%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en San Luis Valley http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">San Luis Valley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3551--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3551.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/monte-vista-wildlife-refuge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Monte_Vista_Wildlife_Refuge_20210314_0421_0.jpg?itok=mVYbJvB2" width="1090" height="636" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/monte-vista-wildlife-refuge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Monte Vista Wildlife Refuge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge is located in the San Luis Valley, a high mountain basin located in south-central Colorado. It’s one of three national wildlife refuges in the Valley that provides crucial feeding, resting, and breeding habitat for over 200 bird species and other wildlife. Alamosa and Monte Vista Refuges are located at the south-central end of the Valley and Baca Refuge is located at the north end. https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Monte_Vista/</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:26:48-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:26" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley" data-a2a-title="San Luis Valley"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsan-luis-valley&amp;title=San%20Luis%20Valley"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Covering nearly 8,000 square miles in southern Colorado, the San Luis Valley is the largest valley in the state and the largest high-altitude desert in North America. Known as “the Valley” by locals and other Coloradans, the San Luis Valley is bordered by the <strong>Sangre de Cristo</strong> <strong>Mountains</strong> to the east, the <strong>Sawatch Mountains</strong> to the north, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the west, and the Rio Grande Valley of northern New Mexico to the south. The San Luis Valley has a population of about 16,550 and encompasses five counties: <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/costilla-county"><strong>Costilla</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rio-grande-county"><strong>Rio Grande</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With an average altitude of 7,664 feet and an average annual rainfall below ten inches, the valley’s environment characterized as high desert. The <strong>Rio Grande River </strong>flows through the center of the valley, racing out of the San Juan Mountains near <strong>South Fork</strong>, bending southeast through <strong>Alamosa</strong>, the valley’s most populous city, and then south toward the New Mexico border. Despite the dry climate, the Rio Grande and the valley’s underground water sources make it suitable for agriculture—currently the region’s primary industry. The valley is known for its cultural diversity, with 45 percent of the population recorded as “Hispanic” (although many identify as Hispano, descendants of the valley’s original Mexican families). Many of the valley’s towns and buildings, such as its many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/capilla%20%22San%20Luis%20Valley%22"><strong>Catholic churches</strong></a>, maintain the look and feel of their Spanish or Mexican origins.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Before it was permanently occupied, the San Luis Valley was traversed by a wide range of indigenous people, from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> cultures thousands of years ago to Diné (<strong>Navajo)</strong>, <strong>Pueblo</strong>, and Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) peoples in more recent centuries. In the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spain was the first European nation to lay claim to the valley but found it difficult to occupy because of the opposition of the Utes. Looking to populate its northern frontier, an independent Mexico established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>land grants</strong></a> in the valley during the 1830s and 1840s, before the United States incorporated the region as a result of its annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a> three years later.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology and Geography</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The San Luis Valley measures more than 100 miles north-south and about 65 miles east-west. It was formed during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology"><strong>Laramide Orogeny</strong></a>, the 30-million-year period of mountain building that raised the modern <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. During the uplift of the Sangre de Cristos and the San Juans, the flat area in between dropped off and settled into a slightly eastern-sloped plane that became the valley. Around 500,000 years ago, the valley was covered by a huge lake that measured 200 feet deep in some places. The lake eventually drained, exposing deep layers of sediment that created the broad, alluvial expanse of today’s valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of its unique geology, size, and location, the San Luis Valley possesses some of Colorado’s most distinctive natural features. Among the most striking are the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-sand-dunes-national-park-and-preserve"><strong>Great Sand Dunes</strong></a>, heaps of sand up to 750 feet tall piled against the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in the valley’s northeast section. Formed over millions of years, the dunes are composed of dust and desert sand blown from the west side of the valley and other parts of the American Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The valley also contains many mountain passes that have for millennia granted people and animals access to adjoining regions, including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> via <strong>La Veta Pass</strong>, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> valley via <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, the upper <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Valley and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> via <strong>Poncha Pass</strong>, the Huerfano Valley via <strong>Mosca Pass</strong>, the San Juan Mountains via <strong>Wolf Creek Pass</strong>, and the <strong>Four Corners </strong>area via <strong>Cumbres Pass</strong>. In addition, the New Mexican communities of Taos and Santa Fé could be reached via the Rio Grande Valley to the south.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Owing to its broad expanse, extreme weather, and multiple mountain passes, the San Luis Valley was historically used more as a corridor than as a site of permanent community. The earliest human presence is documented by projectile points left by Folsom people almost 10,000 years ago; archaeological evidence suggests that those people, as well as later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> cultures, followed large game such as <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> into the valley on seasonal treks between the mountains and plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In later centuries, <strong>Blanca Peak</strong>, a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteener</strong></a> and tallest of the peaks ringing the valley, was thought to be a sacred site marking the eastern boundary of the Navajo Nation. Beginning around 1300, Pueblo people ventured into the valley to hunt and collect valuable resources, such as feathers and turquoise. Ute people began using the valley after about 1400, hunting bison and other large game and gathering roots, nuts, and berries along its main waterways. Over the next several hundred years, the San Luis Valley was used and traversed by the <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, but it was most frequently occupied by three distinct bands of Utes: the Tabeguache, Muache, and Capote. The Utes used the valley’s various passes to travel to distant hunting grounds and to their winter camps in present-day <a href="/article/glenwood-springs"><strong>Glenwood Springs</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pagosa-springs"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>. Along Rock Creek, which led to Pagosa Springs, they added their own <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> to older indigenous pictographs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish Period, c. 1598–1821</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1598 the Spanish explorer Juan de Oñate claimed the valley for King Phillip II of Spain. In northern New Mexico, he established two towns, San Juan de los Caballeros and San Gabriel de Yunque. Hearing about plentiful game to the north in the San Luis Valley, Oñate sent an expedition there to hunt bison. The party came across a village of about fifty Ute lodges; the Utes greeted them warmly, and some of the Ute men volunteered to help the inexperienced Spaniards hunt bison. The Spaniards botched the hunt, but they returned back to their own villages knowing that they might at least have willing trade partners to the north.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Spaniards’ relations with their Pueblo neighbors soured immediately, as they pressed the Indians into slavery. Their relations with the Utes remained friendly until the 1630s, when Spaniards attacked a band and took about eighty Utes as slaves. Thereafter, Utes began raiding Spanish parties and communities for livestock and goods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the San Luis Valley remained largely indigenous, barely even a remote outpost of the Spanish Empire. Comanche raids on New Mexican communities increased during the eighteenth century; in 1779 the Spanish war party of <strong>Juan Bautista de Anza</strong> picked up Ute and <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> warriors in the valley on its way to fight the Comanche leader <strong>Cuerno Verde</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first American description of the San Luis Valley was offered by the explorer <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> in 1807. After trying and failing to climb <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, the expedition moved southwest into Spanish territory in the San Luis Valley. “The great and lofty mountains . . . seemed to surround the luxuriant vale, crowned with perennial flowers, like a terrestrial paradise, shut out from the view of man,” Pike wrote in his journal. Fearing attacks by Spaniards and Indians, Pike had his men build a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>stockade</strong></a> on the banks of <strong>Conejos Creek</strong>. Despite his precautions, Pike and his men were arrested by Spanish dragoons and imprisoned in Santa Fé for several months.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Pike, French, American, and Mexican fur traders traversed the San Luis Valley on their way to the beaver-laden mountains and the regional trade nexus of Taos. In the valley itself, small trading camps sprung up along Saguache Creek (from the Ute word <em>Saguguachipa</em>, “blue water”) below Poncha Pass.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mexican Period, c. 1821–45</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After winning independence from Spain in 1821, the new nation of Mexico used land grants to encourage the occupation of its northern frontier as a bulwark against rising American influence in the Southwest. In 1833 the Mexican government awarded the Conejos Grant, roughly spanning land between the Rio Grande and Conejos Creek near present-day Alamosa, to fifty families. However, Navajo drove off the would-be settlers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other Mexican land grants in the valley included the Beaubien-Miranda Grant (later known as the Maxwell), the Luis Maria Baca Grant No. 4, and the Sangre de Cristo Grant, which later became Costilla County. These were all issued in 1843–44 but were not settled until several years later on account of indigenous resistance and the outbreak of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> (1846–48).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>American Period</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The United States acquired part of the San Luis Valley when it annexed Texas in 1845. Over the next year, an influx of slaveholding Americans in eastern Texas and boundary disputes between Mexico and the United States led the American government to provoke a war with its southern neighbor. When it ended in 1848, the United States acquired a huge section of northwest Mexico that eventually formed part or all of the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado—including the rest of the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War, US Army incursions into the San Luis Valley persuaded the Muache and Capote Utes to make a peace agreement at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Abiquiú</strong></a>, New Mexico, in 1849. The agreement encouraged New Mexicans (recently made US citizens by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo) to settle the former Mexican land grants. In 1851, on the Sangre de Cristo Grant in the southeastern part of the valley, Hispanos established <a href="/article/san-luis"><strong>San Luis</strong></a>, the first permanent town in what would become Colorado. The next year, the townspeople finished an <strong>acequia</strong>, the <strong>San Luis People’s Ditch</strong>, which was the first <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-law"><strong>water right</strong></a> in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A number of other towns, built in the Spanish style with central plazas, popped up along Culebra and Costilla Creeks in the ensuing years, and the Conejos Grant was also settled. Despite the treaty, Utes continued to raid Anglo communities, as the influx of newcomers threatened their food supply. In 1852 the US Army built Fort Massachusetts (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a>) south of La Veta Pass, firmly establishing the American presence in the valley. The fort did little to discourage Ute raids; still, in the 1860s, more Americans arrived looking to set up <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a> on fertile lands within the valley. The Denver and San Luis Valley Wagon Road Company linked these early settlements to <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> via a toll road.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the new immigrants was <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, a man of great ambition who came to the fledgling town of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-0"><strong>Saguache</strong></a> in 1866. Mears developed what was likely an ancient trail over Poncha Pass into a toll road, linking the San Luis Valley with mining districts in South Park and the Upper Arkansas Valley. Mears also brought modern farming equipment, including a reaper and thresher, envisioning the valley as a great supplier of produce to mining camps in the mountains. Another <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty</strong></a> with the Utes in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>1868</strong></a> gave Americans near-exclusive rights to the valley, as the Capote and Muache bands—along with several others—agreed to move to a vast reservation on Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mears’s vision for the valley was further realized after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873, in which the Ute leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> agreed to cede the San Juan Mountains to the United States. In the mountains around today’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a> and <a href="/article/ouray-town"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, prospectors found rich veins of silver and gold, and farmers in the San Luis Valley supplied them with wheat flour, potatoes, and other produce.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Connections and New Cultures</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1878 the town of Alamosa was established when the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> moved the entire town of Fort Garland to a site along the Rio Grande near the valley’s center. In the 1880s, the tiny shepherd town of <strong>Antonito</strong> also became an important stop along the railroad as it built south from Alamosa into New Mexico and on to the San Juan mining camps.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The arrival of railroads brought more Euro-Americans into the San Luis Valley, causing friction between the new arrivals and the established Hispano population. Nowhere was this more evident than in local <strong>Range Wars</strong>, in which predominantly white cattlemen intimidated mostly Hispano sheepherders as both vied for access to the same grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though they sometimes sparred with each other, residents of the San Luis Valley continued to develop its agricultural economy over the next several decades, until the <strong>Great Depression</strong> brought hard times in the 1930s. Farm prices plummeted; the price of potatoes, a staple valley crop, dropped from four dollars per hundredweight in 1920 to thirty-five cents by 1932. In Saguache County, farmers reported 9,444 acres of crop failure in 1934, compared to about 3,500 in 1929. Similar trends across the valley forced thousands to move elsewhere. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> programs helped improve the valley’s infrastructure and schools, but today the region remains one of the poorest in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late twentieth century, the National Park Service and a coalition of valley residents organized to protect its water resources from several development projects; the campaigns resulted in the formation of the <strong>Citizens for San Luis Valley Water</strong> and, later, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley-ecosystem-council"><strong>San Luis Valley Ecosystem Council</strong></a> (SLVEC). Today the SLVEC protects some 3.1 million acres of public lands in the valley from development. On the heels of the water protection campaign of the 1990s, Great Sand Dunes National Monument—established in 1932—was designated a national park so it could be better protected from development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nowadays, most communities in the San Luis Valley are heavily dependent on agriculture and, to a lesser extent, tourism. Major crops include wheat, oats, barley, lettuce, potatoes, and peas. In addition to the Sand Dunes, other tourist attractions accessible via the valley include <strong>Zapata Falls</strong> on the western slope of the Sangres and <strong>Wolf Creek Ski Area </strong>in the mountains of neighboring <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral County</strong></a>. In addition, hunters, anglers, and other outdoor recreation enthusiasts frequent the <strong>Monte Vista Wildlife Refuge</strong>, <strong>Baca Wildlife Refuge</strong>, and <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>Rio Grande National Forest</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a> (formerly the Colorado Historical Society) maintains a museum at the site of Fort Garland, as well as a reconstructed version of Pike’s stockade. As it has in the past, the valley’s isolation remains the most challenging obstacle to economic growth and development, even as it offers some of the most stunning scenery, most distinct landscapes, and richest cultural heritage in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa" hreflang="en">alamosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos" hreflang="en">Conejos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis" hreflang="en">san luis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande" hreflang="en">rio grande</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/del-norte" hreflang="en">del norte</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antonito" hreflang="en">antonito</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/costilla" hreflang="en">costilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-american-war-0" hreflang="en">mexican american war</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-land-grants" hreflang="en">mexican land grants</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sangre-de-cristos" hreflang="en">sangre de cristos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/saguache" hreflang="en">saguache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otto-mears" hreflang="en">Otto Mears</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-rio-grande" hreflang="en">denver &amp; rio grande</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-sand-dunes" hreflang="en">great sand dunes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/utes" hreflang="en">utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indians" hreflang="en">ute indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa" hreflang="en">kiowa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spanish" hreflang="en">spanish</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spaniards" hreflang="en">spaniards</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/catholic-church" hreflang="en">catholic church</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>James S. Aber, “<a href="http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/field/rocky_mt/zapata.htm">San Luis Valley, Colorado</a>,” 2002.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen Harding Hart and Archer Butler Hulbert, eds., <em>The Southwestern Journals of Zebulon Pike, 1806–1807 </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Martha Quillen, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2001-december/colorados-mexican-land-grants">Colorado’s Mexican Land Grants</a>,” <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, December 1, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>San Luis Valley Development Resources Group, “<a href="https://www.slvdrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/A.-Area-Description-and-Development-History.pdf">A. Area Description and Development History</a>,” 2013 Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>San Luis Valley Development Resources Group and San Luis Valley Council of Governments, “<a href="https://www.slvdrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/2015-SLV-Statistical-Profile.pdf">2015 SLV Statistical Profile</a>,” 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Laurie Simmons and Marilyn A. Martorano, “<a href="https://archaeologycolorado.org/sites/default/files/Simmons%20and%20Martorano%202007%20Trujilo%20Homesteads.pdf">Guns, Fire, and Sheep: History and Archaeology of the Trujillo Homesteads in the San Luis Valley, Colorado</a>,” <em>Southwestern Lore </em>73, no. 3 (2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/" title=" (external link)">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1934).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Robert Buchanan, “<a href="https://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/downloads/22/22_p0243_p0245.pdf">The San Luis Valley—A Land of Paradox</a>,” in <em>San Luis Basin (Colorado)</em>, ed. H. L. James (New Mexico Geological Society 22nd Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael G. Geary, <em>Sea of Sand: A History of Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael N. Machette, David W. Marchetti, and Ren A. Thompson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1193/pdf/OF07-1193_ChG.pdf">Ancient Lake Alamosa and the Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene Evolution of the Rio Grande</a>,” in <em>2007 Rocky Mountain Section Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip—Quaternary Geology of the San Luis Basin of Colorado and New Mexico</em>, by Michael N. Machette, Mary-Margaret Coates, and Margo L. Johnson, September 7–9, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.museumtrail.org/">Museums of the San Luis Valley</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://slvhistoricalsociety.org/">San Luis Valley Historical Society</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/riogrande/learning/history-culture/?cid=stelprdb5172158">History and Culture of the San Luis Valley Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/main/riogrande/">Rio Grande National Forest</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:26:48 +0000 yongli 3167 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Concilio Superior http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/concilio-superior <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Concilio Superior</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-06-02T13:34:37-06:00" title="Friday, June 2, 2017 - 13:34" class="datetime">Fri, 06/02/2017 - 13:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/concilio-superior" data-a2a-title="Concilio Superior"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconcilio-superior&amp;title=Concilio%20Superior"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Concilio Superior building in <strong>Antonito</strong> is the headquarters of La Sociedad Protección Mutua de Trabajadores Unidos (SPMDTU; Society for the Mutual Protection of United Workers), a mutual-aid society established in 1900 to protect <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> workers in the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley">San Luis Valley</a> </strong>from discrimination and to provide burial aid and other assistance. In the 1920s the society built the Concilio Superior building as its headquarters and meeting hall. The building continues to serve in that capacity and was recently restored with the help of several <strong>State Historical Fund</strong> grants.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins of SPMDTU</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late nineteenth century, Hispano workers in the San Luis Valley and across the Southwest often suffered from racial discrimination. They faced segregation and were not allowed in white schools, hospitals, and restaurants. As a result, Hispano communities across the Southwest established mutual-aid societies to combat racial discrimination, work for social and economic rights, celebrate their culture, and provide basic social insurance programs such as unemployment and burial aid.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the most important Hispano mutual-aid societies in Colorado was SPMDTU. Founded by the jewelry worker Celedonio Mondragón, the society held its first meeting on November 26, 1900, at his house in Antonito. Membership was restricted to men, who were required to attend meetings, pay dues, and be good citizens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The society quickly spread across the San Luis Valley, spurred by ongoing discrimination and violence against Hispano workers in the valley, including the murders of several shepherds in 1902. Members initially gathered in houses, with ten members needed to form a new local council. The society had seven councils by 1910 and ten by 1915, including councils in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and New Mexico. By the 1910s the society offered unemployment and sickness subsidies, as well as funeral and burial assistance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1902 the society organized the Concilio Superior (Superior Council) to coordinate with local councils and plan for expansion. Composed of eight officers, the Concilio Superior served as the society’s executive body. It called all the local councils together in 1909 to frame a general constitution to guide the society’s activities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Concilio Superior Building</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During its early decades, SPMDTU rented the Antonito Opera House when it needed a large space for events. In 1920, as the society’s councils and membership continued to grow, the Concilio Superior decided to build a permanent headquarters and meeting hall in Antonito. Each member was initially assessed a tax of seventy-five cents to get the process started. Members were later taxed an additional five to ten dollars to buy the building site and start the construction fund. These amounts were essentially loans that were refunded upon the member’s death.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Construction started in 1923 and was completed in 1925. The building, located on Main Street, was constructed using adobe walls with a stucco finish. The Main Street façade was designed with a ticket window and two doors to accommodate sports and social events. The interior of the building included a large open hall, a raised stage, and bleachers. The building’s use of steel trusses and commercial windows in a southwestern vernacular design helped introduce new architectural features to Hispano communities in the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Concilio Superior building has been used primarily for SPMDTU business and meetings. The main alteration to the building over the years was the addition in the 1980s of murals on the stage and the south exterior wall. The stage mural, painted by Los Muralistas del Valle, depicts Mexican nationalistic and agricultural themes. The south exterior wall has a series of three murals by Fred Haberlein, with two showing local agricultural scenes and one portraying a male angel protecting the earth.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After growing to roughly 2,000 members and sixty-five lodges in Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah in the decade after <strong>World War II</strong>, SPMDTU membership began to decline as more rural workers moved to cities. Membership dipped below 600 in the 1990s but grew again after 2000, when the society celebrated its centennial anniversary and started the process of listing the Concilio Superior building on the State and National Registers of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 2000s the society received a grant from the State Historical Fund to assess the structure of the building and prepare a preservation plan. Two additional State Historical Fund grants and other donations and contributions allowed a full restoration of the building beginning in 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the Concilio Superior, there are now seven local SPMDTU councils, which continue to engage in community service and charitable work.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antonito" hreflang="en">antonito</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spmdtu" hreflang="en">SPMDTU</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-sociedad-proteccion-mutua-de-trabajadores-unidos" hreflang="en">La Sociedad Protección Mutua de Trabajadores Unidos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/society-mutual-protection-united-workers" hreflang="en">Society for the Mutual Protection of United Workers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mutual-aid-societies" hreflang="en">mutual-aid societies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano-workers" hreflang="en">Hispano workers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/celedonio-mondragon" hreflang="en">Celedonio Mondragón</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>José A. Rivera, <em>La Sociedad: Guardians of Hispanic Culture along the Rio Grande</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Arnold and Maria Valdez, “S.P.M.D.T.U. Concilio Superior,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (September 29, 2000).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1979).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://spmdtu.org/">Sociedad Protección Mutua de Trabajadores Unidos</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS%20SPMDTU%20CS%2012.29.17.docx">Concilio Superior Teacher Resource Set - Word</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS%20SPMDTU%20CS%2012.29.17.pdf">Concilio Superior Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 02 Jun 2017 19:34:37 +0000 yongli 2659 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Conejos County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Conejos County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2028--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2028.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/1280px-Map_of_Colorado_highlighting_Conejos_County.svg__0.png?itok=I5NUz-54" width="1090" height="789" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/conejos-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME 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field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-04T15:55:02-06:00" title="Friday, November 4, 2016 - 15:55" class="datetime">Fri, 11/04/2016 - 15:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county" data-a2a-title="Conejos County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fconejos-county&amp;title=Conejos%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Conejos County covers 1,287 square miles of the southern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and eastern <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> in south central Colorado. It is bordered by <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta County</strong></a> to the west, <a href="/article/rio-grande-county"><strong>Rio Grande</strong></a> and <a href="/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa</strong></a> Counties to the north, <a href="/article/costilla-county"><strong>Costilla County</strong></a> to the east, and New Mexico’s Taos and Rio Arriba Counties to the south. With an average elevation of 7,700 feet, the county consists mainly of semi-desert scrubland, but it also contains sections of wooded area in <strong>Rio Grande National Forest</strong> to the west and pockets of vegetation along the <strong>Rio Grande</strong> and <strong>Conejos Rivers</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The county has a population of 8,130, 53.7 percent of which is Latino, 43.8 percent white, and 3.7 percent American Indian. The majority of the county’s residents live in the towns of <strong>Antonito</strong>, <strong>La Jara</strong>, Sanford, and Manassa, and the county seat lies in the unincorporated community of <strong>Conejos</strong>. <em>Conejos </em>is Spanish for “rabbits,” a reference to the abundance of the small mammals in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The county is home to <a href="/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>Pike’s Stockade</strong></a>, a reconstruction of the small fort built by <a href="/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a>’s soldiers during their 1806–7 expedition. It stands near the site of its early nineteenth-century construction, administered by History Colorado and the <a href="/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a> Museum. The stockade attests to the role of Conejos County in the early exploration of Colorado and the West, as well as to the legacy of the Spanish colonial frontier in the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Native Americans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Architectural artifacts and oral tradition indicate that Conejos County was inhabited for centuries before the arrival of settlers of European descent. Capote <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> of the Numic language group generally dominated the San Luis Valley and surrounding mountains, but <strong>Navajo</strong>, <strong>Apache</strong>, and <strong>Comanche</strong> also visited the area throughout the centuries. As nomadic hunter-gatherers, these people left little evidence of permanent settlements but deposited arrowheads, stone chips, and other signs of their seasonal presence. They lived by procuring local vegetables, roots, and game, such as jackrabbit, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a>, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/bison">bison</a>.</strong></p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Arrival of Europeans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Spanish began exploring the San Luis Valley as early as the 1590s when Juan de Oñate began sending scouts to look for possible settlement sites. Diego de Vargas entered the valley during his 1692 campaign to reconquer the region in wake of the 1680 Pueblo Revolt. Nuevo Mexican Governor Juan Bautista de Anza passed through the area during his 1799 pursuit of the Comanche Cuerno Verde. The presence of these figures attests to the region’s role in the history of early Spanish Colonialism in southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Another early visitor to Conejos County area was Zebulon Pike, an explorer hired by President Thomas Jefferson to explore the southern reaches of the <strong>Louisiana Purchase</strong>. During the winter of 1806–7, Pike and his crew of nine soldiers set up camp and built a small fortification on the Conejos River to protect themselves from the elements and the possibility of Ute attacks. Spanish forces arrested Pike on February 26, claiming that the Americans were trespassing on Spanish land. This confrontation demonstrates the role of Conejos County in particular and the San Luis Valley in general played in the story of a contested American West. Both the United States and Spain vied for influence and control, while indigenous peoples sought to both defend their homelands and benefit from the invaders.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mexican/American Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Permanent European settlement of Conejos County and the San Luis Valley began in the early- to mid-nineteenth century, when the growth of Spanish-speaking populations along the upper Rio Grande prompted expansion. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 but feared that the United States would encroach upon its northern frontier if it was not settled. Between 1833 and 1843, Mexican officials parceled out much of northern New Mexico, which included thousands of square miles of what would become southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The area encompassed by the unconfirmed Conejos/Guadalupe Grant, issued in 1833, formed most of today’s Rio Grande and Conejos Counties. Between fifty and eighty families began cultivating the area, but they soon were driven out by the remote and hostile environment. According to some sources, Navajo raiders helped drive out the families, as the Utes did a decade later.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mexico’s fears of losing its northern territory were realized in 1846, when the US Army invaded Mexico. New Mexico and southern Colorado became part of the United States at the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1848, and all Mexicans living there were granted US citizenship. Today, many descendants of these Mexican families refer to themselves as Hispanos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A series of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>treaties</strong></a> between 1850 and 1880 forced the Utes onto a reservation in southwest Colorado, making the area seem safer for new residents. A permanent settlement finally took hold in the town of <strong>Guadalupe</strong> near present-day Conejos in 1854. What would become Conejos County, along with most of the San Luis Valley, came under the jurisdiction of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. Conejos County assumed its current borders with the creation of Archuleta County in 1885.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first New Mexican settlers of San Luis Valley brought their traditions and culture with them. They built homes in the Spanish Colonial style, often in the form of plazas or clusters of homes with an interior courtyard. Locals relied on small-scale <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> and other agricultural practices developed in similarly arid New Mexico. Colorado’s oldest parish built the first Catholic church in the state—<strong>Our Lady of Guadalupe</strong>—in the community of Conejos in 1858; the church was dedicated by Bishop Lamy of Santa Fé in 1863 and demonstrates the importance of New-World Catholicism in the cultural history of southern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Residents of the area relied on stagecoaches for mail and transportation until railways extended their lines to the valley in the 1870s. The <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> (D&amp;RG) began building its narrow-gauge line from <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to New Mexico, reaching <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> by 1873 and La Veta Pass by 1876. By 1881 the San Juan Extension of the D&amp;RG wound through Conejos County on its way through the San Juan Mountains to Chama, New Mexico. The towns of <strong>Alamosa</strong> and Antonito became relatively busy railroad hubs, and the surrounding farming communities continued to grow.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Railroad access to the valley prompted further settlement of Conejos County. In the 1870s and 1880s, Mormon settlers established the towns of Manassa and Sanford. These communities flourished, cultivating barley, alfalfa, peas, carrots, oats, and other crops with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> from the Conejos River. Farming practices began to shift from small, subsistence agriculture to large-scale industrialized techniques as transportation and technology improved in the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although Congress had confirmed the legitimacy of the neighboring Sangre de Cristo Grant in 1860, the confirmation of Conejos/Guadalupe was muddled and eventually rejected at the end of the century due to lost documents. As a result, many early Hispano settlers of the Conejos Grant lost their claims over the following decades, and much of the area was partitioned into 160-acre farmsteads in accordance with the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862. In response, several community members founded the Society for the Mutual Protection of United Workers in 1900 as an aid society to protect the property and labor rights of Hispano residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Much of the history of the San Luis Valley is intricately connected to land use, property stakes, and water rights. Escalating land use conflicts around the turn of the century led to the creation of federal Timber Reserves, which were amalgamated by the Forest Service to create Rio Grande National Forest in 1908.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like other counties in the arid San Luis Valley, Conejos County relies on aquifers and sparse rivers to sustain its agricultural economy. The <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> began to examine the San Luis Valley’s water needs in 1936 and initiated the San Luis Valley Project (SLV) over the following years. The SLV Project featured the 1949 construction of the Platoro Dam and Reservoir in northern Conejos County. The reservoir helps control floodwater, provides water for the irrigation of arid local farmland, and regulates outflow in accordance to the Rio Grande Compact of 1938, an interstate <a href="/article/water-law"><strong>water</strong></a> allocation agreement.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the twentieth century the aridity of southern Colorado often exacerbated economic and environmental crises experienced at the national level. The valley experienced a decade-long dry spell during the 1930s, which—along with the <strong>Great Depression</strong>—prompted many to leave their communities in search of more hospitable conditions. Conejos County’s population decreased by 29 percent between 1940 and 1960. The communities have never truly recovered and continue to decline in population.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, the residents of Conejos County rely largely on agriculture, tourism, and local commerce for subsistence. Local farmers cultivate barley, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, alfalfa, beans, and other crops using <strong>center-pivot</strong> sprinklers that pump water from underground aquifers. Many locals also raise livestock for personal use as well as the market.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Aside from agriculture, there is little industry present in Conejos County; this lack of economic diversity has kept the growth of the San Luis Valley modest compared with much of the rest of Colorado. Family income, poverty, unemployment, and property values in the area remain significantly lower than the state average, keeping the area relatively unpopulated and quiet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Trade and tourism make up the rest of the local economy. Antonito, like the larger Alamosa to the north, was founded as a railroad support town and has retained that identity. The D&amp;RG narrow-gauge line from Alamosa to Chama, New Mexico still runs today as the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad; this tourist line attracts travelers interested in historic railroads and the history of the American West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sports history enthusiasts visit Manassa, which hosts a museum commemorating the town as the birthplace of Jack Dempsey, the “Manassa Mauler,” who held the title of World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 1919–26. Manassa also hosts “Pioneer Days,” a yearly summer event that commemorates early San Luis Valley pioneers and includes a carnival, rodeo, parade, fireworks, and other activities. The event attracts nearly 10,000 visitors each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Outdoor recreation attracts many visitors each year. The Conejos River running through the Rio Grande National Forest lures fishermen with its <strong>rainbow trout</strong>; other local streams contain <strong>cutthroat trout</strong> and brook trout, and local lakes are home to bass and blue gill. Hunters flock to the La Jara State Wildlife Area and the La Jara Reservoir State Trust Lands to hunt elk, <a href="/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a>, deer, antelope, <a href="/article/black-bear"><strong>black bear</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lions</strong></a>. Hikers and campers travel through the area to visit the beautiful <strong>Sangre de Cristo Range</strong>, as well as on their way to and from Santa Fe and Taos, New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>History Colorado</em> names several structures from Conejos County on its State and National Registers of Historic Places, many of which are connected to the county’s importance as a transportation corridor. The 1892 Costilla Crossing Bridge is the oldest vehicular truss in southern Colorado, while the D&amp;RG’s entire <strong>San Juan Extension,</strong> the D&amp;RG Railroad <strong>Antonito Depot</strong>, the <strong>La Jara Town Depot</strong>, and several surviving engines and cars attest to the importance of trains in the history of the San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other structures demonstrate the Spanish Colonial legacy of the area, as well as the continual abundance of Mexican-American people and culture in the county. The SPMDTU <a href="/article/concilio-superior"><strong>Concilio Superior</strong></a>, 1925 headquarters for La Sociedad Proteccion Mutua de Trabajadores Unidos, stands as a memory of early workers’ rights movements during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a>. Several historic churches, such as <a href="/article/capilla-de-san-antonio-de-padua-lasauses"><strong>La Capilla De San Antonio De Padua</strong></a> in Lasauses and the1895 San Rafael Presbyterian Church in Mogote, demonstrate the multidenominational history of Christianity in Conejos County.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos-county" hreflang="en">conejos county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/conejos-river" hreflang="en">Conejos River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pike-stockade" hreflang="en">pike stockade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/antonito" hreflang="en">antonito</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano" hreflang="en">hispano</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-jara" hreflang="en">la jara</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-land-grants" hreflang="en">mexican land grants</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-rio-grande-railroad" hreflang="en">denver &amp; rio grande railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/our-lady-guadalupe" hreflang="en">our lady of guadalupe</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Biography.com, “<a href="https://www.biography.com/athletes/jack-dempsey">Jack Dempsey Biography</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, “<a href="https://www.drgw.net/info/NarrowGauge">Narrow Gauge Routes</a>,” updated November 2, 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/oahp/conejos-county">Conejos County</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lauren Gallegos, Christina Gallegos, and Ashley Martinez, “<a href="https://www.sangreheritage.org/management-plan-sdcnha.html">Sangre de Cristo National Heritage Area Management Plan: February 2013</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/cultural_diversity/sangre_de_cristo_national_heritage_area.html">Sangre de Cristo National Heritage Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sylvia Lobato, “<a href="http://www.conejoscountycitizen.com/v2_news_articles.php?heading=0&amp;page=72&amp;story_id=1857">Manassa Pioneer Days rolls out next week</a>,” <em>Conejos County Citizen</em>, July 13, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Census Bureau, “<a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/08021,00">State and County Quick Facts: Conejos County</a>,” updated 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Forest Service, “<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/riogrande/learning/history-culture/?cid=stelprdb5172158">History and Culture of the San Luis Valley Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.conejoscounty.org/">Conejos County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://conejosvacation.com/">Conejos County Tourism</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.museumtrail.org/conejos-county-museum">Conejos County Museum &amp; Visitor Center</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365342315/">"The Manassa Mauler,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, October 2, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365603249/">"The San Luis Valley,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, November 12, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.townofantonito.com/">Town of Antonito</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/townoflajara">Town of La Jara</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Nov 2016 21:55:02 +0000 yongli 2027 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org