%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Making Sense of Here: An Introduction to the Place Section http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/making-sense-here-introduction-place-section <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Making Sense of Here: An Introduction to the Place Section</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--933--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--933.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/colorado-national-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Colorado-National-Monument-Colorado-John-Fielder_0.jpg?itok=BdhgvgWE" width="1090" height="872" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/colorado-national-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado National Monument near <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a> encompasses more than 20,000 acres of spectacular canyons and rock formations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-16T10:15:28-07:00" title="Thursday, February 16, 2017 - 10:15" class="datetime">Thu, 02/16/2017 - 10:15</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/making-sense-here-introduction-place-section" data-a2a-title="Making Sense of Here: An Introduction to the Place Section"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmaking-sense-here-introduction-place-section&amp;title=Making%20Sense%20of%20Here%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Place%20Section"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p><em>Colorado is quite a place.</em></p><p>Thousands of residents and visitors have arrived independently at that insight, without the guidance of experts.</p><p>Through the verticality of the state’s mountains, the horizontality of its plains, and the dynamic mixture of verticality and horizontality in the exposed strata of its canyon walls, the places of Colorado come well equipped to dazzle the eyes and stretch the minds of any sentient human beings. In these scenic locales, you could station armies of specialists and scholars at lecterns, podiums, and chairs aligned for panel discussions, and the public’s response to this barrage of knowledge might be lacking in gratitude: “Excuse us, but you’re blocking our wondrous view.”</p><p>And so, given the power of many Colorado’s places to exercise their own authority to make a case for themselves, why did the editors of the <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em> decide to devote one section of this online festival of knowledge and expertise to the subject of “Place”?</p><p>Good question, well worth asking.</p><p><a class="colorbox colorbox-insert-image" href="/image/diamond-wall"><img class="image-large" style="float:left;height:321px;margin:15px;" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Media-3-Longs-Peak-First-Light_1.jpg?itok=LSMPPUOV" alt="Diamond Wall on Longs Peak" width="480"> </a>For all of their capacity to make forceful impressions on the human mind and soul, Colorado’s places often register short of forthrightness and full disclosure. Even the most beautiful of places—<em>particularly</em> the most beautiful of places—conceal the full story of their transformations over time. Colorado’s <a href="/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteeners</strong></a> provide geographically prominent examples of places that continue to present themselves as pristine, insulated from time, untouched and unchanged by human presence, power, ambition, desire, improvidence, or enthusiasm for progress. But these high-alpine ecosystems are dynamic rather than static, and a changing climate and a rapidly expanding population of hearty and adventurous Coloradans have accelerated the pace of change in ways that humans are still trying to understand.</p><p>So when it comes to thinking about Colorado places, the insights of scholars, specialists, and experts turn out to be far from dismissible and irrelevant. The authors of the entries in this “Place” section have worked hard to reveal what lies just beneath the surface of the stories of Colorado’s places. At every place explored here, different groups of people have come or gone, returned or stayed, settled in contentedly or wished ardently that they were elsewhere. The human relationships brought into being, in particular places, by these arrivals and departures, have sometimes been amicable and congenial, sometimes uncomfortable and tense, and sometimes brutal and violent to the point of terror. When the passage of time has hidden these tales in places that still masquerade as simple and unstoried, the authors of these “Place” entries restore these obscured tales to memory and to our contemplation.</p><p>Meanwhile, other historical changes explored in these entries are far more evident to observers with minimal professional training in historical detection. Over decades, people have affected Colorado’s places in innumerable ways by putting in place (literally!) trails, roads, railroad tracks, camps, homes, stores, banks, gardens, farms, orchards, stables, corrals, mines, dams, reservoirs, ditches, mills, factories, schools, colleges, courthouses, governmental offices, restaurants, hotels, ski lifts, and airports (and that, every reader has noted, is a tragically, but necessarily incomplete list).</p><p>And now we reach the bedrock justification for recognizing the subject of “Place” as deserving of inclusion in this <em>Encyclopedia</em>. While human beings have wrought significant change in Colorado’s places by building structures of wood, brick, stone, iron, and steel, they have worked even more energetically—and more consequentially—at building <em>structures of meaning</em> that claim places for their own purposes and that the places, in turn, occupy on their own terms.</p><p>At once unforgettable and unforgivable for his abuse o’ apostrophes, the popular poet Edgar Guest wrote a famous remark about “home” that has unavoidable bearing at this point. Yes, it might, in Guest’s fractionated words, “take a heap o’ livin’ in a house t’make it home.” In an injury to the ear and mind that some readers may never forgive, we can productively modify Guest’s troubled sentence to the benefit of this <em>Encyclopedia</em> section:</p><p><strong>It takes a heap o’ livin’, as well as a heap o’ constructin’ meanin’, to make a place </strong><em><strong>a place</strong>.</em></p><p>In (blessedly) other words, the surface of the earth is continuous, even when it is submerged in water. Thus, the supply of square miles, or even square inches, qualified for classification as a “place” is so extensive that it is beyond our comprehension. Colorado’s supply of potential places may be even greater than many people realize: as political scientist Tom Cronin has observed, if this state were flattened out, and if its mountainous terrain got reconfigured as horizontal plains, the state would compete with Texas or Alaska in its dimensions (unless Alaska received the same be-flattened treatment in the calculation of square miles).</p><p>A defined unit of the surface of the earth is not going to make it as a <em>place </em>until human beings have worked it over, in either material terms or cognitive terms, or both. To qualify as a place, then, a locale has to be transformed in some way by human activity. In Colorado, material and cognitive activities have come together to produce lasting impacts, allowing human beings to create cities of improbable size in places where water is scarce. Stephen Grace’s article on the <a href="/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel"><strong>Alva B. Adams Tunnel</strong></a> and Greg Silkensen’s writing on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado–Big Thompson</strong></a> project both remind us that the major population centers of Colorado’s northern <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>—the cities of <strong>Boulder</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, <strong>Louisville</strong>, <strong>Loveland</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>—rely on the 200,000 acre-feet of water that annually flow through the Adams tunnel. Without this yearly injection of water from the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>, Colorado’s biggest towns would barely qualify as places at all! Locales aplenty in Colorado have undergone this transformative investment of human effort in putting them to use: as sites providing the raw material seized upon by loggers or by preservationists of intact forests, by fortune-seeking miners or by crusading writers lamenting the disturbances wrought by the miners.</p><p>And this deposits us at a very important point about the past, present, and future of the idea of place in Colorado.</p><p>In the 1990s, the subspecies of <em>homo sapiens</em>, endowed with the honorific name of Western Public Intellectuals, became enthralled with the idea of a <em>sense of place</em>. In hindsight, this train of thought—more accurately, this train of hope—took passengers on a delightful journey through the western past and present. Those of us who rode this train believed that a sense of place arose from a recognition that the US west was our chosen home, and we were thereby called to serve as the grateful stewards and guardians of the land where we had found our bearings.</p><p>But an unwelcome question rode the train with us as an extremely annoying fellow passenger: what has happened when people who have come into possession of differing and conflicting senses of place have struggled against each other to take possession of the <em>same</em> place?</p><p>The answers to that question, as they are recorded in this <em>Encyclopedia</em>, locate themselves along a spectrum from indifference and drift, to negotiated peace, to unresolved and irredeemable antagonism. Place section authors highlight forgotten spots such as <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-chinatown"><strong>Denver’s Chinatown</strong></a> that slid out of collective memory as the men and women who made up the community responded to intolerable discrimination by leaving Denver in search of a more-accepting place to make a living. Other sites, such as the <strong>Amache concentration camp </strong>that imprisoned Japanese Americans during World War II, sit in the middle of our spectrum. Former bunkhouses remain as grown-over foundations providing symbolic and physical evidence of a reckoning with past injustices. Other places slide up and down this scale with maddening impunity. <a href="/article/fort-lewis-college"><strong>Fort Lewis College</strong></a>, which grants a tuition-free education to American Indian students, got its start as a military outpost in the nation’s war against Native peoples. The transformation from fort to college barely registers in memory for some while standing for others as an indispensable avenue for the education and advancement of American Indian peoples.</p><p>Who—if anyone—holds the authority and standing to serve as a referee when several senses of place overlap and pitch into in a tug-of-war over the destiny of the same locale?</p><p>In the early twenty-first century, in our unsettled region and rattled nation, this is a question receiving different answers every day.</p><p>It is our hope that the scholars, specialists, and experts who wrote the entries in this <em>Encyclopedia</em>’s consideration of “Place” be recognized as holders of authority and standing, and also our hope that the recipients of this recognition will put it to good use.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/limerick-patty" hreflang="und">Limerick, Patty</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/state-historian" hreflang="en">state historian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/patty-limerick" hreflang="en">patty limerick</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fourteeners" hreflang="en">fourteeners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/western-history" hreflang="en">western history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range" hreflang="en">front range</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/western-slope" hreflang="en">Western Slope</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chinatown" hreflang="en">Chinatown</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> Thu, 16 Feb 2017 17:15:28 +0000 yongli 2347 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Little Arkansas Treaty http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Arkansas Treaty</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3316--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3316.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=lD0qXZ-D" width="600" height="805" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mrs. John Prowers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Walking Woman, also known as Amache, was the daughter of Southern Cheyenne leader Lone Bear, who was killed in the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. Amache, who later married Colorado rancher John Prowers, was one of several Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians who were promised reparations for the massacre in the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3318--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3318.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/little-raven"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=af1euXaY" width="600" height="847" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/little-raven" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Raven</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Little Raven led an Arapaho band on the Front Range of Colorado during the mid-nineteenth century. His people were among several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands slaughtered by US troops during the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. He signed the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865, hoping that his people would receive the promised reparations for the massacre. To this date, the descendants of the massacre victims have not received what was promised.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:37:19-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:37" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty" data-a2a-title="Little Arkansas Treaty"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flittle-arkansas-treaty&amp;title=Little%20Arkansas%20Treaty"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Little Arkansas Treaty refers to a pair of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> signed between the US and Indigenous nations in Kansas in mid-October 1865: one with the <strong>Southern Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Southern Cheyenne </strong>nations and one with the <strong>Comanche</strong> and<strong> Kiowa</strong>. Of the two, the treaty signed on October 14 with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, was the most significant within Colorado because it removed the two Indigenous nations to a new reservation in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and offered them reparations for the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of the previous year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Little Arkansas Treaty remains contested today, as the Interior Department apparently mismanaged funds allocated for the reparations. Descendants of those killed in the Sand Creek Massacre have been fighting for these lost reparations throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In February 1861, just two weeks after the US government established <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>. Representatives of both nations agreed to forfeit their bands’ land in northern Colorado and live on a reservation in eastern Colorado. Despite the treaty, episodes of white-Indigenous violence still occurred, so in September 1864, the Southern Cheyenne leader <strong>Black Kettle</strong>, among others, visited <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to make a peace agreement with territorial governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In late November 1864, a group of several hundred Cheyenne and Arapaho, including Black Kettle’s band, camped at Sand Creek near Fort Lyon, along the boundary of the reservation. Believing themselves to be under the protection of the fort, the men left to hunt <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> one morning and came back to a horrific scene—US troops under Colonel <strong>John Chivington</strong> had attacked the camp, slaughtering at least 230 women, children, and elders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cheyenne and Arapaho retaliated over the next several months, burning ranches and other white settlements, including the town of <strong>Julesburg</strong>. After a lengthy investigation, the US government condemned the Sand Creek Massacre and decided to offer reparations to the afflicted parties in exchange for peace. In addition, with the end of the <strong>Civil War</strong> in 1865, the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado was part of the government’s renewed focus on pacifying the indigenous population of the American West to make way for <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a>, <strong>railroads</strong>, mines, and cities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Meeting on the Little Arkansas</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To accomplish the joint goals of reparations and removal, the United States sent a treaty delegation—led by Colonel Henry Leavenworth and including Colorado notables <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a>—to the banks of the Little Arkansas River, where they arrived on October 4, 1865. There the party waited until several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands arrived on October 11, with their numbers eventually totaling more than 4,000. Among them were Black Kettle’s Cheyenne and <strong>Little Raven</strong>’s Arapaho—both of whom had been at Sand Creek—as well as five other Cheyenne bands and six other Arapaho bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho was concluded on October 14. In addition to calling for an end to hostilities between the parties, the treaty established a small reservation for both Indigenous nations in what is now western Oklahoma. However, the government had already removed other Native peoples to that area and would have to move them again to make space for the newcomers. Until then, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were allowed to “reside upon and range at pleasure throughout … that part of the country they claim as originally theirs, which lies between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> listed at twenty dollars per person for forty years, the Little Arkansas Treaty included reparations for the “gross and wanton outrages” of the Sand Creek Massacre. These included monetary reparations, as well as grants of 640 acres within the old 1861 reservation to members of affected families, including the Bent children and the extended family of <strong>John Prowers</strong> and his Cheyenne wife, <strong>Amache</strong>. The treaty also promised 320-acre grants within the new reservation to the leaders of bands killed at Sand Creek, including Black Kettle, and 160-acre grants to “each other person of said bands made a widow, or who lost a parent,” in the massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho—which was later amended to include a small number of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>—a second treaty was signed with leaders from the Comanche and Kiowa nations on October 18.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The American delegates at the Little Arkansas council were eager to acknowledge and make amends for the tragedy at Sand Creek, but the US government did not follow up on those promises. For one thing, the treaty’s promises to the Indigenous nations, while wholly justified, went beyond what was typical at the time and would incur costs that still had to be approved by the Senate. Samuel Kingman, an American observer at the council, noted that the Cheyenne-Arapaho treaty was “very liberal in its terms to the Indians, probably more so than will be sanctioned by the [S]enate.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, in 1866 Congress appropriated $39,050 to cover the specific reparations outlined in the treaty. It is not known whether this amount would have been sufficient, but it did not matter; instead of issuing that money to the individuals listed in the treaty, the Interior Department gave some of the money to the tribes and, according to a modern legal assessment, “returned the rest” to the Treasury as “surplus.” The promised land grants did not materialize, either. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> of 1867, which the government saw as a replacement for the Little Arkansas Treaty, did not address the missing Sand Creek reparations. By 1869 most of the Cheyenne and Arapaho had left Colorado for their new reservation in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Descendants of the Sand Creek Massacre victims have long sought to reclaim the reparations listed in the Little Arkansas Treaty. Congress considered bills to pay out reparations in 1949, 1957, and 1965, but none passed. In 2013 Homer Flute, Robert Simpson, Jr., and Dorothy Wood—all members of the <strong>Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Trust</strong>—filed a lawsuit against the federal government to recoup the lost reparations. A district court dismissed the case, agreeing with US attorneys who argued that the government was no longer responsible for the reparations. The descendants’ lawyers had argued that a recent law did, in fact, allow their case to be heard, and they appealed to the US Tenth Circuit Court. In 2015, however, the appellate court affirmed the dismissal. In 2016 the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case, resulting in yet another denial of justice for one of the worst atrocities in American history.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-indians" hreflang="en">colorado indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-little-arkansas" hreflang="en">treaty of little arkansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-prowers" hreflang="en">john prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Avalon Project, “<a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/char65.asp">Treaty With the Cheyenne and Arapaho; October 14, 1865</a>,” Yale Law School, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Berry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/government-seeks-to-end-claims-from-1864-s-sand-creek-massacre">Government Seeks to End Claims From 1864’s Sand Creek Massacre</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 10, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>FindLaw, “<a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-10th-circuit/1721456.html">Flute v. United States</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>First People, “<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheComancheAndKiowa1865.html">Treaty With the Comanche and Kiowa, October 18, 1865</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gorski, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/07/11/sand-creek-massacre-descendants-sue-federal-government-for-reparations/">Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Sue Federal Government for Reparations</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kansas State Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kancoll.org/khq/1932/32_5_kingman.htm">Diary of Samuel A. Kingman at Indian Treaty in 1865</a>,” originally published in <em>Kansas Historical Society </em>1, no. 5 (November 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alexander Sokolosky, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1337&amp;context=olr">Rebuilding Trust? The Sand Creek Massacre and the Federal-Tribal Trust Relationship in <em>Flute v. United States</em></a>,” <em>Oklahoma Law Review </em>70, no. 4 (2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>DocsTeach, “<a href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/treaty-of-little-arkansas-river-october-14-1865-ratified-indian-treaties-341-14-stat-703-between-the-us-and-arapahoe-and-cheyenne-indians-black-kettle-band-granting-lands-in-reparation-for-the-sand-cr">Treaty of Little Arkansas River, October 14, 1865 …</a> ,” National Archives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Konnie LeMay, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/what-led-to-the-sand-creek-massacre-check-out-this-timeline">What Led to the Sand Creek Massacre? Check Out This Timeline</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, November 28, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:37:19 +0000 yongli 3266 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sakura Square http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sakura-square <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sakura Square</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3263--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3263.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sakura-square"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/SakuraSquare_0.jpg?itok=YphrIPNo" width="1090" height="886" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sakura-square" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sakura Square</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Officially dedicated in 1973, Sakura Square commemorates the experience of Denver's Japanese community. The square was developed by leaders of the Denver Buddhist Temple and features a Japanese garden, residential and commercial buildings, and statues of important figures in the history of the community, such as the Buddhist Priest Yoshitaka Tamai (pictured).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3294--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3294.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cherry-blossom-festival"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RMN-051-8822_0.jpg?itok=GvpKalaL" width="1000" height="691" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cherry-blossom-festival" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cherry Blossom Festival</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Sakura Square hosts the annual Cherry Blossom Festival, a celebration of Japanese culture that includes musical performances and traditional arts. In this photo, taken at the 2006 festival, attendee Irene Navarro claps along to a taiko drum performance.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T10:03:41-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 10:03" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 10:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sakura-square" data-a2a-title="Sakura Square"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsakura-square&amp;title=Sakura%20Square"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located in the historic heart of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s Japanese community, Sakura Square is bounded by Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer</strong></a> and Lawrence Streets in the Lower Downtown district, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lodo-lower-downtown-denver"><strong>LoDo</strong></a>. The square, named for the Japanese word for “cherry blossom,” was built in the early 1970s as part of an improvement project overseen by the neighboring <strong>Denver Buddhist Temple</strong>. It includes affordable housing, commercial space, and a Japanese garden featuring tributes to important people in Colorado’s Japanese American history. Today, Sakura Square remains a residential and commercial center and offers a quiet retreat in the middle of busy downtown.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Japanese Community in Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Established in 1916, the Buddhist Temple in downtown Denver served as the center for the city’s small community of Japanese Americans. The community grew substantially after <strong>World War II</strong>, from around 800 in 1940 to nearly 5,000 in 1945. In 1942, as Japanese Americans were held in suspicion and forced into federal concentration camps, some 2,000 Japanese Americans relocated to Denver from the West Coast. They hoped to avoid incarceration under Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ralph-carr"><strong>Ralph Carr</strong></a>’s proclamation of sanctuary for Japanese, German, and Italian Americans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war, an additional 2,507 Japanese arrived in the city, recently released from camps across the American West, including Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Amache</strong></a> concentrationcamp. By 1946 there were 258 Japanese businesses in Denver, most of which were on Larimer Street because they were not allowed in other parts of the city.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Sakura Square</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1966 the <strong>Denver Urban Renewal Authority</strong> (DURA) announced plans to demolish older parts of LoDo, including the present-day Sakura Square block. Even though the city’s Japanese community was shrinking as its members moved back to California or out to the suburbs, it still considered the area around the Buddhist Temple to be important and historically significant. The community had a choice: either allow the city to redevelop the area around the temple, or redevelop it themselves. On March 10, 1971, the Tri-State Buddhist Church purchased the property from DURA for $188,800 and began planning Sakura Square.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The plan for Sakura Square included several parts. The main structure would be a twenty-story apartment building, Tamai Tower, which would include 204 apartments and a community room on the top floor. In addition to residential housing, it would include commercial space on the first two floors. Tamai Tower was to be attached to an additional structure that would house a two-story commercial complex. Between these buildings, a large plaza would feature a Japanese garden. The plaza would contain signs in both English and Japanese.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sakura Square was built in two years and dedicated in 1973. It featured affordable housing as well as the planned commercial space. The first businesses in Sakura Square included Pacific Mercantile, Granada Supermarket, Sakura Beauty Salon, Nakai’s Gift Shop, Haws and Company, and two restaurants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Japanese garden, built by the Japanese Gardeners Association, is the square’s centerpiece. Three memorials stand in the garden, each dedicated to individuals important to Colorado’s Japanese community: a bust of Governor Ralph Carr, who ardently supported Japanese rights during WWII internment; a bust of <strong>Minoru Yasui</strong>, a Japanese community leader and civil rights activist; and a statue of <strong>Yoshitaka </strong><strong>Tamai</strong>, a Buddhist priest and community leader.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2014 Sakura Square converted its residential apartments from affordable housing to market-rate housing. Today, Pacific Mercantile is the only original business remaining; new tenants have moved into the other commercial spaces. The Japanese garden continues to offer a quiet retreat as well as a community gathering space.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest event hosted by Sakura Square is the annual Cherry Blossom Festival in June, which draws thousands. The festival celebrates Japanese culture with performances of Japanese drumming, song, dance, and martial arts, as well as the creation of flower arrangements and tree sculptures.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Bill Hosokawa, “Sakura Square,” <em>Colorado’s Japanese Americans</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/japanese-american" hreflang="en">Japanese American</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/japanese-community" hreflang="en">japanese community</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-history" hreflang="en">denver history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sakura-square" hreflang="en">Sakura Square</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/minoru-yasui" hreflang="en">Minoru Yasui</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/world-war-ii" hreflang="en">World War II</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buddhism" hreflang="en">buddhism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buddhist-temple" hreflang="en">buddhist temple</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-street" hreflang="en">Larimer Street</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gil Asakawa, “<a href="https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Resettlement_in_Denver/">Resettlement in Denver</a>,” <em>Densho Encyclopedia</em>, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bill Hosokawa, <em>Colorado’s Japanese Americans, 1886 to the Present </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Japanese American Society of Colorado, “<a href="https://www.jascolorado.org/sakura-square">Sakura Square</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colleen O’Connor, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2012/07/21/japanese-americans-in-denver-hope-to-save-cultural-history/">Japanese Americans in Denver Hope to Save Cultural History</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July, 22, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daryl J. Maeda, “<a href="https://discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2008/1/30/enduring-communities/">Japanese Americans in Colorado</a>,” Discover Nikkei, January 30, 2008.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Taylor Temby, “<a href="https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/local/asian-heritage-month/2015/05/16/asian-heritage-month-sakura-square/27304541/">Asian Heritage Month: Sakura Square’s Revival</a>,” <em>9News, </em>May 15, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Dennis Huspeni, “Aging Sakura Square Faces Challenges,” <em>Denver Business Journal, </em>October 26, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://sakurasquare.com/">Sakura Square</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Wei, <em>Asians in Colorado: A History of Persecution and Perseverance in the Centennial State </em>(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 16:03:41 +0000 yongli 3262 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prowers County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prowers-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prowers-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prowers_County_0.png?itok=vBp1nSCW" width="1024" height="741" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prowers-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Prowers County, named for one of Colorado's prominent early ranchers, is located along the Arkansas River in southeast Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2674--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2674.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prowers-county-google-map"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prowers_County_Google_Map_0.jpg?itok=ubPmMEzf" width="1000" height="1068" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prowers-county-google-map" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County Google Map</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p><span style="color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.87); font-family:roboto,arial,sans-serif">Prowers County is one of the 64 counties in the U.S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,551. The county seat is Lamar.</span></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-15T08:57:22-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 15, 2016 - 08:57" class="datetime">Tue, 11/15/2016 - 08:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prowers-county" data-a2a-title="Prowers County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprowers-county&amp;title=Prowers%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Prowers County covers 1,644 square miles of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley in southeastern Colorado. The rectangular county is bordered to the north by <a href="/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a>, to the east by the state of Kansas, to the south by <a href="/article/baca-county"><strong>Baca County</strong></a>, and to the west by <a href="/search/google/bent%20county"><strong>Bent County</strong></a>. Prowers County has a population of 11,954. More than 7,800 live in the county seat of <strong>Lamar</strong>, in western Prowers County on the south bank of the Arkansas, at the intersection of US Highways 50 and 385. Other communities include <strong>Holly</strong> (pop. 1,048), <strong>Granada</strong> (640), <strong>Wiley</strong> (405), and <strong>Hartman</strong> (110), as well as the smaller unincorporated communities of Bristol, Carlton, and Kornman. In eastern Prowers County, US Highways 50, 400, and 385 converge in Granada, while State Highway 89 runs south from Holly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prowers County was formed in 1889 and named after <strong>John W. Prowers</strong>, an early rancher in the area. Once the hunting and wintering grounds of many nomadic indigenous peoples, the Prowers County area officially became part of the United States in 1803. In the late nineteenth century, the arrival of railroads led to the development of agriculture and towns. In the twentieth century the county became an important center of the<strong> <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry">sugar beet industry</a></strong>, centered on the factory in Holly. During World War II the county was the site of Granada Relocation Center, also known as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Amache</strong></a>, one of ten internment camps that held Japanese American citizens for the duration of the war. Today, Prowers County is one of the most productive agricultural counties in the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Native Americans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s lower Arkansas River valley has a long history of human occupation. The river became the aquatic anchor for nomadic <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a>, <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>-period peoples who followed the massive <strong>bison</strong> herds across the plains. Limited agriculture along the river began during the Formative period (1000 BC–AD 1450) and continued through the arrival of the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> in the seventeenth century. The Jicarilla, or Plains Apache, were a semi-sedentary people who cultivated gardens of corn, beans, and squash along the river banks. <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-1590%E2%80%931790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> trekked into what is now southeastern Colorado in the sixteenth century, but they only made it as far as the Purgatoire River, an Arkansas tributary that meets the main river west of Prowers County.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1720s the <strong>Comanche</strong> used the power of the horse to drive the semi-sedentary Plains Apache from the Arkansas River valley. At this time the Prowers County area was in the heart of an expanding Comanche territory that ran north and south between the Arkansas and <strong>Cimarron</strong> Rivers, and stretched from the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Mountains</strong> in the west to what is today south-central Kansas in the east. The Comanche built their empire, known as <em>Comanchería</em>, on the backs of massive horse herds. They hunted bison and raided or traded with other Indian peoples and the Spanish for grains, weapons, and other supplies. In 1739 two French <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur traders</strong></a>, the brothers Pierre and Paul Mallet, camped in the dense <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> stand near present-day Lamar known as <strong>Big Timbers</strong>. The brothers did some trading with Indians (possibly Jicarilla Apache or Comanche) and spent several days in the area before moving on toward Santa Fé.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Comanche occasionally clashed with the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, another nomadic plains people who arrived north of the Arkansas in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Other native peoples in the Prowers County area by the nineteenth century included the <strong>Kiowa </strong>and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. In 1803, while still under Comanche control, the area was claimed by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early American Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1806 the American explorer <a href="/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> traversed the Prowers County area as he followed the Arkansas River to the site of modern-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>. After 1821 the area was part of the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>, a trade route that linked New Mexico and Missouri. In 1833 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> established a fur–<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> along the trail, about fifty miles west of the current Prowers County line. <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, as the post was known, turned the Arkansas Valley into the hub of the nineteenth-century <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. At Bent’s Fort, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and later Comanche Indians swapped bison hides for weapons and other supplies. The regional fur trade prospered until the mid-1840s, when epidemics and droughts wracked native communities and the buffalo herds began to dwindle. William Bent demolished his fort in 1849 and moved it farther down the Arkansas, where he hoped to continue trading with Native Americans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of white Americans to the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, leading to the development of supply towns such as <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and <strong>Old</strong> <strong>Colorado City</strong>. In 1861 the US government established the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, in which the current area of Prowers County was included as part of a larger <a href="/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano County</strong></a>. That same year the government also brokered the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>, which sought to confine the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a small reservation in eastern Colorado. The reservation included parts of present-day Prowers County. In 1862 the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> offered the Indians’ land to white settlers, who began setting up farms and ranches near the territory’s young cities and along the stagecoach lines that guided immigrants across the plains. In 1867 the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge</strong> <strong>Treaty</strong></a> led to the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to present-day Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1868 John Prowers, a former employee of William Bent, set up a farm in <a href="/article/boggsville"><strong>Boggsville</strong></a>, in present-day Bent County. Prowers went on to serve in the territorial legislature and, after Colorado became a state in 1876, the state legislature. Owing to his commitment to breeding quality cattle stock, Prowers became one of the most successful ranchers in southeast Colorado. In 1861 Prowers married <strong>Amache</strong>, the daughter of the Cheyenne chief <strong>Ochinee</strong>. He began acquiring cattle in 1862, and by 1881 his herd numbered more than 10,000. Prowers expanded his ranch by buying prime grazing land along the Arkansas from the half-Indian children of prominent local whites; the children were awarded the land after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong> </a>in 1864. Prowers died in 1884, but his son, John Jr., continued the family’s ranching business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prowers was far from the only cattleman in the area. <strong>Hiram S. Holly</strong>, owner of several quartz mills in the Rocky Mountains, bought 1,300 cattle and set up his ranch in what is now eastern Prowers County in 1871. To get around the Homestead Act’s 160-acre limit, Holly made deals with cowboys to file for claims on the surrounding land and turn them over to him. By 1881 Holly had thirty miles of waterfront land on the Arkansas and 15,000 head of cattle. The Holly Ranch became a headquarters for employees and local trading, and a community developed around it that would eventually become the town of Holly.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Settlement and Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1873—as the herds of Prowers, Holly, and other ranchers roamed the Arkansas Valley—the <strong>Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé Railroad </strong>(AT&amp;SF) arrived in what is now Prowers County. That year the railroad established Granada, east of the town’s current site, and after a few weeks its population had grown to nearly 375.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The arrival of the railroad brought an end to the days of the cattle drive, as cattle could now be freighted across the country. By the mid-1880s the Arkansas Valley Land Company had acquired the Holly Ranch and expanded it to 2.5 million acres. But huge cattle losses during intense blizzards in the winters of 1885–86 and 1886–87 nearly wiped out the entire cattle industry in southeast Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the railroad had initiated a land rush in the Arkansas Valley, as homesteaders and town builders sought to carve out their piece of what was expected to be a highly productive area. The AT&amp;SF had hoped that Granada would host a land office for the boom, but when Granada’s developers rejected their proposal, the railroad and its partners turned to successful Kansas real estate promoter I. R. Holmes. In 1885 Holmes identified a site for a new land office on the south bank of the Arkansas River, along the AT&amp;SF tracks and between the sprawling Prowers Ranch and the A. R. Black Ranch.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Holmes named the site Lamar, after then-Secretary of the Interior L.Q.C. Lamar. The site’s only problem was that the nearest train station was located on Amos R. Black’s ranch four miles away, and Black would neither allow the station to be moved nor sell the land around it. Holmes and his partners remedied this by tricking Black into boarding a train to Pueblo on the afternoon of May 22, 1886. While Black was gone, a work crew arrived at his station overnight, detached the building from its foundation stones, hauled it back to Lamar, and reinstalled it there. When Black returned, his train stopped at the newly relocated station, and the infuriated rancher had to make his own way home.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of its first week of development, Lamar had a general store and lumber yard, as well as several saloons and land offices. After two months it had more than 100 residences, a restaurant, and a newspaper, the <em>Bent County Register </em>(later renamed the <em>Lamar Register </em>in 1889).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The year 1886 was a busy one for what would become Prowers County. As Lamar developed, the towns of Carlton and New Granada—on the site of present Granada—were founded, and the Wild Horse Creek community, a group of homesteads, was established near present-day Holly. The small community of Bristol built up on a homestead established by George Stabe in 1887. Families also began to develop the land around Lamar. The Wiley area, for example, began as a collection of homesteads north of Lamar in the late 1880s and grew consistently throughout the 1890s. The post office there went through several names, including Martynia and Empire Valley, before it became Wiley in 1907.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the development of Lamar and other towns in southeastern Colorado, it soon became necessary to break up Bent County into smaller counties. In 1889 the state legislature shrank Bent County to its current size, dividing the rest of the land into Prowers, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero</strong></a>, and Kiowa Counties, as well as parts of present <a href="/article/cheyenne-county"><strong>Cheyenne</strong></a> and <a href="/article/lincoln-county"><strong>Lincoln</strong></a> Counties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Lamar Board of Trade sought to ease any concerns about farming in the county in its 1892 pamphlet “Prowers County, Colorado: Its Advantages and Attractions.” Like other booster literature of the day, the pamphlet described its subject in Edenic terms, calling Prowers County’s segment of the Arkansas “the most fertile valley in America” and “the great American garden.” For any reader anxious about finding quality land without adequate water, the pamphlet reassuringly stated that “in this country nearly all the lands have water rights attached.” It also provided a brief overview of the county’s many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches, including Lamar’s Bed Rock canal, the Amity canal, and others.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It is not known whether Salvation Army officials read the Lamar Board of Trade’s pamphlet, but the organization nevertheless had a similarly rosy outlook for Prowers County. As part of its plan to fight poverty by organizing farm colonies for the urban poor, the Salvation Army established Fort Amity, six miles west of Holly, in 1898. Between thirty and thirty-five families made up the colony’s initial residents, and the population expanded over the next decade to include Mexican, Japanese, and Mormon families, as well as several dozen orphans brought from New Jersey in 1901. Eventually, however, the small size of its family farms, along with salty soil caused by improper drainage, brought an end to the colony in 1910.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Holly Sugar Corporation was formed in 1905 and built a beet processing factory on the west end of Holly later that year. The Holly factory, one of several built along the Arkansas in the early twentieth century, helped catapult the valley into the booming <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry">sugar beet industry</a>. Holly’s factory got off to a bit of a rough start, as disgruntled Japanese workers dynamited the building in 1906 a day after they were fired; surprisingly, no injuries were reported, and the company quickly repaired the factory and resumed operation. Initially, Japanese and German-Russian laborers worked the beet fields. As those workers transitioned into farm owners, beet farmers began employing migrant Mexican workers, some of whom made permanent homes in the county.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1910 Prowers County had grown to a population of more than 9,500, and local farmers and ranchers had erased any doubts about the county’s agricultural promise. Nearly 1,000 farms covered more than a million acres, including 5,520 acres of sugar beets, the area’s newest cash crop. The county’s farm property had a cumulative value of more than $13 million. While war and economic troubles loomed ahead, Prowers County residents had built a solid foundation that they hoped would endure throughout the next century and beyond.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth-Century Changes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For most people in eastern Colorado, the 1920s was a prosperous decade, a bountiful run-up to the hardship of the market crash in 1929 and the ensuing <strong>Great Depression</strong>. But for many in southeastern Colorado, the hard times began with a cloudburst in early June 1921. Inundated by heavy rains in the Pueblo area from June 2–5, the Arkansas River surged out of its banks in one of the most devastating <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>floods</strong></a> in Colorado history. While the city of Pueblo bore the brunt of the flood, the deluge continued downriver. The river in Lamar began to rise about 4 am on June 5, destroying buildings, bridges, and farmland. Altogether, the flood killed hundreds of people and caused more than $25 million in damage from Pueblo to the Kansas state line. Rebuilding began almost immediately; by July 1, workers had already repaired the railroad bridge at Lamar, and crews were busy rebuilding the town’s other bridges.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The flood devastated agriculture in the county, as the number of farms dropped from 1,469 in 1920 to 1,194 in 1925. Then, Prowers County was hit hard by the Great Depression and <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> of the 1930s. The number of farms reporting crop failure skyrocketed from just 178 in 1929 to 1,133 in 1934. As banks and farms failed, many residents left to make a new start elsewhere. More than 2,400 people left the county between 1930 and 1940, most of them looking to make a new start elsewhere.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the US government began relocating Japanese Americans, especially those on the West Coast, to inland concentration camps. One of these facilities, the <a href="/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Granada Relocation Center</strong></a>, was built just southwest of Granada in June 1942. The 10,500-acre facility held a peak population of more than 7,500 Japanese American citizens. Initially, detainees’ mail arrived through the Granada post office, but there was so much mail that the center had to create its own post office and name. It was named Amache, after John Prowers’s Cheyenne wife.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Amache residents lived in military-style barracks with rudimentary furnishings and ate together in cafeterias. The camp featured a hospital, schools, churches, men’s and women’s clubs, a movie theater, and other amenities, and detainees were allowed to run their own cooperative businesses that served the camp as well as residents from local communities. In January 1945 the detainment order expired, and most detainees left the facility by October. Amache officially closed on January 27, 1946, after its buildings were auctioned off. The Amache site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 18, 1994. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on February 10, 2006.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the internment of loyal Japanese American citizens demonstrated an ugly side of the World War II era, the revived demand for agricultural products allowed the Prowers County economy to rebound after two dismal decades. The value of all crops grown in the county rose from just over $1 million in 1940 to more than $5.3 million by 1945, and the county population reached an all-time high of 14,836 by 1950.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The decades following World War II saw innovations in agriculture, including machinery and chemicals that allowed for larger yields. Combines, fertilizers, pesticides, and other new farm inputs allowed for larger farms, but they also encouraged the consolidation of farmland by those who could afford those inputs. This trend is reflected in Prowers County, where between 1950 and 1970 the number of farms dropped from 1,126 to 669, and the average farm size increased from 887 acres to 1,379 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economics and politics were not the only forces to re-shape the Prowers County landscape after World War II. On June 18, 1965, the Arkansas flooded again; this time, instead of Pueblo County, Prowers County was the hardest hit, as the deluge killed 6 people, injured 150, and damaged more than 1,300 structures. The National Guard was called in to help rebuild and relieve dislocated families. Afterward, the towns of Holly, Grenada, and Lamar worked with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to upgrade levees on the Arkansas, in hopes of avoiding a similar catastrophe.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In June 2015 the Prowers County Historical Society hosted a Fiftieth Anniversary observance of the 1965 flood, in which survivors shared memories of waking up to torrents of water in homes, crowding into surviving buildings, and watching the currents carry away cars, propane tanks, feed bunkers, and other elements of their livelihood.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Prowers County remains one of Colorado’s most productive agricultural counties. Its herd of more than 102,500 cattle is the sixth-largest out of all counties in the state, and the county is one of the top ten producers of sorghum, poultry and eggs, hogs and pigs, and vegetables (including melons and potatoes). The agricultural trends that began after World War II are still unfolding in Prowers County, as the average farm size increased by 200 acres between 2007 and 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The county also remains prone to natural disasters, including floods, droughts, and damaging storms. The most destructive weather event in recent decades came in March 2007, when a tornado ripped a two-mile swath of destruction through Holly. The storm killed two people, injured eight, and leveled forty-eight buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it is the most important industry, agriculture is not the only job provider in Prowers County. The healthcare and social assistance industry, anchored by Prowers Medical Center in Lamar, provides more than 800 jobs, and the county’s retail industry adds another 650–700.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prowers-county" hreflang="en">prowers county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prowers-county-history" hreflang="en">prowers county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lamar" hreflang="en">Lamar</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southeastern-colorado" hreflang="en">southeastern colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/holly" hreflang="en">Holly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/granada" hreflang="en">granada</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-w-prowers-0" hreflang="en">john w prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hiram-holly" hreflang="en">hiram holly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-beet-industry" hreflang="en">sugar beet industry</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p><a href="https://amache.org/amache-preservation-society/">Amache Preservation Society</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Russ Baldwin, “<a href="https://archives.theprowersjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/BOW-and-Yard-Sale-Combined-7-1-15.pdf">Survivors Recap 1965 Flood at Historical Society Meeting</a>,” <em>The Prowers Journal</em> 5, no. 20 (July 1, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ava Betz, <em>A Prowers County History </em>(Lamar, CO: Big Timbers Museum, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Bowman, “<a href="http://www.coloradoplains.com/otero/history/bent1881_bio39.htm">Hon. John W. Prowers</a>,” Otero County Genealogy and History, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, “<a href="https://www.dhsem.state.co.us:443/sites/default/files/After%20Action%20Report%20Holly%20Tornado%20March%202007.pdf">After Action Report, Holly Tornado</a>,” 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Data USA, “<a href="https://datausa.io/profile/geo/prowers-county-co/">Prowers County, CO</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Edward E. Jones, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0487/report.pdf">The Arkansas River Flood of June 3-5, 1921</a>,” US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lamar Board of Trade, “Prowers County, Colorado: Its Advantages and Attractions” (Lamar, CO: Lamar Board of Trade, 1892).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tommy Schemp, “<a href="https://digarch.unco.edu/islandora/object/cogru%3A1334">Fort Amity: An Experiment in Domiculture</a>” (Master’s thesis, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Prowers County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/censusParts.do?year=1890">Colorado, Contd.</a>,” US Census of Agriculture (1890).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Reports by states with statistics for counties California – D.C.</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 6, Part 1 (1910).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/getVolumeOnePart.do?year=1925&amp;part_id=827&amp;number=41&amp;title=Colorado">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1925).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1934).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1945).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Statistics for the State &amp; Statistics for Counties-Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 29: Wyoming and Colorado (1950).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41, Chapter 2 (1969).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=KCP19210701.2.6&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=--1921---1923--en-20--1--txt-txIN-lamar+flood-------0-">Working on River Bridge at Lamar</a>,” <em>Kiowa County Press</em>, July 1, 1921.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Frederic J. Athearn, <em>Land of Contrast: A History of Southeast Colorado </em>(Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365030024/">"Amache 1-Hour Special,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, June 20, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=YPI19021219.2.41">The Salvation Army in Southeastern Colorado</a>,” <em>Yuma Pioneer</em>, December 19, 1902.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Nov 2016 15:57:22 +0000 yongli 2053 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ralph Carr http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ralph-carr <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ralph Carr</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2958--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2958.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ralph-l-carr"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RalphCarr_0.jpg?itok=kVGhVGzJ" width="745" height="599" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ralph-l-carr" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ralph L. Carr</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ralph L. Carr (1887-1950) served as governor of Colorado from 1938 to 1942. A champion of both American exceptionalism and cultural diversity, Carr opposed blanket persecution of Japanese Americans during World War II. Although he cooperated with federal officials, Carr disagreed with the federal policy of imprisoning Japanese Americans solely because of their ancestry. His support for Japanese Americans ultimately cost him re-election in 1942.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-10-06T16:46:58-06:00" title="Thursday, October 6, 2016 - 16:46" class="datetime">Thu, 10/06/2016 - 16:46</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ralph-carr" data-a2a-title="Ralph Carr"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fralph-carr&amp;title=Ralph%20Carr"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Ralph Lawrence Carr (1887–1950) was governor of Colorado from 1939 to 1943. Carr is remembered for his outspoken criticism of the federal government’s internment of Japanese Americans during <strong>World War II</strong>, even though a regional concentration camp, <a href="/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Amache</strong></a>, operated inside his state’s borders. His anti-internment positions ultimately cost him his job. A statue of Carr now stands in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s <strong>Sakura Square</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Carr’s early life provided him with the moral compass that would guide both his words and actions. The son of a Scotch-Irish miner, Carr was born on December 11, 1887 in <strong>Rosita</strong>, Colorado. He later credited his time in the mining camps with giving him a compassion for those who came from modest circumstances. Carr worked for several Colorado newspapers early in his career. From 1912 to 1913 he managed the <em><strong>Victor</strong> Daily Record</em>; between 1915 and 1917 he edited the <em>Trinidad Evening Picketwire</em>. At the <em>Picketwire</em> he was in competition with rival editor <strong>Lowell Thomas</strong>, the famous news commentator and world traveler, though the pair later became fast friends.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In his writings Carr often mused about what it meant to be an American. He collected others’ writings on the topic as well, sometimes sending copies of the essays to friends and colleagues. In these writings Carr acknowledged that the term “Americanism” was by nature a vague one—he considered Americanism an “indefinite something” that people could define in any number of specific ways. But ever since the founding of the Republic, he insisted, Americans recognized that they lived in a unique place, fundamentally different from the native countries whence many of them had emigrated. Yet, neither he nor anyone else had articulated a clear, universally accepted philosophy of Americanism to explain the difference. Carr also believed in what political theorist Samuel P. Huntington has since called “American Exceptionalism.” As author Jurgen Gebhardt wrote in his 1993 work <em>Americanism</em>, “The United States has no meaning, no identity, no political culture or even history apart from its ideals of liberty and democracy and the continuing efforts of Americans to realize those ideals.” Carr felt it was these principles that impressed themselves on the consciousness of people regardless of their perspective. It was in defense of these principles that Americans were fighting overseas, and it was because of these principles that they would triumph over their enemies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After eventually earning both his undergraduate and law degrees from the <strong>University of Colorado</strong>, Carr worked as an attorney, specializing in <a href="/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> and interstate river law. Later, he served as an assistant attorney general of Colorado, assigned to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> litigation and freight hearings before the Interstate Commerce Commission. Throughout his political career, he opposed federal efforts to usurp state control over water. His most notable achievement as an attorney was successfully representing Colorado in the La Plata water case, which confirmed the right of states to enter into interstate water compacts. He opposed President Franklin Roosevelt’s <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> policies, considering them an encroachment on individual rights.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As a westerner, Carr was especially concerned about the federal government’s proposed Arkansas Valley Authority (AVA). That program, he said, would “divest the states of the power to administer and distribute water flows” and place that power into the hands of the so-called “Regional Authorities.” Indeed, as the <em><strong>Pueblo Chieftain</strong> </em>reported on January 15, 1941, Carr believed that as a result of the AVA, “the whole system of life within those river basins is to be altered and changed to conform to a theory of government which nullifies constitutional rights and leaves individual states stripped of everything but their names.” As far as Carr was concerned, New Deal proponents were pseudo-liberals who were merely offering “political patent medicines” such as the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. Carr stated that, “true liberals were those who consistently follow the proposition that liberty means freedom to exercise individual rights unaffected by external restraint or compulsion.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Political Career</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Success as an assistant attorney general led to Carr’s appointment as United States Attorney for the District of Colorado. Widely known as one of Colorado’s outstanding attorneys, Carr was drafted as the Republican gubernatorial candidate in 1938. He won the governorship and, after rescuing the state from financial insolvency, was reelected in 1940. He won both contests by sizable margins. On the eve of America’s entry into World War II, Carr had earned a reputation as both a fiscal conservative and social progressive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carr spoke fluent Spanish and developed a close bond with the Hispano communities of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, especially <strong>Antonito</strong>, where he helped many with their legal problems. He was also familiar with the small Japanese American community at the town of <strong>La Jara</strong>, about fourteen miles north of Antonito. Carr’s son Robert told the <em><strong>Rocky Mountain News</strong> </em>in 1987 that due to his contact with those Japanese Americans, Carr “couldn’t see [them as] being tools of the emperor of Japan.” It is from this interaction with Colorado’s people of color that Carr most likely developed his appreciation of America’s cultural diversity. In a radio address he delivered three days after the Pearl Harbor attacks, Carr observed that “We cannot test the degree of a man’s affection for his fellows or his devotion to his country by the birthplace of his grandfathers. All Americans had their origins beyond the border of the United States.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>World War II and Internment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Carr was acutely aware that the state’s people of color were often victims of racial prejudice. In 1942 the first Japanese Americans arriving at the Amache concentration camp in Colorado were threatened with violence. Carr confronted the mob and told them: “If you harm them, you must first harm me. I was brought up in small towns where I knew the shame and dishonor of race hatred. I grew up to despise it because it threatened the happiness of you, and you, and you.” Carr merely remembered what many others had forgotten: that Japanese Americans were Americans and should be treated as such. He steadfastly refused to condemn the entire ethnic group as others were doing. As early as January 1942—just a month after the Pearl Harbor attack—Carr published a statement in the <em>Pacific Citizen</em>, the official newspaper of the Japanese American Citizens League, expressing sympathy for their plight. “We have come to a time that tries men’s souls,” he wrote. “There is no place here for the man who thinks that his people or those who speak his language are in turn entitled to preference over any others.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Unfortunately for Japanese Americans, President Franklin Roosevelt was one of those who forgot (or, more likely, chose to ignore) that they were Americans. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the forced evacuation of tens of thousands of men, women, and children of Japanese descent from the West Coast and depriving them of their fundamental civil liberties. Roosevelt’s order established military zones along the West Coast and allowed Lieutenant General DeWitt to proceed with the mass evacuation of “all persons of Japanese ancestry” for the spurious reason of “military necessity.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 29, Carr publicly declared that Colorado was willing to provide temporary quarters for German, Italian, and Japanese evacuees from the West Coast. Knowing of intense antagonism toward the evacuees, he admonished Coloradans against engaging in “hysterical attacks or assaults” against them. Carr pointed out that “they are as loyal to American institutions as you and I.” Sadly, everywhere the Japanese Americans went they encountered hostility or indifference from government officials who were supposed to protect them from the mob violence of their fellow Americans. Many gave up on the move and returned to the West Coast, only to be forcibly interned in concentration camps a few months later.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On April 7, 1942, in Salt Lake City, the War Relocation Authority held a meeting of governors and other officials from the western states to seek their cooperation in the relocation and resettlement of the Japanese Americans. Carr alone was willing to cooperate. As he wrote to Mrs. Sam Rankin on April 30, he felt that it was “the American thing . . . the patriotic thing . . . the decent thing . . . to do.” His decision engendered a firestorm of protest. Carr tried to put out these fires, crisscrossing Colorado to talk about his decision with anyone willing to listen. He described his efforts in a letter to a friend, Mrs. Byrd R. Fuqua of Nathrop, the same day:</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“I am talking the Japanese thing wherever I can and whenever I do, I think they get on my side. Unfortunately, I have other things to do which are more important than this rather trifling matter. If people of Colorado don’t want the brand of governing I’ve been giving them, they are going to have to get somebody else who agrees with them . . . I think it’s my duty to direct public opinion rather than to follow it when it’s wrong, simply to be popular.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ultimately, more than 120,000 persons of Japanese descent were incarcerated in concentration camps in some of the most desolate places in the United States. In southeastern Colorado, government officials set up the Granada Relocation Center, known as “Amache.” Jack Cranberry wrote in <em>The</em> <em>Denver Post</em> on February 15, 1943, that Amache was as “bleak a spot as one can find on the western plains . . . rattlesnake country where sage brush finds it difficult to take root, and where the despised Russian thistle withers for lack of moisture.” On August 29, 1942, the first contingent of about 200 Japanese Americans arrived in that forbidding place. Eventually, around 7,500 of them were relocated to Amache. Having committed no crimes, Japanese Americans were imprisoned without the benefit of a trial, found guilty because of their race.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carr saw the clamor for interning the Japanese Americans for what it was—an act of racial intolerance. Even after Roosevelt had succumbed to public hysteria and signed Executive Order 9066, Carr recognized that Japanese Americans, as well as German and Italian Americans, were entitled to equal protection under the law. “It is not fair,” he argued, “to segregate the people from one or two or three nations and to brand them as unpatriotic or disloyal.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ironically, while Carr remained ambivalent about the questionable orders of the president and military authorities, he would follow them for the same reasons that he defended Japanese Americans—patriotism and Americanism. Carr’s political opponents used his stand on behalf of Japanese Americans as an opportunity to denounce him and garner support for themselves. In communities such as <strong>Cañon City</strong> and <strong>Poncha Springs</strong>, local Democrats accused him of inviting the Japanese to Colorado in order to gain their votes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Career and Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In late 1942, much to his supporters’ surprise, Carr lost his electoral bid to replace his archrival, <strong>Edwin “Big Ed” Johnson</strong>, in the United States Senate. His loss occurred in an election in which Colorado voters favored Republicans overall. It was one of the closest senatorial races in Colorado’s history, with Carr losing by a measly 3,700 votes out of 375,000. From Carr’s perspective, his defeat was a minor event compared to the major electoral victory of the state and national Republican parties. Carr took this victory as a sign that the nation was returning to constitutionalism and Americanism.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In many ways, Carr was the quintessential American, embodying the spirit of individualism and dissent that gave birth to the country. In the name of liberty and justice and to the detriment of his personal ambitions, he stood by the Japanese American community in opposition to a fearful and angry public who wanted nothing to do with them. With that stance, he defended the Constitution and the democratic principles it embodies. Ralph Carr died on September 22, 1950 in Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from William Wei, “‘Simply a Question of Patriotism’: Governor Ralph L. Carr and the Japanese Americans,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 22, no. 1 (2002).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/governor-carr" hreflang="en">Governor Carr</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ralph" hreflang="en">Ralph</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/carr" hreflang="en">Carr</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ralph-carr" hreflang="en">Ralph Carr</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/governor" hreflang="en">Governor</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/japanese-americans" hreflang="en">Japanese Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/japanese-internment" hreflang="en">Japanese Internment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. E. Duncan, <em>Ralph Carr: Defender of Japanese Americans</em> (Palmer Lake, CO: Filter Press, LLC, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Harvey, <em>Amache: The Story of Japanese Internment in Colorado During World War II</em> (Dallas, TX: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365030024/">"Amache 1-Hour Special,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, June 20, 2013.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 06 Oct 2016 22:46:58 +0000 yongli 1930 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org