referred to as “tiger chert” because of its distinct alternating light and dark brown banding. Tiger cherts have been found across Colorado and in both Utah and Wyoming. The distinct patterning of tiger chert has allowed archaeologists to trace the movement of prehistoric people in and out of northwestern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Geology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The Sand Wash Basin is the southern portion of the Green River Basin system in Wyoming, which is an Eocene-aged lake system that drained south into the Piceance Basin of Colorado and the Uinta Basin of Utah. Deposits in the Sand Wash Basin are sedimentary and contain many fossils, including well-preserved vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant fossils. Because of high silica content in the region’s geology, the Sand Wash Basin contains layers of chert bedrock, chert nodules, petrified wood, and fossilized stromatolites that lend themselves to striped banding.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">There are different varieties of chert tool-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado"><strong>stone quarries</strong></a> in the Sand Wash Basin. The basin’s center contains bedrock layers of chert. The basin’s perimeter contains more nodules of petrified wood and stromatolites that are available as eroded gravel deposits and isolated clusters. Whether quarried from layers of chert bedrock or collected from erosional deposits, all the stone material in the basin was usable for tool blanks and is typically identified as Bridger Formation chert.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Archaeology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">In 1976 Richard Stucky did an archaeological survey of the Sand Wash Basin. Stucky noted that the basin’s Bridger Formation cherts had a long history of use and can be associated with the bison-hunting <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> populations of 13,000 years ago as well as later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>, and historical groups, including the Shoshone and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a>. In some places in the basin one can still see the large quantities of stone that were quarried and tested by prehistoric inhabitants of the area. One additional piece of evidence for a long period of use of the basin’s cherts comes from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/boulder-artifacts"><strong>Mahaffy cache</strong></a> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, with its impressive tiger chert artifacts. Stucky suggested that prehistoric families camped around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin while mining resources in the middle of it, which was supported by a subsequent archaeological study in 2010. Stucky’s work resulted in a collection of pristine materials now housed at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>, including a fourteen-centimeter-long cold-worked copper knife found at the Cathedral Butte site, which is similar to knives found in Oklahoma and the Great Lakes region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation chert artifacts have been found in archaeological sites in neighboring states, such as the John Gale Cache in Wyoming and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> villages in western Colorado and Utah, and archaeologists are studying their chemical structure to connect these artifacts to specific quarries in the Sand Wash Basin. Interestingly, heating the Bridger Formation chert in a fire alters its structure and makes it easier to shape into a tool. While this can create sharper tools, it can also crack the chert and make it more brittle. The heat-treating of cherts has been shown to occur more often around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin than in the heart of the Sand Wash Basin, though it is unknown how heat-treating alters the ability of scientists to source the Bridger Formation chert to specific quarries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation cherts from the Sand Wash Basin help archaeologists understand the way prehistoric families lived and moved through Colorado over the last 13,000 years. Beyond that strong archaeological value, tiger chert artifacts can be beautiful examples of prehistoric craftsmanship. Thus, in addition to being utilitarian tools that now serve as markers of trade and antiquity, they were likely admired and appreciated for their striking visual characteristics as much in the past as they are today.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/landt-matthew" hreflang="und">Landt, Matthew</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bridger-formation" hreflang="en">Bridger formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_1" id="_ENREF_1">H. P. Buchheim, L. R. Brand, and H. T. Goodwin, “Lacustrine to fluvial floodplain deposition in the Eocene Bridger Formation,” <em>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</em> 162 (September 2000).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Neil Hauser, “Sourcing Bridger Chert With Laser Breakdown Spectroscopy, Technical report, Advanced Technical Solutions for Archaeology and Anthropology, Centennial, Colorado” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_3" id="_ENREF_3">Brian R. Ingalls and Lisa E. Park, “Biotic and Taphonomic Response to Lake-Level Fluctuations in the Greater Green River Basin (Eocene), Wyoming,” <em>Palaios</em> 25 (May 2010).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt, “Class III Survey of Select Areas in Sand Wash Basin, Moffat County, Colorado, Technical report, Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado” (Craig: Vermillion Chapter, Colorado Archaeological Society, and Bureau of Land Management, Little Snake Field Office, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt and Robyn Watkins Morris, “Lithic Procurement in the Sand Wash Basin of Northwestern Colorado: How Unpredictability Highlights Adaptations,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 63 (February 2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Byron Loosle, “The Acquisition of Nonlocal Lithic Material by the Uinta Fremont,” <em>Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology</em> 22, no. 2 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_4" id="_ENREF_4">James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains</em>, ed. George C. Frison (San Diego: Academic Press, 1991).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Mark E. Miller, Michael D. Stafford, and George W. Brox, “The John Gale Site Biface Cache,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_5" id="_ENREF_5">Paul C. Murphey and David Daitch, “</a><a href="https://publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2009/02/63538.pdf">Paleontological Overview of Oil Shale and Tar Sands Areas in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming</a>,” Technical report for US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, December 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"> </p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_6" id="_ENREF_6">M. Elliot Smith, Alan R. Carroll, and Brad S. Singer, “Synoptic Reconstruction of a Major Ancient Lake System: Eocene Green River Formation, Western United States,” GSA Bulletin 120 (January–February 2008).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_7" id="_ENREF_7">Richard K. Stucky, et al., “Magnetic Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Mammalian Faunas of the Early Uintan Washakie Formation, Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado,” in <em>The Terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene Transition in North America</em>, ed. Donald R. Prothero (New York: Cambridge University Press,1996).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a name="_ENREF_8" id="_ENREF_8">Richard Keith Stucky, “Archaeological Survey of the Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado” (MA thesis, University of Colorado–Boulder, 1977).</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Claire Cleveland, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/03/16/gunnison-county-effectively-shutting-down-public-life-to-fight-covid-19/">Gunnison County Effectively Shutting Down Public Life To Fight COVID-19</a>,” Colorado Public Radio, March 16, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shaun Yuan, “<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/17/in-china-life-returning-to-normal-as-coronavirus-outbreak-slows">In China, life returning to normal as coronavirus outbreak slows</a>,” <em>Al Jazeera</em>, March 17, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 19 Mar 2020 04:34:26 +0000 yongli 3196 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Abiquiú http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Abiquiú</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:32:56-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:32" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Abiquiú"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-abiquiu&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Abiqui%C3%BA"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Considered to be the first official treaty between the United States and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico, the Treaty of Abiquiú was made in 1849 with the intention of establishing peaceful relations between the two groups. Signed in the northern New Mexico village of Abiquiú, the treaty came at the end of a violent decade in present-day New Mexico and southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it did little to quell the violence in a hotly contested region, the treaty laid the groundwork for future Ute-American relations and granted the US government a foothold in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, northern New Mexico, and other indigenous-controlled territories it claimed after the end of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> in 1848.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early 1840s, a violent situation was brewing along today’s New Mexico–Colorado border. Indigenous people—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, and Ute—fought each other for access to hunting grounds and trade networks. At the same time, they found their ancestral lands increasingly traversed by European and American fur traders, Mexican ranchers and wagon trains along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and other trading routes. In response to this growing threat, Indigenous people raided New Mexican towns, drove off would-be colonists on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican land grants</strong></a>, and attacked wagon trains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Regional violence escalated after the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846. Moving relatively unopposed down the Santa Fé Trail, the US Army quickly captured New Mexico, and President James Polk installed Charles Bent, an American trader, as governor of the unorganized territory. Apaches, Navajos, Utes, and other Indigenous nations continued their defensive campaign against the foreign invaders, increasing raids on New Mexican communities such as Las Vegas and Taos. In response, the US Army embarked on several campaigns to punish Indigenous nations, including one in 1848 that fought a combined Ute-Apache force near Cumbres Pass in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war ended in 1848, New Mexicans (now American citizens under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a>) began expanding their claims in New Mexico and the San Luis Valley. This prompted more reprisals from Indigenous people. Finally, in March 1849, the US Army’s swift destruction of fifty Ute lodges in New Mexico convinced Ute leaders that peace was a wiser course. Not only would it spare them losses against a superior fighting force, but it would also give them time to deal with their own political crises and food shortage, both of which stemmed from the ongoing defense of their lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A “Perpetual Peace”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>New Mexico governor James S. Calhoun also came to believe that peace with the Utes was necessary if the United States hoped to populate its new territories. Like other American observers, Calhoun considered the Utes to be key in making this peace, as they were believed to hold “influence over the [other] wild tribes.” In late December 1849, in his capacity as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a>, Calhoun brought together Ute leaders—mostly from the <strong>Capote </strong>and <strong>Muache bands</strong>—and American officials at Abiquiú, a village along the Chama River in northern New Mexico. The subsequent agreement, signed by twenty-eight leaders of the “Utah tribe of Indians,” placed the Utes “lawfully and exclusively under the jurisdiction of the [US] government” in “perpetual peace and amity.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty provided for “free passage” of American citizens through Ute territory, as well as for the construction of “military posts,” Indian agencies, and “trading houses” on Ute lands. In return, it promised to protect Utes against depredations by American citizens, as well as provide “such donations, presents, and implements” deemed necessary for the Utes to “support themselves by their own industry.” These “donations” would come in the form of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>—annual deliveries of food and supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From the Ute perspective, the most problematic section of the treaty called for Utes to “cultivate the soil,” to “cease the roving and rambling habits which have hitherto marked them as a people,” and to “confine themselves strictly” within American-imposed territorial limits.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These clauses reflected a common misunderstanding in many treaties between the United States and Indigenous nations during the nineteenth century. To the Utes, many of whom had only a cursory understanding of the treaty’s contents, the agreement was merely a pragmatic parley that would bolster their chances of survival in a new geopolitical reality. Determined to remain on their land, they did not imagine the treaty as restricting their traditional migratory rounds, nor did they see it as erasing their sovereignty. To the government officials who penned it, however, the treaty was viewed as the Utes’ total surrender to American authority, the first step toward their eventual “civilization” and the acquisition of their land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Treaty of Abiquiú was ratified by Congress on September 24, 1850, just weeks after the establishment of New Mexico Territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the treaty’s hopes for “peace and amity,” regional violence continued immediately after its signing, revealing the vast gulf between how the two parties understood the agreement. Not even a week later, Utes killed a group of Mexicans along the Chama River and stole their livestock. The Utes viewed the violence as necessary. Although the treaty promised annuities that would ease their starvation, they still needed food in the interim, and they decided to take what they needed from people they continued to consider trespassers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As months went by and annuities still did not arrive—Calhoun’s agency was simply too large and underfunded to fulfill the treaty obligations—Utes continued to take livestock from Americans and Mexicans in New Mexico and Colorado. The US Army’s establishment of Fort Massachusetts (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>) in the San Luis Valley in 1852 did little to stop the raids. American officials sought to curb the violence by regulating American and Mexican traders, who were the Utes’ chief suppliers of weapons and ammunition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The new rules only made the Utes angrier, especially since similar regulations were not imposed on Plains traders who provided arms and ammunition to their enemies, the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. Overall, the presence of white immigrants and military units, combined with the US government’s inability to fulfill its treaty obligations, exacerbated regional power struggles between indigenous peoples, precipitating a plague of violence across southern Colorado and northern New Mexico throughout the 1850s. Then the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of American immigrants to Colorado, decisively shifting the regional balance of power toward the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though it did not bring “perpetual peace” to New Mexico and southern Colorado, the Treaty of Abiquiú established a precedent of treaty making between the United States and Ute leaders that lasted until the 1870s. From the American perspective, this made the Utes reliable, if reluctant, partners, confirming many officials’ belief that the Utes were one of the “good” Indigenous nations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the Utes, this status was a double-edged sword, for as much as it often put them in the good graces of a decidedly superior military force, it also paved the way for their continued acquiescence to US demands, especially the cession of their lands. By 1881, thirty-two years after Ute leaders marked their “x” at Abiquiú, many of the Ute bands had been removed from Colorado, and the remaining bands held only a small strip of land in the state.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/abiquiu" hreflang="en">abiquiu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache" hreflang="en">muache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote" hreflang="en">capote</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-mexico" hreflang="en">new mexico</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ned Blackhawk, <em>Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://utulsa.edu/academics/academic-calendar/schedule-of-courses/">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Utah Tribe of Indians</a>,” December 30, 1849.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/chronology/">Chronology</a>,” Southern Ute Indian Tribe, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:32:56 +0000 yongli 3168 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org