%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Rocky Mountains http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountains</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3278--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3278.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/view-rocky-mountains-mt-evans"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_20160703_145640005_HDR_0.jpg?itok=o1IsLImv" width="1090" height="613" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/view-rocky-mountains-mt-evans" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">View of Rocky Mountains from Mt. Evans</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado's central <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, as seen from the top of <strong>Mt. Evans</strong> (14,265 feet).</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3259--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3259.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/1920px-Colorado_geographic_map-en.svg__0.png?itok=yTWgYF2l" width="1090" height="929" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"> Mountain ranges of the Colorado Rockies</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3038--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3038.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buffalo-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Steamboat_20180916_0001_0.jpg?itok=0iouP0XA" width="1090" height="728" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buffalo-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buffalo Pass </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This approximately 15-mile stretch of scenic dirt road crosses the diverse habitats within the Park Range of the Rocky Mountains. It rises from sagebrush and gamble oak habitat to lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and spruce-fir dominated forests. The elevation ranges from 6,700 feet in Steamboat Springs to 10,400 feet at Summit Lake Camp Ground. This road offers spectacular views of the Yampa and North Park valleys below, multiple alpine lakes within walking distance, access to the Mount Zirkel Wilderness, multiple disperse camping sites and Summit Lake Campground with restroom facilities. Additionally, there are numerous hiking, horseback and motorized vehicle trails to suite a range of outdoor activity needs.</p> <p><a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/regions/Rocky_Mountain/BuffaloPass/index.shtml">Source: USDA Forest Service - Rocky Mountain Region Viewing Area Buffalo Pass</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1252--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1252.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/i-70-near-genesee-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/I-70_GeneseePark_0_0.jpg?itok=QSEnWazP" width="1090" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/i-70-near-genesee-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">I-70 near Genesee Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The construction of Interstate 70 across Colorado's Rocky Mountains was one of the greatest engineering feats in US history and was essential to the growth of tourism in the high country.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-08T16:18:06-06:00" title="Monday, June 8, 2020 - 16:18" class="datetime">Mon, 06/08/2020 - 16:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains" data-a2a-title="Rocky Mountains"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Frocky-mountains&amp;title=Rocky%20Mountains"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Colorado Rocky Mountains are the highest portion of the 1,900-mile Rocky Mountain chain that stretches from northern British Columbia, Canada, to southern New Mexico. Colorado contains 78 of the 100 highest peaks in the chain, including the 30 tallest. The mountains are the state’s iconic feature and the primary attraction for the 82.4 million people who visited in 2017. Those visitors spent a record $19.7 billion and placed Colorado ninth on the list of tourist-attracting states.</p><div style="left:-37845960385px;position:absolute;"><p>The Rocky Mountains in Colorado, with their breathtaking scenery and outdoor recreational opportunities, are a magnet for tourists from around the world. Among these visitors are a growing number of online casino enthusiasts seeking both adventure and entertainment. Nestled amidst the majestic peaks and lush forests, online casino players find a unique blend of excitement and relaxation. After a day of hiking or skiing, they retreat to their accommodations, where they can indulge in the thrill of online gambling at casinos, about which you can find more when you <a href="https://gamblingorb-gr.com/kazino-me-pragmatika-chrimata/betriot/">read review here</a>. With a simple click of a button, they can access a virtual world of slot machines, poker tables, and roulette wheels, all from the comfort of their mountain retreat. The allure of the Rocky Mountains extends beyond its natural beauty; it offers a perfect backdrop for online casino enthusiasts to immerse themselves in their favorite games. Whether it's the adrenaline rush of a high-stakes bet or the anticipation of hitting the jackpot, the mountains provide an ideal setting for players to experience the excitement of online gambling.</p></div><p>The Colorado Rockies are spread across several distinct ranges, the main ones being the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front</strong></a>, <strong>Sawatch</strong>, <strong>Park-Gore</strong>, <strong>Mosquito-Tenmile</strong>, <strong>Sangre de Cristo</strong>, <strong>Wet</strong>, <strong>Elk, White River</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan</strong></a> Ranges. At 14,440 feet,<strong> Mount Elbert</strong>, in the Sawatch Range, is the highest peak in both the state and the Rockies. Most mountain ranges rise along plate tectonic boundaries and are supported by an unusually thick crust called a crustal root; however, Colorado’s Rockies are unique because they formed far from plate boundaries and lack a crustal root.</p><h2>Colorado Before the Rockies</h2><p>Geologists use the term <em>orogeny</em> to refer to mountain-building episodes. The terrain that includes northern Colorado was added to the North American continent about 1.7 billion years ago during a continental collision called the Yavapai Orogeny. The state’s southern part was added in a similar collision, the Mazatzal Orogeny, about 100 million years later. Between the welding of Colorado to North America and the rise of today’s Rockies, two important geologic events occurred: the building of the <strong>Ancestral Rocky Mountains</strong> about 300 million years ago and the submergence of Colorado beneath the <strong>Western Interior Seaway</strong> between about 100 million and 70 million years ago.</p><div style="display:none;">In the midst of the breathtaking Rocky Mountains, Canadian gambling enthusiasts have some unexpected news: a $5 deposit casino. Just as the Rocky Mountains rise majestically, stretching from the northern reaches of western Canada to the rugged terrain of New Mexico, so do these innovative gaming platforms span the entire digital landscape, offering affordable and accessible entertainment to players across the region. Just like the diverse landscapes of the Rocky Mountains, from dense forests to towering peaks, <a href="https://realcasinoscanada.com/5-minimum-deposit-casinos">5$ deposit casino Canada</a> offer a wide range of gaming options to suit every taste and budget. Whether players are looking for the thrill of spinning the reels on slot machines or the strategic challenge of table games like blackjack and roulette, these casinos provide an exciting and entertaining experience for everyone. Set against the backdrop of the spectacular Rocky Mountains, these digital gaming platforms are a testament to the ingenuity and innovation of the Canadian gaming industry, inviting players to embark on an exciting adventure where the stakes are high and the rewards are endless.</div><p>The Ancestral Rockies consisted of two main mountain ranges. One, known to geologists as Uncompahgria, stood approximately where today’s <strong>Uncompahgre Plateau</strong> rises in western Colorado. The other, Frontrangia, stood in the same place as today’s Front Range. Whereas today’s Rocky Mountains rise above the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and Colorado Plateau, Uncompahgria and Frontrangia were mountainous islands that rose from a tropical sea, as Colorado then stood near the equator. Rock eroded from the ranges was deposited along the islands’ coasts and filled the shallow sea in between, where today’s Elk and Sawatch Ranges stand. These layers of conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone rock form much of the state’s most iconic scenery, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>’s <strong>Flatirons</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/red-rocks-park-and-amphitheatre"><strong>Red Rocks Amphitheater</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/roxborough-state-park-archaeological-district"><strong>Roxborough State Park</strong></a>, Balanced Rock at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>’ <strong>Garden of the Gods</strong>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>’s <strong>Maroon Bells</strong>.</p><p>By 150 million years ago, the Ancestral Rockies were eroded down to sea level, and the state was a vast, low-elevation plain reminiscent of Mississippi and Louisiana today. Lazy, meandering rivers that crossed the plain deposited shale and sandstone that make up today’s <strong>Morrison Formation</strong>, which is famous for its rich trove of dinosaur fossils. Many famous Jurassic dinosaur species, including Stegosaurus and Apatosaurus, were first discovered in Colorado’s Morrison Formation.</p><p>About 100 million years ago, the sea level rose, submerging the North American mid-continent. Rivers and erosion from the surrounding land deposited beach sand in Colorado along the flanks of the Western Interior Seaway. Later burial and cementation of that beach sand formed the erosion-resistant <strong>Dakota Sandstone</strong>, which forms an important petroleum reservoir in the <strong>Denver Basin</strong>, one of the nation’s most productive petroleum provinces.</p><p>Colorado continued to sink for roughly the next 30 million years, eventually falling below sea level. The marine mud that accumulated in that shallow sea composes several important rock formations, the thickest being the <strong>Pierre Shale</strong>, which exceeds 8,500 feet thick north of Boulder, and its western Colorado equivalent, the <strong>Mancos Shale</strong>. These shale units contain swelling clay, which presents a major engineering challenge because its movement cracks foundations and heaves pavement.</p><p>As the seaway drained from the state between 70 million and 68 million years ago, it left behind beach sand. The <strong>Fox Hills Sandstone</strong> records the last time Colorado stood at sea level. During the rise of the modern Rocky Mountains, the Fox Hills Sandstone and all older rock layers were tilted down eastward east of the Rockies and down westward west of the mountains. The soft Pierre and Mancos Shale eroded away quickly, as did the equally soft Morrison Formation. That left the erosion-resistant Dakota Sandstone, which was sandwiched in between, to stand as a prominent hogback that marks the foot of the Rocky Mountains. East of the Rockies it forms the famous Dakota Hogback. A roadcut through the hogback marks where <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> enters the Rockies near <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a> and impressive dinosaur footprints cover the Dakota Sandstone at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dinosaur-ridge"><strong>Dinosaur Ridge</strong></a>, just south of the cut. West of the Rockies, the Dakota Sandstone and adjacent rock layers form the <strong>Grand Hogback</strong>, a dramatic ridge that runs south-southeast from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a> to <strong>New Castle</strong>.</p><p>While the Rocky Mountains of Colorado boast of their natural majesty, Canadian online casinos offer an equally thrilling experience with an attractive offer: 150 free spins for just $1 <a style="color:#494354;" href="https://casinosters.ca/150-free-spins-for-1/">click here</a>. Traveling through the virtual landscape of slot machines and blackjack tables, players can admire the geological wonders that stretch from northern British Columbia to southern New Mexico. The allure of the Rocky Mountains mirrors the excitement of the spinning reels - both promise an unprecedented adventure. In our digital age, borders blur as seamlessly as the horizon stretching across the Rocky Mountains. The combination of Canadian online gaming and the rugged beauty of the Rockies symbolizes the fusion of modern convenience and timeless majesty. As players engage in their gaming adventures, they are reminded of the vast expanse of the Rocky Mountain chain, where peaks pierce the sky and valleys whisper stories of ancient civilizations. The offer of 150 free spins for $1 serves as a gateway to exploration, whether it's conquering virtual mountain peaks or traveling through the breathtaking landscapes that define the heart of North America.</p><h2>Raising the Rockies</h2><p>The rock layers that accumulated in the Western Interior Seaway allow geologists to confidently reconstruct the state’s pre–Rocky Mountain history, but the modern Rockies offer little such evidence. Experts continue to disagree about how and when today’s mountains were built. Three attributes make the Colorado Rockies one of the world’s most puzzling mountain ranges: first, they stand far from a tectonic plate boundary; second, they lack a crustal root; and third, the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau stand high above sea level despite experiencing minimal folding and faulting. The presence of these high provinces next to the Rockies is unique among world mountain ranges.</p><p>Despite these difficulties, geologists agree that a mountain-building event known as the Laramide Orogeny, which occurred between about 70 million and 45 million years ago, raised Colorado’s mountain ranges. Most also agree that a second, later uplift must have occurred. When and why that second uplift happened are still debated.</p><p>Almost all modern Colorado mountain ranges have <em>thrust faults</em> at their bases. Thrust faults occur when the crust is compressed, which happens when tectonic plates converge. Movement on a thrust fault stacks one slab of rock atop another. That stacking forms mountains. During the Laramide Orogeny, a plate consisting of oceanic material was converging with continental North America off the coast of California. Geologists call such oceanic-continental convergences <em>subduction</em> zones; the plate that possesses oceanic crust is denser than the continental plate, so it dives, or <em>subducts</em>, deep into Earth’s mantle (the layer below the Earth’s crust).</p><p>Normally mountain ranges rise next to subduction zones, but the oceanic plate’s angle of descent dictates exactly how far from the plate boundary compression will be felt. Before 80 million years ago, the oceanic plate converging with continental North America descended at a “normal” angle of about 40–50 degrees. That angle caused compression near the plate boundary, which formed California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. But after 80 million years ago, the plate’s descent angle became nearly flat, explaining why volcanoes in the Sierra Nevada went extinct just before the start of thrust-fault activity in Colorado.</p><h2>Explaining the Second Uplift</h2><p>Flat-slab subduction can explain why Colorado’s mountains rose far from a plate boundary, but it doesn’t explain the range’s lack of a crustal root or the high elevation of the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau. The best explanation for those attributes is that the mantle beneath the Rockies is unusually warm. When Colorado’s deep mantle warmed, it expanded and pushed up the overlying crust, lifting the Colorado Rockies as well as the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau. That warm mantle is also the reason Colorado has so many hot springs.</p><p>Geophysicist Gordon Eaton has called this heat-induced swelling the Alvarado Ridge. The Great Plains and the Colorado Plateau form the eastern and western parts of the Alvarado Ridge, respectively. The older Laramide Rocky Mountains sit atop the ridge, which explains why Colorado’s mountains are so much higher than the rest of the Rocky Mountain chain.</p><h2>When Did the Mantle Warm Up?</h2><p>While geophysicists have documented the warmth of the mantle beneath the Colorado Rockies, they have been unable to deduce <em>when</em> the mantle warmed up. The when and the why of that mantle heating and the associated second uplift event are the subject of current disagreement and research.</p><p>About 38 million years ago, soon after the Laramide Orogeny ended, Colorado erupted in a volcanic episode of giant proportions that lasted until about 24 million years ago; geologists call this episode the Ignimbrite Flare-up. The biggest single volcano ever identified on Earth, the <strong>La Garita Caldera</strong>, is found in Colorado’s San Juan Mountains. It is one of fifteen giant caldera volcanoes in the San Juans, and more big Ignimbrite Flare-up volcanoes or their eroded remnants form peaks in the Elk, West Elk, Sawatch, and Front Ranges. Geologists are not sure what caused this massive volcanic event, but one idea is that the subducting plate that triggered the Laramide Orogeny’s thrust faults also delivered water to Colorado’s subsurface mantle. The addition of water lowers the rock’s melting temperature, which could explain the volcanic activity Regardless, it is clear that a lot of heat would be necessary to produce such large magma volumes; therefore, many geologists believe the mantle warm-up and raising of the Alvarado Ridge occurred about 38–24 million years ago, in conjunction with the Ignimbrite Flare-up.</p><p>Later activity also helps explain the raising of the Alvarado Ridge. About 28 million years ago, just as the Ignimbrite Flare-up was winding down, the Colorado Rockies were stretched and split along the north-south trending <strong>Rio Grande Rift</strong>. The upper <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley, from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>, lies along this rift, as does the <strong>Rio Grande River</strong>’s southward path along the axis of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. The Rio Grande Rift’s crustal stretching is similar to the stretching that formed today’s famous East African Rift Valley. Such stretching thins the crust, bringing hot mantle closer to the surface, which in turn causes thermal expansion and associated surface uplift. For that reason, many geologists think the Alvarado Ridge rose about 28 million years ago, simultaneous with formation of the Rio Grande Rift.</p><p>Other geologists hypothesize that today’s Colorado Rockies rose to their current height within the last 5 million years. Their primary evidence is that before 5 million years ago, sand and gravel were accumulating across the western Great Plains, producing the Ogallala Formation, the rock unit that forms the important <strong>Ogallala Aquifer</strong>. Sometime after 5 million years ago, the Ogallala Formation was tilted up to the west and the Arkansas and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> Rivers began to erode it. Both the tilting and the erosion might indicate that the Alvarado Ridge rose in the more recent geological past.</p><h2>The Rockies During the Pleistocene Ice Age</h2><p>The modern Rockies might have risen 40, 28, or 5 million years ago. Whenever it was, the newly risen mountains were almost certainly gently rolling uplands; they lacked the steep cliffs and spectacular, deep valleys that make today’s mountains so impressive. The mountains did not achieve their current grandeur until big glaciers sculpted them during the Pleistocene Ice Ages, which began about 2.5 million years ago.</p><p>Periodic changes in Earth’s orbit, called the Milankovitch Cycles, govern the amount of radiation we receive from the sun. About every 100,000 years, the planet cools by about 5 degrees Celsius, which is enough to cause large glaciers to form. Those glacial intervals alternate with interglacial intervals, when the Earth receives more sunlight and the glaciers melt away. The Earth has been in an interglacial interval for about the last 10,000 years, and the peak of the most recent glacial interval was about 20,000 years agowere. Colorado’s mountains were covered by ice caps, and glaciers stretched as long as thirty-five miles down mountain valleys.&nbsp;</p><p>The scouring action of those glaciers deepened the valleys and steepened the ridges and mountain faces, turning the formerly rolling upland into today’s rugged landscape. Calling cards of Colorado’s past glaciers include U-shaped mountain valleys, such as the box canyon where <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> sits, as well as chains of alpine lakes and the craggy nature of many alpine ridges and peaks. Without the combination of the Laramide Orogeny, the post-Laramide uplift of the Alvarado Ridge, and the sculpting action of the Pleistocene glaciers, Colorado would not boast the mountain landscape that brings pleasure to so many locals and visitors today.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/abbott-lon" hreflang="und">Abbott, Lon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formation-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">formation of rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mountains" hreflang="en">mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-mountains" hreflang="en">colorado mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">colorado rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geography" hreflang="en">Geography</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hot-springs" hreflang="en">hot springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/red-rocks" hreflang="en">Red Rocks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morrison-formation" hreflang="en">Morrison Formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dakota-sandstone" hreflang="en">Dakota sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ogallala-aquifer" hreflang="en">ogallala aquifer</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Lon Abbott and Terri Cook, <em>Geology Underfoot Along Colorado’s Front Range</em> (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 2012).</p><p>Gordon Eaton, “Epeirogeny in the Southern Rocky Mountains: Evidence and Origin,” <em>Geosphere</em> 4 (2008).</p><p>Eugene Humphreys et al., “How Laramide-Age Hydration of North American Lithosphere by the Farallon Slab Controlled Subsequent Activity in the Western United States,” <em>International Geology Review </em>45 (2003).</p><p>Margaret McMillan, Chris Angevine, and Paul Heller, “Postdepositional Tilt of the Miocene-Pliocene Ogallala Group on the Western Great Plains: Evidence of Late Cenozoic Uplift of the Rocky Mountains,” <em>Geology</em> 30 (2002).</p><p>Peter Molnar and Phillip England, “Late Cenozoic Uplift of Mountain Ranges and Global Climate Change: Chicken or Egg?” <em>Nature</em> 346 (1990).</p><p>Donald Trimble, “Cenozoic Tectonic History of the Great Plains Contrasted With That of the Southern Rocky Mountains: A Synthesis,” <em>Mountain Geologist</em> 17 (1980).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.cliffshade.com/colorado/index.htm">Colorado Geology Photojournals</a>.</p><p><a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/geology/">Colorado Geological Survey</a>.</p><p><a href="https://igp.colorado.edu/library/">Interactive Geology Project</a>.</p><p>Vincent Matthews,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22Messages%20in%20Stone:%20Colorado%E2%80%99s%20Colorful%20Geology,%22"><em>Messages in Stone: Colorado’s Colorful Geology</em></a>, 2nd ed. (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2009).</p><p>John McPhee, <em>Rising From the Plains</em> (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Jun 2020 22:18:06 +0000 yongli 3258 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Geology http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Geology</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--937--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--937.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/roxborough-state-park-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Roxborough-State-Park-Colorado-John-Fielder_0.jpg?itok=sZ9KrS1q" width="1090" height="852" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/roxborough-state-park-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Roxborough State Park, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Much of Colorado was once covered by an ancient seafloor. The vertical red rocks at places like <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/roxborough-state-park-archaeological-district"><strong>Roxborough State Park</strong></a>, west of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, or the Flatirons west of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, are dramatic remnants of that seafloor, pushed up along with the rest of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> some 65 million years ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-24T14:26:50-06:00" title="Friday, June 24, 2016 - 14:26" class="datetime">Fri, 06/24/2016 - 14:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology" data-a2a-title="Colorado Geology"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-geology&amp;title=Colorado%20Geology"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Earth beneath the rugged mountains and serene plains of Colorado records an ancient saga. Broad tropical seas teemed with life, while reptiles roamed on shore. Continents converged and collided, building massive mountains, only to be torn apart by the movements of colossal tectonic plates. Volcanoes raged, and scalding fluids carrying dissolved metals churned through fissures to make future riches. A huge lake ebbed and flowed, linked to the fortunes of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glaciers</strong></a>, and fields of towering sand dunes grew against walls of new mountains. Even today, in the paper-thin history of civilization, rocks and saturated soils rush downhill to remind us that we live on a restless, dynamic Earth.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tropical Seas and Pangaea</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Late in the Paleozoic Era, some 300 million years ago, when the Ancestral <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> were being worn by weather to low hills, warm inland seas covered parts of Colorado. Life forms very different from those of today swam and flourished in the waters. Fossil records of those life forms are contained in layers of mudstone and limestone.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the end of the Paleozoic Era, the restless continental plates collided again to create the supercontinent Pangaea. As the land rose and a Sahara-like desert of enormous proportions covered the continent, the interior seas retreated. But as large as Pangaea was, it too eventually began to be torn apart by the powerful tectonic forces that made it, and the seas returned. Life on land left distinctive marks, most famously the dinosaur footprints and fossil remains throughout the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Pangaea fragmented, a breakaway piece called Laurentia drifted westward and a series of collisions with other, smaller continental pieces gave rise to the present-day Rocky Mountains. This phoenix-like rebirth of the Rockies started between 60 and 70 million years ago, during a mountain-building event called the Laramide Orogeny. As the peaks rose, they were eroded by wind, water, and ice. Wind and water carried the material eroded from the mountains, covering the area we now call the<a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong> Great Plains</strong></a>. The rise of the Rockies continues today. The sedimentary rocks that formed the floor of the warm inland seas were warped upward against the new mountains, leaving huge triangular cliff facets, locally known as flatirons. From high viewpoints, it is easy to imagine the mountains pushing the flat-lying rocks upward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Creation of Ore Deposits</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the tectonic plates jostled and collided, some were pushed deeper into the Earth, where they melted. The newly formed liquid rock burned upward to escape back to the surface, where it created volcanoes and lava fields. The mountains of south-central Colorado host the remains of an enormous ancient supervolcano, one that produced the largest single eruption known in the Earth’s entire geologic history. The single eruption rained volcanic material so fast that the thickly falling layers retained enough heat to weld back into solid rock. The molten material was mixed with gases, and during the eruption, the gigantic cavern below the volcano collapsed back on itself, creating a deep, wide crater approximately one mile deep.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This supervolcano is named the La Garita Caldera, after a town on the west side of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. The La Garita Caldera is only one of twenty-plus smaller but similar calderas throughout the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. The calderas have local names, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, <a href="/article/lake-city-0"><strong>Lake City</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/creede"><strong>Creede</strong></a> calderas. The calderas are deceptively nestled together in the mountains, with the remnants of their circular outlines hinting at a violent history 25 million years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The destructive eruptions of the volcanoes gave rise to a important facet of Colorado’s history: its vast mineral wealth, which lured a stampede of miners in the mid-nineteenth century. The molten rock beneath the volcanoes often gave rise to superhot and metal-rich waters that pushed for miles outward into cracks and fissures. The invading hot waters dissolved and reacted with the surrounding rocks to make rich ore deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and many other metal-bearing minerals throughout the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Great Sand Dunes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>About 500,000 years ago—not so long ago in geologic time—the San Luis Valley of south-central Colorado was underwater. Lake Alamosa covered much of the valley, in a cycle of filling and drying as glaciers melted and grew again through many ice ages. Former shorelines, bays, and lagoons are still visible in the southern part of the valley, rimming what was once a body of water nearly 2,000 square miles on the surface and perhaps as deep as 200 feet over the present-day city of Alamosa. As the lake bottom filled with sediments and soils, and again with water, the lake’s surface eventually overflowed a natural dam and cut a deep channel that is now part of the Rio Grande Gorge.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The tallest dune field in the United States lies to the east of ancient Lake Alamosa, protected in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-sand-dunes-national-park-and-preserve"><strong>Great Sand Dunes National Park</strong></a>. The dunes are believed to have formed after Lake Alamosa drained and prevailing winds blew much of the sand up and out of the lakebed to rest against the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Range</strong>. Today, visitors to the park climb, play, and enjoy what glaciers, winds, and water brought to a pocket in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Plateaus of Western Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To the west of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado is a region called the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. Remnants of ancient seas are also present. These ancient-sea sedimentary rocks are warped upwards in some areas with flatiron forms similar to the ones on the Eastern Slope. Where the rocks are still flat-lying, there is often a cap of younger lava, a dark-colored rock called basalt that resists weathering and erosion. The basalt creates a protective cap over the softer underlying rocks, forming distinctive flat-topped hills called mesas (Spanish for “tables”). The largest of these mesas is <strong>Grand Mesa</strong> just east of <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>. The mesas are often dotted with small lakes and covered with trees, providing important surface and groundwater reservoirs. Hardened sandstones also cap softer rocks in some areas, forming dramatic pillar shapes, explained by some as supernatural. In formations such as the Book Cliffs north of Grand Junction, massive cliffs tower like toppled tomes, with durable mesa covers binding pages of the Earth’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Movements</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The geologic forces that were active in the past are still active today. In the nineteenth century, tumbling rocks and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a> often blocked or destroyed stretches of railroad track and hampered railroad construction. Modern Coloradans were grimly reminded of the state’s geologic hazards in May 2014, when a thick rock-and-debris <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> tumbled down from a high mesa in western Colorado for nearly three miles at speeds between 45 and 85 miles per hour. Three men died in the avalanche, which occurred after a period of significant rainfall saturated sediments that had been deposited millions of years earlier. The sediments had been exposed by the downward-cutting streams and rivers that carved the modern valley the avalanche rushed into. Another reminder of the precarious interplay between geology and infrastructure occurred on February 15, 2016, when a rock slide in <strong>Glenwood Canyon</strong> in <a href="/article/garfield-county"><strong>Garfield County</strong></a> forced the closure of twenty-four miles of <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> for about a week.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Reflections</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Crossing the plains into Colorado from its eastern neighbors, it is easy to imagine the land once being the bottom of an ancient sea. Looking north and south, where the peaks spike upward from the flatlands, the immense movement of mountains seems impossible, as do the threats of lightning-filled, ash-laden volcanic clouds from millions of years ago. Continuing westward through spectacular canyons, it is hard to fathom that a small shrug of a restless Earth could change the course of a river in a flash. But pause and try to envision the dynamic processes that shaped the land, and that checkered saga will come alive.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/benson-robert" hreflang="und">Benson, Robert</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formation-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">formation of rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fossils" hreflang="en">fossils</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ore-deposits" hreflang="en">ore deposits</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plateau" hreflang="en">colorado plateau</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canyons" hreflang="en">canyons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-mesa" hreflang="en">grand mesa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/western-slope" hreflang="en">Western Slope</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Chuck Hickey, “<a href="https://kdvr.com/news/one-lane-of-both-decks-of-i-70-in-glenwood-canyon-reopens-after-rock-slide/">One Lane on Both Decks of I-70 in Glenwood Canyon Reopens After Rock Slide</a>,” KDVR, March 10, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael N. Machette, Mary-Margaret Coates, and Margo L. Johnson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1193/">2007 Rocky Mountain Section Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip—Quaternary Geology of the San Luis Basin of Colorado and New Mexico, September 7–9</a>,”<em> US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1193 </em>(September 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. F. Madole, J. H. Romig, J. N. Aleinikoff, D. P. VanSistine, and E. Y. Yacob, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/grsa/learn/nature/upload/madole_geology_article-2.pdf">On the Origin and Age of the Great Sand Dunes, Colorado</a>,” <em>Geomorphology</em> 99 (October 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vincent Matthews: <em>Messages in Stone: Colorado’s Colorful Geology,</em> 2nd ed. (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan L. White, Matthew L. Morgan, Karen A. Berry, “<a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/publications/west-salt-creek-landslide-catastrophic-rockslide-avalanche-mesa-colorado/">The West Salt Creek Landslide: A Catastrophic Rockslide and Rock/Debris Avalanche in Mesa County, Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Geological Survey Bulletin</em> 55 (2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Andrew Alden, “<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/geologic-maps-of-the-united-states-4122863">Colorado Geologic Map</a>,” About.com, updated March 27, 2016.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 24 Jun 2016 20:26:50 +0000 yongli 1503 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org