%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Trappers Lake and Flat Tops Wilderness http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trappers Lake and Flat Tops Wilderness</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1643--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1643.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/trappers-lake"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/US-Forest-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=mtgj-2gY" width="1000" height="673" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/trappers-lake" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trappers Lake</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Photo of Trappers Lake, White Mountain National Forest, in 1940. The lake was one of the first federally protected wilderness spaces in the United States.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3762--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3762.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/trappers-lake-trappers-overlook"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/20220819_194239_0.jpg?itok=MYiDsGAl" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/trappers-lake-trappers-overlook" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trappers Lake From Trappers Overlook</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness"><strong>Trappers Lake</strong></a> lies at the heart of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness"><strong>Flat Tops Wilderness</strong></a> in <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>western Colorado</strong></a>. It is the second-largest natural lake in the state, behind Grand Lake. Trappers Lake is one of the original habitats of the cutthroat trout, the Colorado <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-fish"><strong>state fish</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-09-14T15:14:39-06:00" title="Monday, September 14, 2020 - 15:14" class="datetime">Mon, 09/14/2020 - 15:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness" data-a2a-title="Trappers Lake and Flat Tops Wilderness"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftrappers-lake-and-flat-tops-wilderness&amp;title=Trappers%20Lake%20and%20Flat%20Tops%20Wilderness"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Flat Tops Wilderness covers more than 235,000 acres of remote mountains and forests in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/garfield-county"><strong>Garfield</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rio-blanco-county"><strong>Rio Blanco</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle</strong></a> Counties on Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. Its most popular natural feature is Trappers Lake, the state’s second-largest natural lake, fed by the North Fork of the <strong>White River</strong> and set in a basin ringed by flattop mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Trappers Lake is known as the “Cradle of Wilderness” because of the efforts of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arthur-carhart"><strong>Arthur Carhart</strong></a>, a landscape architect with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> who began advocating for protection of the area in 1919. Based on Carhart’s surveying report, the Forest Service abandoned its plans for developing the area and prohibited future development. This made Trappers Lake the nation’s first unofficial “wilderness area.” After the <strong>Wilderness Act</strong> of 1964 allowed for the creation of development-free natural areas, Trappers Lake was included in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area designated in 1975.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The main geologic feature of the Flat Tops Wilderness is its namesake—the rugged mountains whose broad, flat peaks look markedly different from the rest of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. The Flat Tops’ unique shape is the result of millions of years of erosion that has stripped away ancient layers of softer sedimentary rock and exposed a hard basalt cap that reaches 1,500 feet thick in some places. Along the edges of the mountaintops, glacial activity more than 10,000 years ago scraped out stacks of sheer cliffs hundreds of feet tall.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On account of the erosion that shaped them, the Flat Tops are not as tall as most of Colorado’s other ranges, with peaks ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The tallest peak in the Flat Tops Wilderness is Flat Top Mountain, which stands at 12,361 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Atop and in between the flat mountains, water pools into hundreds of high-altitude lakes and ponds. Trappers Lake is the largest of these lakes; it sits near the southern edge of the Flat Tops Wilderness in a basin at about 9,600 feet. It has a surface area of 320 acres, making it Colorado’s second-largest natural lake behind <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, and includes depths up to 180 feet. Trappers Lake formed over thousands of years after its basin was scoured by glaciers and collected runoff from surrounding mountains and streams.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ecology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Flat Tops Wilderness hosts several different ecological zones, including alpine tundra above 10,000 feet atop the broad peaks and a mixture of subalpine and montane <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>conifer</strong></a> forests from about 10,000 feet down to 6,500 feet. Wildlife around Trappers Lake include <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moose"><strong>moose</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, <a href="/article/black-bear"><strong>black bear</strong></a>, and <strong>marmot</strong>. The huge insect population around the lake ensures plenty of food for birds such as the<strong> Stellar’s jay</strong> and fish such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-fish"><strong>cutthroat trout</strong></a>, the Colorado state fish. Indeed, as one of the cutthroat’s few remaining natural spawning beds, Trappers Lake has been a major source of eggs and sperm for the state’s cutthroat restocking program since the early 1900s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Forests are primarily lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, and Douglas fir. A 2002 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>wildfire</strong></a> near Trappers Lake cleared some of the densest stands of these trees, creating new habitat for smaller plants such as <a href="/article/aspen-trees"><strong>aspen</strong></a> and dozens of wildflowers, including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-flower"><strong>columbine</strong></a>, the state flower.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For hundreds of years before white Americans came to the area, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people, primarily the Yampa and Parianuche bands, lived in what is now the Flat Tops Wilderness. They wintered in the lower elevations (around 5,000 feet) and followed game up to higher elevations, including Trappers Lake, in the warmer months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Trappers Lake probably earned its modern name in the 1820s or 1830s, when beaver pelts were a widely sought-after commodity throughout the American West and numerous trapping parties crisscrossed the Rocky Mountains. Famous Colorado trapper <strong>Antoine Robidoux</strong> plied Trappers Lake for furs, and the area is reported to have been a source of furs into the 1840s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes were forced out of the Flat Tops in the 1880s following multiple <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>violent encounters</strong></a> with white Americans, who coveted the area for ranching, resource extraction, and recreation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prospectors found valuable metals in nearly every other part of Colorado’s mountains during the late nineteenth century, but the Flat Tops have the distinction of never being the site of prominent mining activity. The closest the mountains came to a boom was in the early 1880s: a prospector named Bill Case planted silver ore taken from a Leadville mine in an abandoned shaft in the Flat Tops north of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glenwood-springs-0"><strong>Glenwood Springs</strong></a>. He then managed to sell his “claim” to famed Leadville mine owner <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a>. Thanks to Tabor’s purchase and other publicity, the town of Carbonate—near Bill Case’s fraudulent “find”—briefly became the seat of newly formed Garfield County in 1883.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recreation and Preservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Trappers Lake was known to some outdoor enthusiasts even before the Utes had fully left the area. In 1886, one year before the Ute leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a> was forced out of the state for the final time, four men from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> reported “having an excellent time” at Trappers Lake, which afforded them “plenty of good fishing and hunting.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They were not alone. That November, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>’s <em>Herald Democrat </em>opined that “Trappers’ Lake  . . . should be set aside as a state park,” crediting the short article to “all who have visited the spot.” Newspaper articles throughout the late 1880s touted the lake as home to “the best fishing and hunting in Colorado.” By that point, visitors could book stays at the first cabins at the lake, built by William L. Pattinson. In 1889 there was even a push to get Trappers Lake and the Flat Tops included in the state’s first national park (the idea did not materialize, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> became Colorado’s first national park in 1906).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1918 the first Trappers Lake Lodge was built, and the next year the US Forest Service sent Arthur Carhart, a recreation engineer, to survey the area. The Forest Service planned to develop a substantial resort and allow home building, but Carhart, a devoted conservationist who was friends with Aldo Leopold, found the area too rare and beautiful to recommend development. Instead, Carhart eloquently argued for the area to be preserved, and the Forest Service declared it off limits for development in 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1964 Congress passed the Wilderness Act, a response to a budding conservation movement that had been lobbying for stricter protections of certain natural areas. Cooperatively managed by the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and other federal agencies, wilderness areas are characterized by their restrictions on motorized transportation, fishing, hunting, and real estate acquisition and development. Following through on the wishes of many early Coloradans, Congress officially created the Flat Tops Wilderness in 1975.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Big Fish Fire</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In mid-August 2002, a lightning strike ignited the Big Fish Fire, which swept through the Trappers Lake area and burned nearly 10 percent of the Flat Tops Wilderness. The fire destroyed eight cabins and the original Trappers Lake Lodge, with the building’s stone chimney the only remaining evidence of the eighty-year-old structure. The lodge’s owner, Dan Stogsdill, began rebuilding the property, but the site was so thoroughly damaged by the fire that the Forest Service halted operations and ordered the site demolished unless it was sold. In 2005 Stogsdill sold the property to California sisters Holly King and Carol Steele.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it sits within a remote wilderness area, Trappers Lake remains a popular destination today for anglers, campers, and hikers. Anglers are allowed to keep brook trout but must release the cutthroat after catching. The rebuilt lodge, which sits just outside the boundaries of the wilderness area, offers kayak and paddleboard rentals, accommodations at fifteen cabins, and a general store. The Forest Service maintains about 100 campsites near the lake, as well as a robust trail network that includes the 5.3-mile Carhart Loop Trail around the lake and numerous trails to the tops of surrounding flat top peaks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For those who want to experience the Flat Tops by car, the <strong>Colorado Department of Transportation</strong> maintains the Flat Tops Scenic Byway, an eighty-two-mile stretch of winding road that passes north of Trappers Lake and connects the towns of <strong>Yampa</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trappers-lake" hreflang="en">Trappers Lake</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flat-tops" hreflang="en">flat tops</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arthur-carhart" hreflang="en">arthur carhart</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/garfield-county" hreflang="en">Garfield County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-blanco-county" hreflang="en">rio blanco county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/eagle-county" hreflang="en">eagle county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trappers" hreflang="en">Fur Trappers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/preservation" hreflang="en">preservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wilderness-areas" hreflang="en">wilderness areas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wilderness-areas" hreflang="en">colorado wilderness areas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wilderness-act" hreflang="en">wilderness act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flat-tops-wilderness" hreflang="en">flat tops wilderness</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Associated Press, “Owner Plans to Rebuild Trappers Lake Lodge,” Steamboat Pilot, September 2, 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frederick J. Athearn, Isolated Empire: A History of Northwest Colorado (Denver: US Bureau of Land Management, 1977).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Seth Boster, “Colorful Colorado: Simplicity, Peace the Gift of storied Trappers Lake Lodge and Resort,” Gazette (Colorado Springs), October 2, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado College, “Ecological Life Zones: From the Plains to the Top of Pikes Peak,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Local News,” Aspen Daily Times, August 26, 1886.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. W. Mallory, E. V. Post, P. J. Ruane, W. L. Lehmbeck, and R. B. Stotelmeyer, “Mineral Resources of the Flat Tops Primitive Area Colorado,” US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1977).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“A National Park,” Aspen Daily Chronicle, February 10, 1889.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin B. Rogers and Christopher M. Kennedy, “Seven Lakes and the Pike’s Peak Native (PPN): History and Current Disposition of a Critical Cutthroat Trout Brood Stock,” Colorado Parks and Wildlife, June 21, 2008.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom Ross, “Owners of Trappers Lake Lodge Looking to Future,” Steamboat Pilot, August 17, 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “Flat Tops Wilderness – White River,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“What the People Think,” Herald Democrat (Leadville, CO), November 14, 1886.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott Willoughby, “Trappers Lake, a Relatively Unknown Colorado Jewel, Reaps Benefits of a 2002 Fire,” The Denver Post, July 14, 2012.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Ron Belak and Al Marlowe, “<a href="https://coloradofishing.net/ft_belak.htm">Fly-Fishing Trappers Lake—A Flat Tops Treat</a>,” Colorado Fishing Network (blog).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Philpott, <em>Vacationland: Tourism and Environment in the Colorado High Country</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul S. Sutter, <em>Driven Wild: How the Fight Against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.trapperslake.com/">Trappers Lake Lodge</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pat Trotter, <em>Cutthroat: Native Trout of the West</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Janet Urquhart, “<a href="https://www.aspentimes.com/news/return-to-trappers-lake/">Return to Trappers Lake</a>,” <em>Aspen Times</em>, September 17, 2007.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 14 Sep 2020 21:14:39 +0000 yongli 3414 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Treaty of Abiquiú http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Treaty of Abiquiú</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:32:56-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:32" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiquiu" data-a2a-title="Treaty of Abiquiú"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftreaty-abiquiu&amp;title=Treaty%20of%20Abiqui%C3%BA"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Considered to be the first official treaty between the United States and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico, the Treaty of Abiquiú was made in 1849 with the intention of establishing peaceful relations between the two groups. Signed in the northern New Mexico village of Abiquiú, the treaty came at the end of a violent decade in present-day New Mexico and southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it did little to quell the violence in a hotly contested region, the treaty laid the groundwork for future Ute-American relations and granted the US government a foothold in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, northern New Mexico, and other indigenous-controlled territories it claimed after the end of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> in 1848.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early 1840s, a violent situation was brewing along today’s New Mexico–Colorado border. Indigenous people—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, and Ute—fought each other for access to hunting grounds and trade networks. At the same time, they found their ancestral lands increasingly traversed by European and American fur traders, Mexican ranchers and wagon trains along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and other trading routes. In response to this growing threat, Indigenous people raided New Mexican towns, drove off would-be colonists on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican land grants</strong></a>, and attacked wagon trains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Regional violence escalated after the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846. Moving relatively unopposed down the Santa Fé Trail, the US Army quickly captured New Mexico, and President James Polk installed Charles Bent, an American trader, as governor of the unorganized territory. Apaches, Navajos, Utes, and other Indigenous nations continued their defensive campaign against the foreign invaders, increasing raids on New Mexican communities such as Las Vegas and Taos. In response, the US Army embarked on several campaigns to punish Indigenous nations, including one in 1848 that fought a combined Ute-Apache force near Cumbres Pass in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war ended in 1848, New Mexicans (now American citizens under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a>) began expanding their claims in New Mexico and the San Luis Valley. This prompted more reprisals from Indigenous people. Finally, in March 1849, the US Army’s swift destruction of fifty Ute lodges in New Mexico convinced Ute leaders that peace was a wiser course. Not only would it spare them losses against a superior fighting force, but it would also give them time to deal with their own political crises and food shortage, both of which stemmed from the ongoing defense of their lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A “Perpetual Peace”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>New Mexico governor James S. Calhoun also came to believe that peace with the Utes was necessary if the United States hoped to populate its new territories. Like other American observers, Calhoun considered the Utes to be key in making this peace, as they were believed to hold “influence over the [other] wild tribes.” In late December 1849, in his capacity as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agent</strong></a>, Calhoun brought together Ute leaders—mostly from the <strong>Capote </strong>and <strong>Muache bands</strong>—and American officials at Abiquiú, a village along the Chama River in northern New Mexico. The subsequent agreement, signed by twenty-eight leaders of the “Utah tribe of Indians,” placed the Utes “lawfully and exclusively under the jurisdiction of the [US] government” in “perpetual peace and amity.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty provided for “free passage” of American citizens through Ute territory, as well as for the construction of “military posts,” Indian agencies, and “trading houses” on Ute lands. In return, it promised to protect Utes against depredations by American citizens, as well as provide “such donations, presents, and implements” deemed necessary for the Utes to “support themselves by their own industry.” These “donations” would come in the form of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>—annual deliveries of food and supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From the Ute perspective, the most problematic section of the treaty called for Utes to “cultivate the soil,” to “cease the roving and rambling habits which have hitherto marked them as a people,” and to “confine themselves strictly” within American-imposed territorial limits.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These clauses reflected a common misunderstanding in many treaties between the United States and Indigenous nations during the nineteenth century. To the Utes, many of whom had only a cursory understanding of the treaty’s contents, the agreement was merely a pragmatic parley that would bolster their chances of survival in a new geopolitical reality. Determined to remain on their land, they did not imagine the treaty as restricting their traditional migratory rounds, nor did they see it as erasing their sovereignty. To the government officials who penned it, however, the treaty was viewed as the Utes’ total surrender to American authority, the first step toward their eventual “civilization” and the acquisition of their land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Treaty of Abiquiú was ratified by Congress on September 24, 1850, just weeks after the establishment of New Mexico Territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the treaty’s hopes for “peace and amity,” regional violence continued immediately after its signing, revealing the vast gulf between how the two parties understood the agreement. Not even a week later, Utes killed a group of Mexicans along the Chama River and stole their livestock. The Utes viewed the violence as necessary. Although the treaty promised annuities that would ease their starvation, they still needed food in the interim, and they decided to take what they needed from people they continued to consider trespassers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As months went by and annuities still did not arrive—Calhoun’s agency was simply too large and underfunded to fulfill the treaty obligations—Utes continued to take livestock from Americans and Mexicans in New Mexico and Colorado. The US Army’s establishment of Fort Massachusetts (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>) in the San Luis Valley in 1852 did little to stop the raids. American officials sought to curb the violence by regulating American and Mexican traders, who were the Utes’ chief suppliers of weapons and ammunition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The new rules only made the Utes angrier, especially since similar regulations were not imposed on Plains traders who provided arms and ammunition to their enemies, the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. Overall, the presence of white immigrants and military units, combined with the US government’s inability to fulfill its treaty obligations, exacerbated regional power struggles between indigenous peoples, precipitating a plague of violence across southern Colorado and northern New Mexico throughout the 1850s. Then the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of American immigrants to Colorado, decisively shifting the regional balance of power toward the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though it did not bring “perpetual peace” to New Mexico and southern Colorado, the Treaty of Abiquiú established a precedent of treaty making between the United States and Ute leaders that lasted until the 1870s. From the American perspective, this made the Utes reliable, if reluctant, partners, confirming many officials’ belief that the Utes were one of the “good” Indigenous nations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the Utes, this status was a double-edged sword, for as much as it often put them in the good graces of a decidedly superior military force, it also paved the way for their continued acquiescence to US demands, especially the cession of their lands. By 1881, thirty-two years after Ute leaders marked their “x” at Abiquiú, many of the Ute bands had been removed from Colorado, and the remaining bands held only a small strip of land in the state.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/abiquiu" hreflang="en">abiquiu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache" hreflang="en">muache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote" hreflang="en">capote</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-mexico" hreflang="en">new mexico</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ned Blackhawk, <em>Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://utulsa.edu/academics/academic-calendar/schedule-of-courses/">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Utah Tribe of Indians</a>,” December 30, 1849.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/chronology/">Chronology</a>,” Southern Ute Indian Tribe, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:32:56 +0000 yongli 3168 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org San Luis Valley http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Luis Valley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3551--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3551.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/monte-vista-wildlife-refuge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Monte_Vista_Wildlife_Refuge_20210314_0421_0.jpg?itok=mVYbJvB2" width="1090" height="636" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/monte-vista-wildlife-refuge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Monte Vista Wildlife Refuge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge is located in the San Luis Valley, a high mountain basin located in south-central Colorado. It’s one of three national wildlife refuges in the Valley that provides crucial feeding, resting, and breeding habitat for over 200 bird species and other wildlife. Alamosa and Monte Vista Refuges are located at the south-central end of the Valley and Baca Refuge is located at the north end. https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Monte_Vista/</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:26:48-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:26" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley" data-a2a-title="San Luis Valley"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsan-luis-valley&amp;title=San%20Luis%20Valley"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Covering nearly 8,000 square miles in southern Colorado, the San Luis Valley is the largest valley in the state and the largest high-altitude desert in North America. Known as “the Valley” by locals and other Coloradans, the San Luis Valley is bordered by the <strong>Sangre de Cristo</strong> <strong>Mountains</strong> to the east, the <strong>Sawatch Mountains</strong> to the north, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the west, and the Rio Grande Valley of northern New Mexico to the south. The San Luis Valley has a population of about 16,550 and encompasses five counties: <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/costilla-county"><strong>Costilla</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rio-grande-county"><strong>Rio Grande</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With an average altitude of 7,664 feet and an average annual rainfall below ten inches, the valley’s environment characterized as high desert. The <strong>Rio Grande River </strong>flows through the center of the valley, racing out of the San Juan Mountains near <strong>South Fork</strong>, bending southeast through <strong>Alamosa</strong>, the valley’s most populous city, and then south toward the New Mexico border. Despite the dry climate, the Rio Grande and the valley’s underground water sources make it suitable for agriculture—currently the region’s primary industry. The valley is known for its cultural diversity, with 45 percent of the population recorded as “Hispanic” (although many identify as Hispano, descendants of the valley’s original Mexican families). Many of the valley’s towns and buildings, such as its many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/capilla%20%22San%20Luis%20Valley%22"><strong>Catholic churches</strong></a>, maintain the look and feel of their Spanish or Mexican origins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Before it was permanently occupied, the San Luis Valley was traversed by a wide range of indigenous people, from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> cultures thousands of years ago to Diné (<strong>Navajo)</strong>, <strong>Pueblo</strong>, and Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) peoples in more recent centuries. In the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spain was the first European nation to lay claim to the valley but found it difficult to occupy because of the opposition of the Utes. Looking to populate its northern frontier, an independent Mexico established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>land grants</strong></a> in the valley during the 1830s and 1840s, before the United States incorporated the region as a result of its annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a> three years later.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology and Geography</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The San Luis Valley measures more than 100 miles north-south and about 65 miles east-west. It was formed during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology"><strong>Laramide Orogeny</strong></a>, the 30-million-year period of mountain building that raised the modern <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. During the uplift of the Sangre de Cristos and the San Juans, the flat area in between dropped off and settled into a slightly eastern-sloped plane that became the valley. Around 500,000 years ago, the valley was covered by a huge lake that measured 200 feet deep in some places. The lake eventually drained, exposing deep layers of sediment that created the broad, alluvial expanse of today’s valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of its unique geology, size, and location, the San Luis Valley possesses some of Colorado’s most distinctive natural features. Among the most striking are the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-sand-dunes-national-park-and-preserve"><strong>Great Sand Dunes</strong></a>, heaps of sand up to 750 feet tall piled against the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in the valley’s northeast section. Formed over millions of years, the dunes are composed of dust and desert sand blown from the west side of the valley and other parts of the American Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The valley also contains many mountain passes that have for millennia granted people and animals access to adjoining regions, including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> via <strong>La Veta Pass</strong>, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> valley via <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, the upper <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Valley and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> via <strong>Poncha Pass</strong>, the Huerfano Valley via <strong>Mosca Pass</strong>, the San Juan Mountains via <strong>Wolf Creek Pass</strong>, and the <strong>Four Corners </strong>area via <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong>. In addition, the New Mexican communities of Taos and Santa Fé could be reached via the Rio Grande Valley to the south.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Owing to its broad expanse, extreme weather, and multiple mountain passes, the San Luis Valley was historically used more as a corridor than as a site of permanent community. The earliest human presence is documented by projectile points left by Folsom people almost 10,000 years ago; archaeological evidence suggests that those people, as well as later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> cultures, followed large game such as <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> into the valley on seasonal treks between the mountains and plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In later centuries, <strong>Blanca Peak</strong>, a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteener</strong></a> and tallest of the peaks ringing the valley, was thought to be a sacred site marking the eastern boundary of the Navajo Nation. Beginning around 1300, Pueblo people ventured into the valley to hunt and collect valuable resources, such as feathers and turquoise. Ute people began using the valley after about 1400, hunting bison and other large game and gathering roots, nuts, and berries along its main waterways. Over the next several hundred years, the San Luis Valley was used and traversed by the <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, but it was most frequently occupied by three distinct bands of Utes: the Tabeguache, Muache, and Capote. The Utes used the valley’s various passes to travel to distant hunting grounds and to their winter camps in present-day <a href="/article/glenwood-springs"><strong>Glenwood Springs</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pagosa-springs"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>. Along Rock Creek, which led to Pagosa Springs, they added their own <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> to older indigenous pictographs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish Period, c. 1598–1821</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1598 the Spanish explorer Juan de Oñate claimed the valley for King Phillip II of Spain. In northern New Mexico, he established two towns, San Juan de los Caballeros and San Gabriel de Yunque. Hearing about plentiful game to the north in the San Luis Valley, Oñate sent an expedition there to hunt bison. The party came across a village of about fifty Ute lodges; the Utes greeted them warmly, and some of the Ute men volunteered to help the inexperienced Spaniards hunt bison. The Spaniards botched the hunt, but they returned back to their own villages knowing that they might at least have willing trade partners to the north.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Spaniards’ relations with their Pueblo neighbors soured immediately, as they pressed the Indians into slavery. Their relations with the Utes remained friendly until the 1630s, when Spaniards attacked a band and took about eighty Utes as slaves. Thereafter, Utes began raiding Spanish parties and communities for livestock and goods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the San Luis Valley remained largely indigenous, barely even a remote outpost of the Spanish Empire. Comanche raids on New Mexican communities increased during the eighteenth century; in 1779 the Spanish war party of <strong>Juan Bautista de Anza</strong> picked up Ute and <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> warriors in the valley on its way to fight the Comanche leader <strong>Cuerno Verde</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first American description of the San Luis Valley was offered by the explorer <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> in 1807. After trying and failing to climb <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, the expedition moved southwest into Spanish territory in the San Luis Valley. “The great and lofty mountains . . . seemed to surround the luxuriant vale, crowned with perennial flowers, like a terrestrial paradise, shut out from the view of man,” Pike wrote in his journal. Fearing attacks by Spaniards and Indians, Pike had his men build a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>stockade</strong></a> on the banks of <strong>Conejos Creek</strong>. Despite his precautions, Pike and his men were arrested by Spanish dragoons and imprisoned in Santa Fé for several months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Pike, French, American, and Mexican fur traders traversed the San Luis Valley on their way to the beaver-laden mountains and the regional trade nexus of Taos. In the valley itself, small trading camps sprung up along Saguache Creek (from the Ute word <em>Saguguachipa</em>, “blue water”) below Poncha Pass.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mexican Period, c. 1821–45</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After winning independence from Spain in 1821, the new nation of Mexico used land grants to encourage the occupation of its northern frontier as a bulwark against rising American influence in the Southwest. In 1833 the Mexican government awarded the Conejos Grant, roughly spanning land between the Rio Grande and Conejos Creek near present-day Alamosa, to fifty families. However, Navajo drove off the would-be settlers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other Mexican land grants in the valley included the Beaubien-Miranda Grant (later known as the Maxwell), the Luis Maria Baca Grant No. 4, and the Sangre de Cristo Grant, which later became Costilla County. These were all issued in 1843–44 but were not settled until several years later on account of indigenous resistance and the outbreak of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> (1846–48).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>American Period</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The United States acquired part of the San Luis Valley when it annexed Texas in 1845. Over the next year, an influx of slaveholding Americans in eastern Texas and boundary disputes between Mexico and the United States led the American government to provoke a war with its southern neighbor. When it ended in 1848, the United States acquired a huge section of northwest Mexico that eventually formed part or all of the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado—including the rest of the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War, US Army incursions into the San Luis Valley persuaded the Muache and Capote Utes to make a peace agreement at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Abiquiú</strong></a>, New Mexico, in 1849. The agreement encouraged New Mexicans (recently made US citizens by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo) to settle the former Mexican land grants. In 1851, on the Sangre de Cristo Grant in the southeastern part of the valley, Hispanos established <a href="/article/san-luis"><strong>San Luis</strong></a>, the first permanent town in what would become Colorado. The next year, the townspeople finished an <strong>acequia</strong>, the <strong>San Luis People’s Ditch</strong>, which was the first <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-law"><strong>water right</strong></a> in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A number of other towns, built in the Spanish style with central plazas, popped up along Culebra and Costilla Creeks in the ensuing years, and the Conejos Grant was also settled. Despite the treaty, Utes continued to raid Anglo communities, as the influx of newcomers threatened their food supply. In 1852 the US Army built Fort Massachusetts (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>) south of La Veta Pass, firmly establishing the American presence in the valley. The fort did little to discourage Ute raids; still, in the 1860s, more Americans arrived looking to set up <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a> on fertile lands within the valley. The Denver and San Luis Valley Wagon Road Company linked these early settlements to <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> via a toll road.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the new immigrants was <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, a man of great ambition who came to the fledgling town of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-0"><strong>Saguache</strong></a> in 1866. Mears developed what was likely an ancient trail over Poncha Pass into a toll road, linking the San Luis Valley with mining districts in South Park and the Upper Arkansas Valley. Mears also brought modern farming equipment, including a reaper and thresher, envisioning the valley as a great supplier of produce to mining camps in the mountains. Another <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty</strong></a> with the Utes in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>1868</strong></a> gave Americans near-exclusive rights to the valley, as the Capote and Muache bands—along with several others—agreed to move to a vast reservation on Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mears’s vision for the valley was further realized after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873, in which the Ute leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> agreed to cede the San Juan Mountains to the United States. In the mountains around today’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> and <a href="/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, prospectors found rich veins of silver and gold, and farmers in the San Luis Valley supplied them with wheat flour, potatoes, and other produce.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Connections and New Cultures</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1878 the town of Alamosa was established when the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> moved the entire town of Fort Garland to a site along the Rio Grande near the valley’s center. In the 1880s, the tiny shepherd town of <strong>Antonito</strong> also became an important stop along the railroad as it built south from Alamosa into New Mexico and on to the San Juan mining camps.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The arrival of railroads brought more Euro-Americans into the San Luis Valley, causing friction between the new arrivals and the established Hispano population. Nowhere was this more evident than in local <strong>Range Wars</strong>, in which predominantly white cattlemen intimidated mostly Hispano sheepherders as both vied for access to the same grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though they sometimes sparred with each other, residents of the San Luis Valley continued to develop its agricultural economy over the next several decades, until the <strong>Great Depression</strong> brought hard times in the 1930s. Farm prices plummeted; the price of potatoes, a staple valley crop, dropped from four dollars per hundredweight in 1920 to thirty-five cents by 1932. In Saguache County, farmers reported 9,444 acres of crop failure in 1934, compared to about 3,500 in 1929. Similar trends across the valley forced thousands to move elsewhere. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> programs helped improve the valley’s infrastructure and schools, but today the region remains one of the poorest in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late twentieth century, the National Park Service and a coalition of valley residents organized to protect its water resources from several development projects; the campaigns resulted in the formation of the <strong>Citizens for San Luis Valley Water</strong> and, later, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley-ecosystem-council"><strong>San Luis Valley Ecosystem Council</strong></a> (SLVEC). Today the SLVEC protects some 3.1 million acres of public lands in the valley from development. On the heels of the water protection campaign of the 1990s, Great Sand Dunes National Monument—established in 1932—was designated a national park so it could be better protected from development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nowadays, most communities in the San Luis Valley are heavily dependent on agriculture and, to a lesser extent, tourism. Major crops include wheat, oats, barley, lettuce, potatoes, and peas. In addition to the Sand Dunes, other tourist attractions accessible via the valley include <strong>Zapata Falls</strong> on the western slope of the Sangres and <strong>Wolf Creek Ski Area </strong>in the mountains of neighboring <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral County</strong></a>. In addition, hunters, anglers, and other outdoor recreation enthusiasts frequent the <strong>Monte Vista Wildlife Refuge</strong>, <strong>Baca Wildlife Refuge</strong>, and <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>Rio Grande National Forest</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a> (formerly the Colorado Historical Society) maintains a museum at the site of Fort Garland, as well as a reconstructed version of Pike’s stockade. As it has in the past, the valley’s isolation remains the most challenging obstacle to economic growth and development, even as it offers some of the most stunning scenery, most distinct landscapes, and richest cultural heritage in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa" hreflang="en">alamosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos" hreflang="en">Conejos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis" hreflang="en">san luis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande" hreflang="en">rio grande</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/del-norte" hreflang="en">del norte</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antonito" hreflang="en">antonito</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/costilla" hreflang="en">costilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-american-war-0" hreflang="en">mexican american war</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-land-grants" hreflang="en">mexican land grants</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sangre-de-cristos" hreflang="en">sangre de cristos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/saguache" hreflang="en">saguache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otto-mears" hreflang="en">Otto Mears</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-rio-grande" hreflang="en">denver &amp; rio grande</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-sand-dunes" hreflang="en">great sand dunes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa" hreflang="en">kiowa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spanish" hreflang="en">spanish</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spaniards" hreflang="en">spaniards</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/catholic-church" hreflang="en">catholic church</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>James S. Aber, “<a href="http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/field/rocky_mt/zapata.htm">San Luis Valley, Colorado</a>,” 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen Harding Hart and Archer Butler Hulbert, eds., <em>The Southwestern Journals of Zebulon Pike, 1806–1807 </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Martha Quillen, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2001-december/colorados-mexican-land-grants">Colorado’s Mexican Land Grants</a>,” <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, December 1, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>San Luis Valley Development Resources Group, “<a href="https://www.slvdrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/A.-Area-Description-and-Development-History.pdf">A. Area Description and Development History</a>,” 2013 Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>San Luis Valley Development Resources Group and San Luis Valley Council of Governments, “<a href="https://www.slvdrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/2015-SLV-Statistical-Profile.pdf">2015 SLV Statistical Profile</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Laurie Simmons and Marilyn A. Martorano, “<a href="https://archaeologycolorado.org/sites/default/files/Simmons%20and%20Martorano%202007%20Trujilo%20Homesteads.pdf">Guns, Fire, and Sheep: History and Archaeology of the Trujillo Homesteads in the San Luis Valley, Colorado</a>,” <em>Southwestern Lore </em>73, no. 3 (2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/" title=" (external link)">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1934).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Robert Buchanan, “<a href="https://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/downloads/22/22_p0243_p0245.pdf">The San Luis Valley—A Land of Paradox</a>,” in <em>San Luis Basin (Colorado)</em>, ed. H. L. James (New Mexico Geological Society 22nd Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael G. Geary, <em>Sea of Sand: A History of Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael N. Machette, David W. Marchetti, and Ren A. Thompson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1193/pdf/OF07-1193_ChG.pdf">Ancient Lake Alamosa and the Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene Evolution of the Rio Grande</a>,” in <em>2007 Rocky Mountain Section Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip—Quaternary Geology of the San Luis Basin of Colorado and New Mexico</em>, by Michael N. Machette, Mary-Margaret Coates, and Margo L. Johnson, September 7–9, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.museumtrail.org/">Museums of the San Luis Valley</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://slvhistoricalsociety.org/">San Luis Valley Historical Society</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/riogrande/learning/history-culture/?cid=stelprdb5172158">History and Culture of the San Luis Valley Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/main/riogrande/">Rio Grande National Forest</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:26:48 +0000 yongli 3167 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Battle of Milk Creek http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-milk-creek <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Battle of Milk Creek</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3237--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3237.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/milk-creek-battlefield"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Battle-of-Milk-Creek-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=F_pbgb77" width="900" height="609" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/milk-creek-battlefield" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Milk Creek Battlefield</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Battle of Milk Creek began on September 29, 1879, when US Army Major Thomas Thornburgh illegally advanced his cavalry onto the Ute Reservation in northwest Colorado. Thornburgh was ordered to the White River Ute Agency to protect Indian Agent Nathan Meeker.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3238--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3238.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/monument-milk-creek"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Battle-of-Milk-Creek-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=rT1zzNMH" width="600" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/monument-milk-creek" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Monument at Milk Creek</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This stone monument is inscribed with the names of US cavalry soldiers killed during the Battle of Milk Creek, September 29-October 5, 1879. Commanding officer Major Thomas Thornburgh was killed in the battle and is buried in Omaha, Nebraska, while his soldiers remain buried in an unmarked grave on the battlefield. Today, a similar monument commemorates the Ute Indians killed in the battle.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T13:35:38-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 13:35" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 13:35</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-milk-creek" data-a2a-title="Battle of Milk Creek"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbattle-milk-creek&amp;title=Battle%20of%20Milk%20Creek"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Battle of Milk Creek was the major military engagement during the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a>, a revolt by a Nuche (<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) community in northwest Colorado in September 1879. The battle began on September 29, when Utes opened fire from the heights above Milk Creek on an advancing column of US cavalry led by Major <strong>Thomas Thornburgh</strong>. Utes kept the soldiers pinned down for five days, until reinforcements arrived and the Utes surrendered on October 5.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The battle delayed Thornburgh’s advance to the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Ute Indian Agency</strong></a>, where Indian Agent <a href="/article/nathaniel-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a> had called for assistance because of rising tensions with the local Ute population. While the Utes at Milk Creek held up Thornburgh, Utes at the agency revolted, killing Meeker and ten others and taking his family captive. In the long term, the violence was brought on by Meeker’s harsh treatment of the Utes; in the short term, it was a result of Thornburgh’s decision to advance onto the Ute reservation, which the Utes took as an act of war in violation of the <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1860s, Colorado’s Ute people had lived in the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> for more than 400 years. In 1868 leaders representing six bands of Colorado’s Ute people signed a treaty that ceded Colorado’s eastern Rockies to the United States in exchange for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> and the creation of a permanent reservation on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the far northern part of the reservation, on the <strong>White River</strong> near present-day <a href="/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a>, the US government set up one of two <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agencies</strong></a> to distribute food and supplies as promised in the treaty. Throughout the 1870s, Utes at the White River Agency became increasingly hungry and anxious. Shipments of food and supplies were delayed or not delivered at all, and Utes often left the reservation to hunt and to take supplies from white settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1878 President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Nathan Meeker, a cofounder of the <strong>Union Colony</strong> at present-day <a href="/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, as head of the White River Agency. A devout and ambitious man, Meeker was seen as the perfect agent to carry out the government’s policy of assimilating, or “civilizing,” the Utes of western Colorado. Upon his arrival at the agency in early 1879, Meeker moved its buildings onto a Ute horse pasture, the beginning of a poor relationship with his charges that would only get worse in the ensuing months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Utes continued to resist farming and leave the reservation to hunt, Meeker’s patience wore thin, and at one point he even withheld rations from the Utes as punishment for their refusal to follow his teachings. He kept plowing the Utes’ horse pastures, determined to sever their centuries-long bond with the animals. Where other agents might have taken a more lenient approach toward the Utes in exchange for cooperation, Meeker would accept nothing but total compliance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meeker’s stance began to wear on local Ute leaders <strong>Johnson</strong> and <strong>Douglass</strong>. After Meeker arrived, both were initially willing to try a bit of farming, but as the agent’s conduct toward them worsened, they grew increasingly agitated, to the point of shouting matches. During one argument late in the summer of 1879, Johnson shoved Meeker and hurt the agent’s arm. Fearing for his life, Meeker requested federal troops to come to the agency to protect him.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Thornburgh’s March</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Stationed at Fort Fred Steele in Rawlins, Wyoming, Major Thomas Thornburgh had little idea of the tensions building at the White River Agency in the summer of 1879. In mid-September, he was about to leave for a hunt when he received urgent orders from his superior, General George Crook, to ride to Meeker’s assistance some 200 miles away. It took Thornburgh five days to get his cavalry ready, and on September 21 his column of 191 officers, soldiers, and civilians, with its 370 mules and horses, left Rawlins for the White River Agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On September 26, Thornburgh happened upon Jack, a White River Ute leader, at a general store near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yampa-river"><strong>Yampa River</strong></a> in northwest Colorado. The clerk told Thornburgh that Utes had recently purchased 10,000 rounds, and Jack asked Thornburgh about his destination. When Thornburgh told him that Meeker had asked for help with Utes at the agency, Jack replied that Meeker had brought the trouble on himself, and that if Thornburgh entered the reservation, it would be taken as an act of war.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The next day, Thornburgh got word from Meeker: the Utes at the agency knew of his advance and asked him to stop his column at some point outside the reservation and proceed to the agency himself, with only five soldiers. All parties would then discuss a resolution. Thornburgh responded affirmatively, writing the agent that he would make camp at Milk Creek, a tributary of the White River near the boundary of the reservation, and proceed from there with a handful of soldiers.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle Lines</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After another Ute leader, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a>, visited his camp to ask where he was going, Thornburgh was alarmed. But he knew he outnumbered the Utes and doubted they would actually fight him. Instead of heeding the Utes’ warning, Thornburgh deferred to his orders from Crook, who had told him to proceed through the reservation to the agency. Thornburgh and his officers believed that leaving their full force beyond reach of the agency was too risky, so they devised a cautious plan to invade the reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes, meanwhile, feared Thornburgh’s advance might signal another <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in which peaceful Indigenous people were promised safety only to be cut down by federal troops. Led by Jack and Colorow, several dozen Utes waited behind rocky outcroppings on the heights above Milk Creek, armed with rifles. About fifty more waited with their mounts below, just off the main wagon road that led to the agency. If the soldiers crossed the creek, in violation of the 1868 treaty, the Utes would fight.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Five Days of Fighting</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the agency on the morning of September 29, Meeker assured Douglass that Thornburgh would not enter the reservation. But Thornburgh had already made his decision. The major crossed dry Milk Creek with all his troops, leaving behind only his cumbersome wagons. The lead unit promptly ran into Jack’s Utes, and even though both sides signaled that they wanted to talk, a shot was fired—it is not known by whom—and the battle began.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes rained gunfire down from the heights, inflicting immediate casualties. They targeted the soldiers’ horses to prevent the cavalry from quickly regrouping or retreating. Meanwhile, Thornburgh took a sharpshooter’s bullet to the head and died instantly. Back at the agency, Utes got wind of the battle and decided that Meeker had misled them for the last time. The Utes killed him and his entire staff and captured their wives and children.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the dismounted cavalry retreated to the other side of Milk Creek, hunkering down behind the wagons and taking fire from the front and both sides. The troops used dead horses and mules for additional cover, returning fire as the Utes moved closer. Unable to retreat that night, Captain J. Scott Payne, the ranking officer after Thornburgh’s death, hastily sent messengers for reinforcements. Word reached both Captain Francis Dodge, commander of the Ninth Cavalry near <strong>Steamboat Springs</strong>, and Colonel Wesley Merritt in Rawlins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On October 1, after a seventy-mile forced march, Dodge’s three dozen <a href="/article/buffalo-soldiers"><strong>Buffalo Soldiers</strong></a> arrived to help Payne’s besieged troops. While unable to turn the tide, the Ninth Cavalry forced the Utes to cease their barrage and regroup. Ultimately, the Buffalo Soldiers extended the battle by four days, enough time for Merritt’s 450 men to arrive from Wyoming. When they finally did, on October 5, the Utes retreated. In the six-day battle, seventeen whites were killed and forty-four were wounded. About two dozen Utes were killed, most on the first day of fighting.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The soldiers marched to the agency, where they found burned buildings and the mutilated bodies of Meeker and his staff. A party of Utes had carried the women and children, including Meeker’s wife and daughter, off toward <strong>Grand Mesa. </strong></p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Word spread quickly of the battle and Meeker’s death. Led by Governor <strong>Fred Pitkin</strong>, Colorado’s press and white officials called for the Utes’ removal or extermination. The state legislature passed a Ute removal declaration. Outside the state, however, newspapers blamed Colorado miners for coveting Ute land as well as the federal government for not supplying the Utes with the provisions and money promised in the treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the US Army mobilized to hunt down the Utes who took Meeker’s family captive. With the help of other Utes, government agents negotiated the peaceful release of Meeker’s family and the rest of the captives in late October.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Two separate investigations into the Meeker Incident—one at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Piñ</strong><strong>os Indian Agency</strong></a> in 1879 and congressional hearings the next year—failed to identify or punish the Utes who killed Meeker. The Battle of Milk Creek was considered a legitimate engagement—the army had trespassed on the reservation—so Jack, Colorow, and the other Utes who fought in the battle were not punished.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes’ victory at Milk Creek was short-lived, as it soon led to their expulsion from Colorado. Although only the Parianuche and Yampa Utes participated in the Meeker Incident, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>’s more numerous Tabeguache band was implicated by association, in part because the government considered Ouray the de facto leader of all Ute bands. Ouray and Interior Secretary Carl Schurz lobbied to keep the peace on both sides, and their efforts avoided further bloodshed. In 1880, however, the government forced the Yampa and Parianuche, as well as Ouray’s Tabeguache, to give up all their land in western Colorado and move to a new reservation in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Battle of Milk Creek and the Meeker Incident showed that the government strategy of assimilating Indigenous people was deeply misguided. Not only had the Utes resisted farming, but attempts to force them into it had provoked the very sort of violence—from both sides—that government agents and Christian reformers sought to avoid.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White observers, however, ignored this lesson and simply assumed that Colorado’s Utes were “bad Indians” who acted against their own interests by resisting “civilization.” Indeed, over the next several decades, the government continued its policy of forced assimilation by breaking up Indigenous reservations into private <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>allotments</strong></a> and banning traditional customs and ceremonies. Just as they did at Milk Creek, these policies provoked outrage and violence, such as when US cavalry massacred Lakota at Wounded Knee in 1890.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Commemoration</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1990 the <strong>Rio Blanco County Historical Society</strong> established Milk Creek Battlefield Park on the site of the battle. Informative signs detail the events of late September 1879, and a stone monument memorializes Thornburgh and the other soldiers who died there. Thornburgh’s body was eventually recovered from Milk Creek and is buried in Omaha, Nebraska. In 1993 the Rio Blanco Historical Society and Ute Indian Tribe agreed to have tribal members erect a monument to the fallen Ute warriors next to the US Army monument.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/milk-creek" hreflang="en">milk creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/meeker" hreflang="en">meeker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-blanco-county" hreflang="en">rio blanco county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nathan-meeker" hreflang="en">nathan meeker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thomas-thornburgh" hreflang="en">thomas thornburgh</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-1868" hreflang="en">Treaty of 1868</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jack" hreflang="en">jack</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorow" hreflang="en">colorow</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/white-river-indian-agency" hreflang="en">white river indian agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/white-river" hreflang="en">white river</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CLM18791004.2.39&amp;srpos=24&amp;e=-------en-20--21-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-pitkin+utes-------0--">Border War! … What Governor Pitkin and General Hamill Will Do</a>,” <em>Colorado Miner</em> (Georgetown, CO), October 4, 1879.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter R. Decker, <em>“The Utes Must Go!”: American Expansion and the Removal of a People </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sacha Smith, “<a href="https://www.sudrum.com/top-stories/2015/10/01/remembering-the-milk-creek-battle/">Remembering the Milk Creek Battle</a>,” <em>Southern Ute Drum</em>, October 1, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fred H. Werner, <em>Meeker </em>(Greeley, CO: Werner Publications, 1985).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.com/meeker/history-heritage/historic-places-districts/milk-creek-battlefield-park">Milk Creek Battlefield Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rio Blanco Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.historymeeker.com/milk-creek-battlefield-park-dedication/">Milk Creek Battlefield Park</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 20:35:38 +0000 yongli 3110 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org