%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en The Civil War in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civil-war-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Civil War in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3825--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3825.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/battle-glorieta-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Battle_of_Glorieta_Pass_Action_at_Apache_Canyon_0.jpg?itok=6GBX4Ujn" width="1090" height="728" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/battle-glorieta-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Battle of Glorieta Pass</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Referred to as the "Gettysburg of the West," the Battle of Glorieta Pass pitted Union troops from Colorado against Confederates from Texas. The battle took place south of Santa Fe, New Mexico, in the spring of 1862. Although it was a stalemate on the field, the Colorado troops destroyed the Confederate supplies, ending the Confederacy's ambition to take the western territories.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3826--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3826.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/civil-war-soldier-statue-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Denver_Civil_War_Monument_by_Jakob_Otto_Schweizer_%28cropped%29_0.jpg?itok=yO_VvKJz" width="1090" height="2080" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/civil-war-soldier-statue-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Civil War Soldier Statue, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>From 1909 to 2020, a statue honoring the Coloradans who fought in the American Civil War stood outside the State Capitol building in Denver. It incorrectly listed the Sand Creek Massacre, in which Colorado troops slaughtered more than 200 women, children, and elderly Indigenous people, as a "battle" in the war. Civil Rights protesters took down the statue during demonstrations against police abuses and institutional racism in 2020.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-09-13T14:14:34-06:00" title="Tuesday, September 13, 2022 - 14:14" class="datetime">Tue, 09/13/2022 - 14:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civil-war-colorado" data-a2a-title="The Civil War in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcivil-war-colorado&amp;title=The%20Civil%20War%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Colorado’s role in the American Civil War (1861–65) was part of a broader geopolitical contest: control of the American Southwest. The war began in 1861, just two years after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> and mere months after Congress established the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>. Although the territory was largely pro-Union, the Confederacy and its <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/reynolds-gang"><strong>local sympathizers</strong></a> immediately realized Colorado's strategic and monetary value and wanted to take advantage of it.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Federal troops from Colorado turned back the Confederate invasion in New Mexico, ensuring that the Rocky Mountain <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold mines</strong></a> remained under US control. This paved the way for further conquest and development in Colorado and the rest of the West. The Civil War had wide-reaching effects, especially on Indigenous people. The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a>, passed during the war in part to promote free labor over slave labor in western territories, was a direct assault on Indigenous people’s sovereignty that increased tensions between whites and Native nations. Before the war was even over, Union troops committed the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>, one of the worst atrocities on US soil and an event that would influence future conflicts between Americans and Indigenous people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As it has elsewhere, the Civil War left a complicated legacy in Colorado, one that laid the foundation for the successes and struggles of the state to the present day. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The tensions that eventually placed Colorado in the western theatre of the Civil War were tied to the same issue that caused the war: the expansion of slavery. In 1848 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-guadalupe-hidalgo"><strong>Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</strong></a> ended the Mexican-American War and added almost one million square miles to the United States. Southern politicians and elites wanted to expand slavery into this newly acquired land. The California Gold Rush followed in 1849, leading to the Compromise of 1850: Congress admitted California into the Union as a free state but reinforced the Fugitive Slave Act to satisfy southern complaints. In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed Jefferson Davis as Secretary of War. In that role, Davis, who would later become president of the Confederacy, wanted to create a southern transcontinental railroad that would cross New Mexico on its way to California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59 had put the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> on the map for many Americans. The resulting influx of white gold seekers and the myriad enterprises accompanying them created a need for law and order. After establishing a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho</strong></a>, the federal government organized Colorado Territory in February 1861, about a month and a half before the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter and ignited the Civil War in the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the outbreak of war, gold in Colorado and California and the latter’s Pacific ports represented valuable prizes for the new Confederacy. To win those prizes, the Confederates would need control of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>, whose Mountain Branch followed the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> through Colorado before turning south over <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/raton-pass-0"><strong>Raton Pass</strong></a> and into New Mexico<strong>. </strong>The trail was one of the major commercial routes in the West, and it was protected by Fort Union, the Army’s major supply depot north of Santa Fe. In addition, the scattered villages and towns of New Mexico territory were protected in the south by Fort Bliss near present-day El Paso, Texas, Fort Craig south of Albuquerque, and Fort Marcy at Santa Fe. The Confederate strategy was to invade north from Texas, take New Mexico and Colorado, and then turn west toward California.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Choosing Sides</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The outbreak of war east of the Mississippi River led the US government to relocate federal troops from the West for service in the East. Some officers resigned from the US Army to fight for the Confederacy. One was Major <strong>Henry Hopkins Sibley</strong>, who resigned on May 13, 1861. Colonel William Loring, Commander of the Military Department of New Mexico, quit on the same day, leaving Lt. Colonel <strong>Edward R. S. Canby</strong> of the Tenth Infantry to command federal troops in New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1860 Colorado had 30,000 non-Indigenous residents, 70 percent of whom were from northern states and territories. The territory was largely pro-Union. But as Colonel Canby begged for reinforcements, Territorial Governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a> explained that a “malignant secession element” of 7,500 Confederate sympathizers had to be controlled. In <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver City</strong></a>, Charley Harrison’s Criterion Bar was the pro-Confederacy headquarters, while other sympathizers from across the territory secretly gathered at Mace’s Hole north of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harrison was eventually arrested, fined, and exiled from the territory. Scattered skirmishes and other clashes between Union- and Confederate-aligned Coloradans continued throughout the war, although no major battles were fought in the territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle Lines</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In May 1861, Canby received orders to send four infantry companies from Colorado and New Mexico to Fort Leavenworth in eastern Kansas. He kept troops to garrison Albuquerque and Forts Craig, Marcy, Union, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-garland-0"><strong>Fort Garland</strong></a> in southern Colorado. In September, he appointed <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> as Colonel of the First Regiment of New Mexico volunteers, newly recruited from the territory’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> population. Canby left some troops at Fort Union to build an earthwork; the rest he sent to Albuquerque. But Sibley, now a Confederate Brigadier General, led an army out of Texas and up the Rio Grande, intending to take Colorado. Canby needed more troops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>He appealed to Gilpin for volunteer troops to replace and support his garrisons. Gilpin was newly appointed by President Abraham Lincoln. Before he left Washington for Colorado, Secretary of War Simon Cameron assured Gilpin that the federal government would cover the costs of raising troops to defend the territory. Upon arriving in Denver City in May 1861, Gilpin raised two companies of volunteers, which grew by August to become the First Regiment of <strong>Colorado Volunteers</strong>. He appointed Denver lawyer John Slough as Colonel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With their own weapons and civilian clothes, the recruits assembled at Camp Weld along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> upstream from Denver City. Gilpin covered their expenses by issuing $375,000 in promissory notes, payable by the federal government, earning First Colorado the nickname “Gilpin’s Pet Lambs.” Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase refused to honor Gilpin’s promissory notes, and Denver merchants went to Washington to demand payment. Gilpin followed to explain his actions. The Treasury Department honored the notes, but President Lincoln fired Gilpin on March 18, 1862, and replaced him with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.     </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fortunately for Canby, Gilpin had other troops to send. Independent of the First Colorado, two companies of volunteers assembled in August at <strong>Cañon City</strong>, led by Captains Theodore Dodd and James Ford. In September, Gilpin ordered them to Fort Garland in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. They arrived in December 1861 and mustered into federal service, rounding out Colorado’s federal forces.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle of Valverde    </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sibley’s Confederate force entered New Mexico on February 7, 1862, with 2,515 men, most of them Texans, and fifteen artillery pieces. While in overall command, Sibley was derided by his soldiers as “a walking whiskey keg” who somehow managed to be sick in a wagon during every battle in New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The wagon road from Fort Bliss to Santa Fe ran along the east side of the <strong>Rio Grande River</strong>. Fort Craig lay on the west side of the river. Canby had a garrison of 3,810 soldiers, a mix of regular US army troops, New Mexico militia volunteers, and Dodd’s company of Colorado troops. On February 21, 1862, Canby tried to block Sibley’s advance near the abandoned village of Valverde, resulting in a day-long battle that claimed more than 100 casualties on both sides.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sibley’s men won the battle of Valverde, but Canby still had 3,000 men in a strong position, and the Confederates had to give up on the food and fodder in Fort Craig, provisions they had counted on for their advance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, federal forces abandoned Albuquerque and Santa Fe, falling back up the Santa Fé Trail to Fort Union. The Texans occupied Santa Fe on March 10, 1862, and turned their sights on Fort Union. Acting Governor <strong>Lewis Weld</strong> of Colorado sent the First Colorado Volunteers to reinforce Fort Union’s garrison of 800 men. On March 11, the Volunteers arrived at Fort Union, which they found in a dangerous position. The fort was tilted toward the hills to the west, where Confederate artillery could shoot exploding shells straight into the star-shaped earthwork. Believing the only possible defense was offense, Colonel Slough outfitted and resupplied his men, marching them down toward Santa Fe on March 22, 1862.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Battle of Glorieta Pass         </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Slough led a combined force of 1,342 men, including assorted regulars and volunteers from Colorado and New Mexico. Unaware of the Union reinforcements, Confederate Major Charles Pyron probed forward from Santa Fe with a smaller battalion of 400 men and two six-pounder cannons. Slough sent an advance force of 418 infantry and cavalry, led by Major <strong>John Chivington</strong>, to try to find the Texans. On the night of March 25, the federals captured four Texans at Kozlowski’s Ranch, east of Glorieta Pass. Advancing west the next morning into Apache Canyon, Chivington captured thirty-two more Texans, opening the Battle of Glorieta Pass.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pyron set up his cannons on the road in Apache Canyon but soon had to pull back as the Union forces threatened to surround his position. Pyron’s new position was behind an arroyo, spanned by a bridge that the Confederates burned. In front of his guns, with the arroyo at their front, Pyron’s cavalry formed a defense.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the most dramatic moment in Colorado’s Civil War, Company F of the First Colorado mounted a cavalry charge, leaping its horses over the arroyo and rolling over the Confederate line. In hand-to-hand fighting, Pyron got his cannons away to the rear. Night fell, ending the fighting in Apache Canyon and the first day of the Battle of Glorieta Pass. The federals lost five killed and fourteen wounded. Of Pyron’s 420 men, four were killed, twenty wounded, and seventy-one taken prisoner, the costliest single day of battle in the New Mexico campaign.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Texans withdrew to Johnson’s Ranch at the west end of Apache Canyon, and Chivington’s command pulled back for water to Pigeon’s Ranch at the east end. Both sides agreed to a truce for the night and prepared to repel an assault by the enemy the next day. Neither side attacked.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chivington did move farther east, to Kozlowski’s Ranch, for more water.  Slough arrived there at 11:00 pm with the rest of the regiment. Then, at 3:00 am on the 27<sup>th</sup>, Confederate Colonel Scurry reinforced Pyron, taking command of the now 1,000 men at Johnson’s Ranch. Unaware of Scurry’s arrival, Slough planned a two-pronged attack for the 28<sup>th</sup>. Chivington was to lead 490 men on a sixteen-mile march over the mesa that formed the southern flank of Apache Canyon. His guide would be New Mexican volunteers led by Lt. Colonel Manuel Chaves. As Slough fought the Confederates on the Santa Fé Trail, Chivington’s command would fall upon the Texans’ rear.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the early morning of the 28<sup>th</sup>, the Colorado troops advanced, with Chivington’s command splitting off to the south just before Pigeon’s Ranch. At the same time, the Texans left their supplies behind at Johnson’s Ranch as they struck at the federals. At 11:00 am, the two forces met west of Pigeon’s Ranch and began a six-hour artillery duel, with infantry pushing against each other’s lines. Without Chivington, Slough had 850 men to Scurry’s 1,000. Outnumbered, the federal forces had to fall back to avoid encirclement by the Texan infantry slowly. The Union position was eventually forced back five miles to Kozlowski’s Ranch. By about 5 pm, the Texans held the field at Pigeon’s Ranch, and the day was a tactical victory for the Confederates.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, in the meantime, Chivington’s command had arrived on the bluff above Johnson’s Ranch and found that the Texans had left the entire Confederate supply train undefended below them. At 4 pm, they swept down into the canyon, captured the guards, and destroyed eighty wagons, a cannon, all the Texans’ food and supplies, and 500 mules and horses. Freeing federal prisoners, the Colorado troops retraced their steps, arriving at Kozlowski’s Ranch at 10 pm on the 28th.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Slough was ordered to return to Fort Union, where he resigned, and Chivington took command. Casualty counts vary, but contemporary sources estimate that the federal troops lost forty-nine killed, sixty-four wounded, and twenty-one taken prisoner. On the Confederate side, Scurry reported thirty-six Texans killed, sixty wounded, and twenty-five captured.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Without food and ammunition, the Texans could go no farther. They retreated to Santa Fe, and then south to Albuquerque. They headed back to Texas, loosely pursued by federal forces. An afternoon sandstorm ended an inconclusive artillery duel at the village of Peralta on April 16. Canby saw no reason to engage the retreating Confederates, and the last defeated Confederates straggled into Texas on July 8.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Later Engagements</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, now-Colonel Chivington was put in charge of the Military District of Colorado. The Colorado Volunteers shifted from patrolling for Confederates to patrolling for Indigenous parties who sought to repel the invaders from their homelands. In November 1862, the First Colorado was converted into cavalry. Chivington kept them in Colorado, centered on <strong>Fort Lyon</strong> (formerly Fort Wise), but that post’s commander sent some of the garrison east to Kansas. The First spent the rest of the war guarding wagon trails in Colorado and Kansas; in July of 1863, Major <strong>Ned Wynkoop</strong> led four companies to patrol the Oregon Trail all the way to Fort Bridger in southeastern Wyoming.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dodd’s and Ford’s Companies of the Second Colorado arrived at Fort Lyon from New Mexico in April 1863, joining six companies recruited by Colonel Jesse Leavenworth; Theodore Dodd became second in command. On April 11, 1863, Lt. George Shoup and a recruiting party of eleven men encountered a camp of three Confederate “guerrillas” near present-day <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, killing one, wounding one, and capturing the last. The War Department soon authorized a Third Colorado Infantry regiment. The Third Infantry later merged with the Second Infantry and was sent to Missouri to fight irregular enemy forces there. After outfitting as cavalry near St. Louis in December of 1863, Second Colorado deployed across Missouri, combatting Confederate guerrillas known as “bushwhackers.” Over the next year, the volunteers fought in several pitched battles as they defended St. Louis and Kansas City from advancing Confederates.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Colorado, assorted pro-Confederate guerrillas tried to operate, but territorial troops and vigilantes hunted them down as outlaws.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Saving the Union to Massacring the Innocent        </h2>&#13; &#13; <div>&#13; <p>In 1864 Governor Evans and Chivington wanted to remove the Cheyenne and Arapaho people from Colorado’s eastern plains. This objective arose from increased tensions after the 1851 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> was revised in 1861. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave white immigrants “free” land that many Cheyenne and Arapaho still considered theirs. Following the directives of the 1861 treaty, <strong>Moketaveto</strong>’s Cheyenne and <strong>Hossa</strong>’s Arapaho camped near Fort Lyon in November 1864. They had an American flag raised over the camp, indicating their allegiance to the treaty and distinguishing their camp from other warrior groups who resisted the new treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In early June 1864, a party of Indigenous warriors—possibly Arapaho—<strong>killed a young family</strong> who worked for a homesteader on the plains outside of Denver. The murders were most likely reprisals from the earlier killing of an Indigenous man that day, but Denver residents blamed the Cheyenne and Arapaho. With a family killed and scattered attacks on wagons and homesteads occurring throughout the summer, Evans saw in the fears of the trespassing white population an opportunity to rid the territory of both the Cheyenne and Arapaho. He authorized Chivington to enlist a new Third Colorado Cavalry for 100 days, and Chivington, who hated Indigenous people as much as he hated Confederates, went on the warpath. On November 29, 1864, he found and attacked the peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho camp at Fort Lyon, killing more than 200 women, children, and elders in what became known as the Sand Creek Massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Praised as heroes in Denver, Chivington and the Third were seen as bloodthirsty murderers in the eastern United States. Chivington resigned to avoid a military court martial while war exploded across the plains. On January 7, 1865, 1,000 Cheyenne and Lakota fell on <strong>Julesburg</strong>, and on February 2, they burned the town before moving north out of Colorado. The so-called “<strong>Colorado War</strong>” resumed in March through July. President Andrew Johnson fired Evans over his role in precipitating Sand Creek.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s experience in the Civil War can best be described as a successful defense of empire. When the war started, the territory was essentially defenseless and held a vast amount of vulnerable wealth; as the war came to its doorstep, Coloradans mounted a furious and successful defense of that wealth, even as Confederate sympathizers sought to sabotage it from the inside.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the successful defense of the gold fields came federal military activity on a scale never before seen in the territory. With Indigenous people already facing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> and starvation due to poorly understood and enforced <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and the contempt of white settlers and politicians, the militarization of Colorado after the Civil War led to destruction and disaster for the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and eventually the Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) who lived in the Rocky Mountains. Eventually, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Treaty of Medicine Lodg</strong>e</a> in 1867 forced Colorado’s Cheyenne and Arapaho to cede their remaining land in the territory and assigned them to reservations in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, for Colorado’s invading American population, the Civil War had dried up eastern sources of capital needed to fund mining, even as it helped them feel more secure in what was still a fledgling territory. Foreign technology arrived with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathaniel-p-hill"><strong>Nathaniel Hill</strong></a>’s <strong>smelter </strong>in 1867, reviving the mining industry. With North and South at peace, the transcontinental<strong> railroad</strong> was finished and linked to Denver in 1870. Emancipation and a growing mining economy caused Colorado’s Black population to increase substantially from 1870 to 1900.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado achieved statehood in 1876. In 1898, as troops boarded trains in Denver to fight in the Spanish-American War, Union veterans lined one side of Seventeenth Street and Confederate veterans assembled on the other side. As a show of unity, they boarded the train together, seemingly burying the hatchet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The past is still with us, of course. Despite the train station moment and other reconciliation between whites, the racism that brought the Civil War to Colorado has lingered in the state to the present. <strong>Redlining</strong>, or excluding Black residents from buying homes in certain neighborhoods, persisted throughout Denver and other cities, as did institutional discrimination in housing, education, and employment. Several Colorado towns, including <strong>Golden</strong>, <strong>Louisville</strong>, <strong>Loveland</strong>, and parts of Colorado Springs, were known at various times as “Sundown” towns—places where Black people were not welcome and would be run out of town at sundown. Police violence is still disproportionately aimed at Colorado’s Black residents and people of color.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Sand Creek Massacre was later erroneously listed as a “battle” on the plaque of a statue commemorating Colorado’s Civil War veterans. Chivington’s actions were considered horrific even during his time, but the plaque remained, igniting controversy until activists removed the statue during the 2020 <strong>Civil Rights</strong> demonstrations in Denver. As of this writing, streets, university buildings, and even mountains once named for those associated with the Sand Creek Massacre have either been renamed or are being evaluated for renaming in an ongoing reconciliation process.</p>&#13; </div>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/geoffrey-hunt" hreflang="und">Geoffrey Hunt</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/civil-war-colorado-0" hreflang="en">civil war in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-civil-war-history" hreflang="en">colorado civil war history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/confederates-colorado" hreflang="en">confederates in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/confederate-history-colorado" hreflang="en">confederate history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/maces-hole" hreflang="en">maces hole</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nuche" hreflang="en">nuche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-laramie" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/santa-fe-trail" hreflang="en">Santa Fe Trail</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moketaveto" hreflang="en">moketaveto</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hossa" hreflang="en">hossa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hungate-murders" hreflang="en">hungate murders</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/redlining" hreflang="en">redlining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/george-floyd-protests" hreflang="en">george floyd protests</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sundown-towns" hreflang="en">sundown towns</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/golden" hreflang="en">golden</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/louisville" hreflang="en">louisville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/loveland" hreflang="en">loveland</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/battle-glorieta-pass" hreflang="en">battle of glorieta pass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-chivington" hreflang="en">John Chivington</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-evans" hreflang="en">John Evans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-gilpin" hreflang="en">William Gilpin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-volunteers" hreflang="en">colorado volunteers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-army-colorado" hreflang="en">us army colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-removal" hreflang="en">indigenous removal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-lyon" hreflang="en">Fort Lyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ned-wynkoop" hreflang="en">ned wynkoop</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande-river" hreflang="en">rio grande river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lewis-weld" hreflang="en">lewis weld</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache-canyon" hreflang="en">apache canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/henry-hopkins-sibley" hreflang="en">henry hopkins sibley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edward-canby" hreflang="en">edward canby</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ers-canby" hreflang="en">ers canby</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hh-sibley" hreflang="en">hh sibley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Don E. Alberts, <em>The Battle of Glorieta: Union Victory in the West</em> (College Station, Texas: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Don E. Alberts, <em>Rebels on the Rio Grande: the Civil War Journal of A. B. Peticolas </em>(Albuquerque: Merit Press, 1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ovando Hollister, ed. Richard Harwell, <em>Colorado Volunteers in New Mexico, 1862 </em>(Chicago: R.R. Donnelly and Sons Co., reprinted 1962).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nolie Mumey, <em>Bloody Trails Along the Rio Grande: the Diary of Alonzo Ferdinand Ickis </em>(Denver: Old West Publishing Co., 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Christopher M. Rein, <em>The Second Colorado Cavalry: A Civil War Regiment on the Great Plains</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Micah Smith, “<a href="https://www.denver7.com/news/local-news/sundown-towns-uncovering-colorados-dark-past-dangers-for-black-people-staying-out-after-sunset">Sundown towns: Uncovering Colorado’s dark past, dangers for Black people staying out after sunset</a>,” <em>Denver 7</em>, February 26, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Clarke Whitford, <em>Colorado Volunteers in the Civil War: the New Mexico Campaign in 1862 </em>(Denver: State Historical and Natural History Society, 1906).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Flint Whitlock, <em>Distant Bugles, Distant Drums: The Union Response to the Confederate Invasion of New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series I, 9 </em>(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880; reprinted 1985 by Historical Times, Inc.).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Eugene H. Berwanger, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22The%20Rise%20of%20the%20Centennial%20State:%20Colorado%20Territory,%201861-76%20%22" title="Find in a library with WorldCat"><em>The Rise of the Centennial State: Colorado Territory, 1861–76 </em></a>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ray C. Colton, <em>The Civil War in the Western Territories: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 13 Sep 2022 20:14:34 +0000 yongli 3823 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Godfrey’s Ranch http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Godfrey’s Ranch </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3704--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3704.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Matilda_and_Holon_Godfrey_0.jpg?itok=O43nSVHh" width="614" height="516" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/holon-and-matilda-godfrey" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Holon and Matilda Godfrey</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1863 Holon and Matilda Godfrey set up a trading post in northeast Colorado along the Overland Stage Line. On January 7, 1865, a party of Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors attacked the stop as part of a campaign against white settlers in retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre in late 1864.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3705--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3705.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fort_Wicked_historical_marker.jpeg?itok=D7wJNFjT" width="1000" height="879" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-wicked-historical-marker" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Wicked Historical Marker</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This marker stands near the place in Logan County (northeast Colorado) where a violent clash occurred between settlers Holon and Matilda Godfrey and Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors in January 1865. The warriors attacked the Godfreys' stage stop as part of retaliation for the Sand Creek Massacre of November 1864, in which Colorado troops murdered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho, many of them women and children.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-07-28T13:14:13-06:00" title="Thursday, July 28, 2022 - 13:14" class="datetime">Thu, 07/28/2022 - 13:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/godfreys-ranch" data-a2a-title="Godfrey’s Ranch "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgodfreys-ranch&amp;title=Godfrey%E2%80%99s%20Ranch%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>On January 14–15, 1865, immigrant Holon Godfrey found his family homestead in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> under attack by about 100 Indigenous warriors engaged in a campaign of reprisal attacks after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of November 1864. The fierce battle at Godfrey’s Ranch was an example of a common cycle of violence during the American conquest of Colorado: as white immigrants invaded and occupied Indigenous land, both whites and Indigenous people suffered attacks and reprisals, of which Native Americans bore the brunt. The fight for Godfrey’s Ranch reflects deeper stories of opportunity, expansion, and the violent consequences of occupation.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Drawn West</h2> <p>Holon Godfrey’s early life was one of westward migration. Born in New York in 1812, he moved to Chicago in 1844 to learn carpentry in the growing city, a skill that would prove useful on the plains. With the onset of the California Gold Rush, he was counted among the many thousands of forty-niners spellbound by opportunity. In 1858 gold again captivated Godfrey in the form of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. Colorado’s gold rush must have been lackluster for Godfrey, as he eventually settled near Julesburg, a stage stop along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a>, where he and his family supplied the stop from their fields. Gold had not once, but twice, tempted the Godfreys west. But land ultimately proved more alluring.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862 encouraged labor and land out west. It was also a direct assault on Indigenous sovereignty, as its facilitation of white occupation put more pressure on Indigenous nations such as the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong>, many of which were struggling to survive on the contested Colorado plains. The Godfreys, incentivized by the act, moved once again to a spot along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> approximately thirty miles from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-morgan"><strong>Fort Morgan</strong></a>. Here the Godfreys ranched and operated their own stagecoach station paired with a general store. As violence along western trails increased, the Godfreys built adobe walls, plenty of gunports, and even a watchtower.&nbsp;</p> <h2>“Free” Land and Failed Treaties</h2> <p>By the time the Godfreys arrived, Indigenous peoples <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/plains-woodland"><strong>had lived</strong></a> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Colorado Great Plains</strong></a> for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>thousands of years</strong></a>, with the Cheyenne and Arapaho being the latest residents in the early to mid-nineteenth century. The 1851 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> recognized the Cheyenne and Arapaho as legitimate sovereign nations, with much of eastern Colorado as part of their domain. But the Colorado Gold Rush attracted far more whites to what became Colorado Territory. As these immigrants brought different ideas of land possession and contested Indigenous claims, often violently, the US government decided to replace the 1851 treaty with a new one that sought to nullify Indigenous sovereignty in the area.</p> <p>The <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> of 1861 readdressed the situation, severely reducing the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a reservation between the <strong>Arkansas</strong> and Smoky Hill Rivers in southeastern Colorado. Warrior bands and younger Cheyenne and Arapaho did not accept this treaty. Living on a relatively small reservation would destroy important aspects of their culture, such as horse raids to supplement herds and gain societal prestige, as well as hunting to provide enough food. The <em>Hotamétaneo'o</em>, or <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, was one such warrior society that championed continued raiding and drew many young men to their ranks. They were opposed by peace-seeking leaders such as <strong>Moketaveto </strong>(Black Kettle) of the Cheyenne and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a> (Left Hand) of the Arapaho.</p> <p>On the morning of November 29, 1864, Colonel <strong>John </strong><strong>Chivington</strong>’s soldiers massacred Moketaveto’s and Niwot’s peaceful bands at their camp on Sand Creek. The horrific event left the Cheyenne and Arapaho scattered across the plains right at the onset of winter.</p> <h2>A Swift Campaign and Wicked Fight</h2> <p>&nbsp;Arduous weather, poorly fed and declining pony herds, and reduced game typically discouraged the Cheyenne and Arapaho from waging war in the winter. Decades of land encroachment, neglected treaties, and the recent mass murder at Sand Creek caused them to break with that tradition. The fragmented and enraged Cheyenne and Arapaho began assembling allies by extending the war pipe. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>, also known as <em>Ho-my-ike</em>, was at Sand Creek and participated in the ensuing battles. He identified the recipients of the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho’s overtures. The Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, specifically the Dog Soldiers, and several bands of the Lakota, including Spotted Tail’s Brules and Pawnee Killer’s Ogallala, joined in a war council. The council decided to target <strong>Julesburg</strong>.</p> <p>The target was a purposeful selection, as Julesburg not only held a military installation but was also a communication hub, with a prominent stagecoach stop as well as telegraph lines connecting Denver and the greater Pacific Coast to the eastern United States. After the initial Indigenous attack on Julesburg on January 7, 1865, fourteen soldiers and four civilians were dead, miles of telegraph lines were in ruins, and the surrounding area was pillaged.&nbsp;</p> <p>George Bent aptly called the weeks after the attack a panic. Without telegraph lines for communication, and with a weakened military post, the Overland Trail was vulnerable to raids from Fort Morgan well into Nebraska. The Indigenous coalition fragmented into smaller and sporadic raiding parties that decimated ranches and stage stops above and below Julesburg.&nbsp;</p> <p>On January 15, 1865, a war party made its way to Godfrey’s fortified ranch. About 100 warriors succeeded in stealing cattle as they were fired upon from the gunports in the adobe ranch house. Holon Godfrey’s hired hands took cover within the adobe walls, and his wife and daughters helped reload rifles. The war party turned to fire, setting the prairie grass ablaze, and even used flaming arrows against the ranch. Neither tactic succeeded against the adobe bastions. Anticipating a siege, a Mr. Perkins, who was employed by the Godfreys, made a desperate ride to Fort Morgan about thirty miles away. He made it to the town and was able to send for help, but by the time a detachment of soldiers arrived back at Godfrey’s Ranch, the fighting had ended.</p> <p>While they had successfully defended their own home, the residents at Godfrey’s Ranch helplessly watched American Ranch, about two miles away, succumb to a lethal attack that resulted in seven casualties. Reinforcements arrived after the belligerents had already left. Considering its staunch defense, the ranch was christened as “Fort Wicked.” Another story has it the Cheyenne referred to Holon Godfrey as “Old Wicked,” a name he repurposed.&nbsp;</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>After the winter campaign of 1865, the Cheyenne found themselves once again split, with most of the Southern Cheyenne heading south for quieter country, while the Northern Cheyenne joined their allies in continued raiding and warfare on the northern plains. Perhaps such defiant holdouts as the one at Godfrey’s Ranch, along well-established routes, convinced the Indigenous warriors to take the fighting elsewhere. For the most part, the Overland Trail remained unthreatened until 1869 with the Battle of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a>.&nbsp;</p> <p>The Godfreys soon moved again, this time near present-day LaSalle, Colorado. They have since been remembered and even celebrated as pioneers, with the Godfreys’ defense of their ranch along the Overland Trail enshrined as a stirring defense of the American homestead. The Godfrey name has been inscribed on the land, with Godfrey’s Bluffs in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a> and Godfrey’s Bottoms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld County</strong></a> memorializing their “wicked fight” in 1865. A marker for the Godfrey stage stop stands near the intersection of US 6 and CR 2.5 in Merino.&nbsp;</p> <p>Yet every victory flaunted by immigrants and their successors pushed Indigenous peoples another step closer to destitution. Diminished access to hunting grounds, scarce game, and poorly supplied reservations led to suffering and death for the plains’ previous occupants. The wicked fight at Godfrey’s Ranch exemplifies the larger conquest of the Great Plains, including opportunities for white immigrants, the fraught nature of homesteading, and the violent displacement of Indigenous peoples.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lovell-neil" hreflang="und">Lovell, Neil</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gofreys-ranch" hreflang="en">gofreys ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-wicked" hreflang="en">fort wicked</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">Dog Soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-wars" hreflang="en">Indian Wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wars" hreflang="en">colorado wars</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morgan-county" hreflang="en">Morgan County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/phillips-county" hreflang="en">Phillips County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/logan-county" hreflang="en">logan county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-history" hreflang="en">indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ranching" hreflang="en">ranching</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George Bird Grinnell,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22The%20Fighting%20Cheyenne%22"><em>The Fighting Cheyenne</em></a>&nbsp;(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968).&nbsp;</p> <p>George E. Hyde, <em>Spotted Tail’s Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>Nell Brown Probst, <em>Forgotten People: A History of the South Platte Trail</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing, 1979).&nbsp;</p> <p>National Archives and Records Administration, Holon Godfrey Indian Depredation Claim #2559, Record Group 123, n.d.</p> <p>Luella Shaw, <em>True History of Some of the Pioneers of Colorado</em> (Denver: Press of Carson-Harper Company, 1909).&nbsp;</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John H. Moore,&nbsp;<em>The Cheyenne</em>&nbsp;(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).</p> <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Southern Cheyenne</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>.</p> <p>Elliot West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Jul 2022 19:14:13 +0000 yongli 3703 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sedgwick County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sedgwick-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sedgwick County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2244--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2244.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/sedgwick-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Sedgwick%20County%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=cgld1LbN" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/sedgwick-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sedgwick County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Sedgwick County was officially established in 1889 and is named for Fort Sedgwick, a military post that protected travelers along the Overland Trail.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--872--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--872.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/burning-julesburg"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Julesburg-1_0.jpg?itok=ipKlw1xX" width="1000" height="629" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/burning-julesburg" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Burning of Julesburg</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The first town of Julesburg was founded at an important crossing of the South Platte River. In January 1865 Native Americans raided the town and burned it to the ground.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--873--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--873.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/second-julesburg"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Julesburg-2-X-9603_0.jpg?itok=j5klnvUp" width="1000" height="574" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/second-julesburg" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Second Julesburg</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The second town of Julesburg was established on the south side of the South Platte River after the first town of Julesburg was burned to the ground. The town was abandoned in 1867 when residents learned that the Union Pacific Railroad planned to follow the north shore of the river.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--874--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--874.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fourth-julesburg"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Julesburg-3-Z-5598_0.jpg?itok=dtJCMBf7" width="1000" height="586" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fourth-julesburg" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fourth Julesburg</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The fourth town of Julesburg was established in 1886 when Union Pacific built a branch that connected the transcontinental line to Denver. The original depot was constructed from wood and served the community until 1929, when a new brick building was commissioned.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-31T10:24:46-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 31, 2017 - 10:24" class="datetime">Tue, 01/31/2017 - 10:24</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sedgwick-county" data-a2a-title="Sedgwick County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsedgwick-county&amp;title=Sedgwick%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Sedgwick County covers 549 square miles in the northeastern corner of Colorado. It was established in 1889 and named for <strong>Fort Sedgwick</strong>. Straddling the<a href="/article/south-platte-river"> <strong>South Platte River</strong></a>, the county is bordered by Nebraska’s Deuel and Perkins Counties to the north and east, and by Colorado’s <a href="/article/phillips-county"><strong>Phillips</strong></a> and <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan</strong></a> Counties to the south and west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today Sedgwick County has a population of around 2,400. <strong>Julesburg</strong>, located near the county’s northern border with Nebraska, is the county seat and has a population of 1,225. The town was a busy way station along nineteenth-century transportation routes, particularly the <strong>Union Pacific</strong> railroad. Today<strong>, Interstate 76</strong> runs just south of Julesburg, terminating at Interstate 80 just over the Colorado-Nebraska border. Other towns include Sedgwick (pop. 191) and Ovid (330). US Highway 138 connects all three towns, meeting US 385 in Julesburg. Agriculture is Sedgwick County’s main economic driver; as of 2012 the county had 226 farms valued at more than $101 million.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Native Americans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>From around AD 1000 to 1400, members of the <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican and Itskari</strong></a> cultures occupied parts of northeast Colorado, including present-day Sedgwick County. These semisedentary people fished, farmed, and hunted buffalo, living in<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge"><strong> earth lodges</strong></a> and crafting distinctive ceramic pots. While they were apparently able to thrive in eastern Colorado for nearly three centuries, it appears that environmental pressures—most likely drought—caused them to gradually abandon the region. There is little evidence of their presence in the area by the mid-fifteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth, the rapid expansion of the Lakota displaced a number of other equestrian groups from the northern plains, including the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and <strong>Kiowa</strong>. These groups filtered south onto the plains of Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado. The Pawnee also made occasional visits to eastern Colorado, though they mostly frequented present-day Kansas and Nebraska.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1790 the Kiowa had moved onto the plains from the mountains of Montana. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, meanwhile, had been migrating westward from their homelands in the upper Midwest since the early eighteenth century. By 1800 the Lakota had forced both the Cheyenne and Arapaho out of present-day South Dakota. The Cheyenne and Arapaho followed the bison herds across the plains, living in portable dwellings called <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipis</strong></a>. During the  harsh plains winters, they found shelter near bluffs and in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> groves along the river bottoms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White American traffic across the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Colorado Plains</strong></a> increased during the 1840s with the organization of the Oregon Territory and the California Gold Rush of 1849. In response to this incursion, Indigenous people sometimes harassed or stole from wagon trains, and many whites came to fear these attacks as they crossed the plains. In 1851 the federal government sought to make the westward journey safer for white travelers with the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>, signed by leaders of the Cheyenne, Lakota, Arapaho, and other Indigenous nations. The treaty acknowledged Native American sovereignty across the plains, and each group would receive annual payments in exchange for guaranteeing safe passage for whites and allowing the government to build forts in their territory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1856 US Army Lt. Francis Bryan found an American Indian trail on the south side of the South Platte with a crossing near present-day Julesburg. The army began using the route, and in the aftermath of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> it became part of the <a href="/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Trail</strong></a>, named for the Holladay Overland Mail and Express Company. The ford was known by several names, including “Upper California Crossing” and “Morrell’s Crossing.” The land near the crossing became a busy way station for westward-bound Anglo-Americans, with parties waiting hours, sometimes days, for their turn to ford the river.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Jules, Jack, and Julesburg<strong> </strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The history of present-day Julesburg began with the establishment of a way station near the South Platte ford in 1859. A French Canadian trader named Jules Beni set up a saloon and restaurant to serve travelers, and the stop soon became one of the best-known establishments between Missouri and Colorado. This also made it a haven for outlaws, who came to prey on travelers. Beni expanded his establishment to include a warehouse, blacksmith shop, and stable, and eventually became the local stationmaster for the Leavenworth City &amp; Pikes Peak Express stage line.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, Jules proved a disinterested and corrupt station manager, taking money and supplies from the company and presiding over crippling scheduling delays. By late 1859, the Leavenworth &amp; Pike’s Peak company was in the process of reorganizing and revamping its operations. Under a new name, the Central Overland California &amp; Pike’s Peak Express, the company sent freighter and gunman <strong>Jack Slade</strong> to Julesburg to remove Beni as stationmaster  and clean up the operations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When Slade arrived in the fall of 1859, Beni willingly gave up control of the stage line, probably because he still owned many businesses in the town that depended on the line. But Beni continued to plot with outlaws to steal money and horses from the company, and his relations with Slade quickly soured.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Various later accounts describe a confrontation between Jules and Slade and a rivalry that persisted for at least a year. The most recent scholarship, presented by Dan Rottenberg in <em>Death of a Gunfighter</em> (2008), finds that Beni ambushed and shot Slade—how many times is unclear—at his restaurant/saloon. Slade survived and returned to manage the stage company’s operations. In 1861, according to Rottenberg, Slade learned of Beni’s whereabouts and sent a group of men to arrest him. The posse found Jules near Cold Springs Station, Wyoming, but was forced to kill him in an altercation. Denied his revenge, Slade allegedly cut off both of Beni’s ears before continuing his career with the stage company.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As stationmaster, Slade played an instrumental role in Julesburg’s early history. But later in his life, Slade descended into a brutish career of drunken crime and violence. After several drunken rampages, he was hanged in Virginia City, Montana, in 1864.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Julesburg, meanwhile, had grown into a prominent stop along the Overland Trail as well as the Pony Express. The tiny stopover, consisting of just four buildings in 1860, saw hundreds of immigrants pass through on their way to the Colorado gold fields. By 1862 Julesburg featured a hotel, several houses, and a general store.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Relations with Indigenous People</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The gold rush caused the federal government to shift its Indian policy in Colorado away from recognizing Indian sovereignty and toward removal. In 1861 the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> was established, and the federal government and Indigenous leaders negotiated the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>. Under this new agreement, the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho agreed to move to a small reservation in eastern Colorado, between the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> and Sand Creek. Still, many Cheyenne and Arapaho continued to hunt in the larger territory that the United States recognized in the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Seeing the whites as invaders, Indians sometimes attacked wagons, burned ranches, took white captives, and stole cattle and horses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Camp Rankin was established near Julesburg in the early 1860s to protect the stage lines and white travelers from Indians. Tensions between Native Americans and whites erupted into all-out war after US troops under Col. <strong>John Chivington</strong> slaughtered more than 150 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians—mostly women, children, and the elderly—at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a> in November 1864. The Indians were camped on the agreed-upon reservation in present-day <a href="/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a>. In January 1865 a retaliatory force of some 1,000 Lakota, Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho raided Julesburg, destroyed surrounding ranches, and drove away cattle and horses. In this first assault, Julesburg’s buildings were left intact. But in a second attack, on February 2, the warriors burned Julesburg to the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the former residents of Julesburg wondered whether their town would rise from its ashes, the federal government decided a proper fort was needed near Julesburg. Fort Sedgwick was completed in September 1865. It was named after Major General John Sedgwick, who was killed in the Battle of Spotsylvania in May 1864. Three years later, under the terms of the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a>, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were to relocate to present-day Oklahoma. But many, especially the younger members of both tribes, decided to keep fighting. In 1869 the US Army defeated the Cheyenne leader <strong>Tall Bull</strong>’s <strong>Dog Soldiers</strong> at the <strong>Battle of Summit Springs</strong> in present-day <a href="/article/washington-county"><strong>Washington County</strong></a>, marking the end of Native American resistance on the Colorado plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Julesburgs II, III, and IV</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Former Julesburg residents staked out a second iteration of their town in March 1867, on the south side of the Platte River near its confluence with Lodgepole Creek. The Union Pacific railroad had not yet decided which bank of the Platte its route would follow, and so founders of Julesburg II took a guess. They were wrong, but fortunately had not put too much work into the new town. In the summer of 1867 the residents pulled up stakes and established a third Julesburg about two and a half miles north and across the Platte. J. P. Allen built the first hotel in June, and on June 23 the Union Pacific arrived. By July 16 Julesburg III had the old town’s telegraph office and a large freight house owned by the stage company Wells Fargo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The town’s population numbered around 3,000 in 1867. With its numerous saloons, gambling and prostitution houses, and posses of armed residents (both men and women), Julesburg III soon earned a reputation as “The Wickedest City in the West.” Many residents and visitors compared the town to hell, and the many large watch fires that burned around it at night undoubtedly made the comparison more apt in the eyes of observers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The soldiers who watched the blazing torches of Julesburg from Fort Sedgwick, however, probably wished they were in the city instead of at the <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>post</strong></a>. The fort declined in importance with the end of the Indian Wars and the arrival of the Union Pacific on the opposite side of the Platte. By 1870 just two barracks remained at the fort, and the next year it was officially closed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Union Pacific railroad crew moved on, Julesburg III again shrank to a tiny outpost, holding on until 1881. That year the Union Pacific connected its Denver branch to the transcontinental route at a spot about four miles east of Julesburg III, and so by 1886 the town had again relocated, this time for good.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sedgwick and Phillips Counties were carved from greater Logan County in 1889. In 1900 Sedgwick County had a population of 971, and its first courthouse was built in 1904.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Farmers in Sedgwick County had long produced staple crops such as wheat and alfalfa, but increased demand for domestic sugar in the first few decades of the twentieth century produced a new cash crop, the <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet</strong></a>. Colorado’s beet acreage increased from 108,005 in 1909 to 205,647 by 1924, and sugar-processing plants went up in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, <strong>Loveland</strong>, <strong>Brighton</strong>, and other places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1925 the Great Western Sugar Company brought the sugar beet boom to Sedgwick County when it established the company town of Ovid and opened a sugar-processing factory there. As late as 1930, Sedgwick County had no meaningful beet production to speak of, but by 1940 county farmers had planted more than 3,500 acres. The value of that crop more than doubled over the next five years, increasing from $198,016 to $442,478.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since its relocation to the Union Pacific junction in 1886, Julesburg had been an important shipping hub for the area’s produce. The town’s wooden railroad depot had sufficed for several decades, but in the midst of the state’s sugar beet boom in the 1920s, local residents and merchants pushed for a new station. The Union Pacific opened its <a href="/article/julesburg-union-pacific-depot"><strong>new passenger and freight depot</strong></a> in Julesburg in 1930, and the one-story building soon became the town’s social center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sedgwick County began the 1930s with a sugar plant in Ovid, a new railroad depot in Julesburg, and a population of 5,580, which proved to be an all-time high. But the decade would bring hardship in the form of the worsening <strong>Great Depression</strong> and the <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a>. Huge dust storms, resulting from the excessive plowing of the prairie since 1900, raked the county, and a crash in agricultural prices caused many people to lose their farms. Sedgwick County lost some 286 residents between 1930 and 1940, but overall it fared better than other plains counties. Thanks in part to funding from the Works Progress Administration, one of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> initiatives, the county gained a new courthouse in 1939.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agricultural Changes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The decades that followed saw innovations in agriculture, including machinery that allowed for larger yields and diesel and natural gas-powered pumps that allowed farmers to tap additional <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> supplies in the underlying Ogallala Aquifer. This allowed farmers to grow more water-intensive crops, such as corn, in an otherwise dry area. In 1950 Sedgwick County had just over 10,000 acres of corn, but by 1982 the crop covered 35,426 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mechanization, meanwhile, allowed for larger farms and encouraged the consolidation of farmland by those who could afford to invest in the new machinery. Sedgwick County reflected this trend, as its 474 farms in 1950 became 253 farms in 1982, despite a minimal gain in total farm acreage. The average farm size, meanwhile, nearly doubled during that period, growing from 660 acres to 1,284 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mechanization and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> allowed Sedgwick County farmers to put an additional 92,577 acres under irrigated cultivation between 1950 and 1982—more than 2,800 acres per year. Sugar beet acreage, however, declined to just 1,707 acres, mirroring a statewide trend. Great Western Sugar went bankrupt in 1985 and shuttered many of its Colorado factories, including the Ovid factory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, agriculture remains the backbone of the Sedgwick County economy. The county ranks eighth among Colorado counties in corn production and thirteenth in wheat production, and also produces a significant amount of <a href="/article/sunflowers"><strong>sunflower</strong></a> seeds.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Heritage is also a major part of Sedgwick County today, and heritage tourism is augmented by Interstate 76, completed in the 1970s as the latest in a long history of major transportation routes through the county. Julesburg’s rich history, on display at the <strong>Fort Sedgwick Museum</strong>, offers insight into the history of these routes, as well as into nineteenth-century conflict and town life on Colorado’s eastern plains. Julesburg also features a Depot Museum highlighting the Union Pacific’s history in the town.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sedgwick-county" hreflang="en">sedgwick county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-sedgwick" hreflang="en">Fort Sedgwick</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg-history" hreflang="en">julesburg history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/overland-trail" hreflang="en">overland trail</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jack-slade" hreflang="en">jack slade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northeast-colorado" hreflang="en">northeast colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Colorado State University Libraries, “<a href="https://lib.colostate.edu/archives/greatwestern/history.html">History</a>,” Great Western Sugar Digital Collection, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Doris Monahan, <em>Julesburg and Fort Sedgwick: Wicked City—Scandalous Fort </em>(Sterling, CO: Self-published, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://longmontian.blogspot.com/2014/02/ovid-colorado-sugar-factory-1926-1985.html">Ovid, Colorado Sugar Factory (1926–1985)</a>,” <em>Observations about Longmont, Colorado </em>(blog post), February 9, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dan Rottenberg, <em>Death of a Gunfighter: The Quest for Jack Slade, the West’s Most Elusive Legend </em>(Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Sedgwick County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado-Arizona</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, vol. 2, part 3 (1930).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/getVolumeOnePart.do?year=1945&amp;part_id=620&amp;number=41&amp;title=Colorado">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, vol. 1, part 41 (1945).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/getVolumeOnePart.do?year=1982&amp;part_id=6&amp;number=6&amp;title=Colorado">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, vol. 1, part 6 (1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliot West, <em>Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.com/julesburg/history-heritage/history-museums/fort-sedgwick-museum-and-depot-museum">Fort Sedgwick Museum</a> (Colorado tourism page)</p> <p><a href="https://www.townofjulesburg.com/Pages/default.aspx">Julesburg</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.sedgwickcountygov.net/">Sedgwick County</a></p> <p>Sedgwick County Historical Society, <em>The History of Sedgwick County, Colorado </em>(Dallas, TX: National Sharegraphics, 1982).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 31 Jan 2017 17:24:46 +0000 yongli 2245 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Julesburg Public Library http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/julesburg-public-library <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Julesburg Public Library</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-10-31T09:55:07-06:00" title="Monday, October 31, 2016 - 09:55" class="datetime">Mon, 10/31/2016 - 09:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/julesburg-public-library" data-a2a-title="Julesburg Public Library"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fjulesburg-public-library&amp;title=Julesburg%20Public%20Library"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located at the corner of East Fourth and Cedar Streets, the Julesburg Public Library was built in 1937, after the Julesburg Woman’s Club led a long-term effort to get a permanent library building for the community. Designed by Stanley Morse in the Art Moderne style, the library includes several community meeting spaces and also served for more than thirty years as the home of the Pioneer Museum. In 2001 the library was listed on the State Register of Historic Places.</p> <h2>Women Organize for a Julesburg Library</h2> <p>The push for a public library in <strong>Julesburg</strong> began in June 1913, when local members of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union started a reading room downtown in the hope that it might develop into a public library. The reading room received local support, including book and magazine donations.</p> <p>In spring 1914, several local women campaigned for an unsuccessful ballot measure for a public library. Later that year they joined the Julesburg Woman’s Club (JWC), which was organized in September 1914, and planned to build a permanent public library on their own. By 1920 the JWC had raised enough money to buy land for a library in downtown Julesburg. While the group continued to raise money for the building, in 1922 it opened a semipermanent library at the Citizens National Bank building at West Second and Cedar Streets. By 1926 the library contained more than 2,000 books.</p> <h2>New Deal Funding to the Rescue</h2> <p>In 1932 the JWC was able to acquire more land adjacent to the lots it already owned at East Fourth and Cedar Streets, but by 1935 the group recognized that it needed outside help to build a permanent library in Julesburg. That year the JWC hired the architect Stanley Morse to draw up plans for a library, and it also applied to the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a newly established <strong><a href="/article/new-deal-colorado">New Deal</a> </strong>agency, for a grant to cover 45 percent of the building’s cost. In September the library plans were put on public display in town, and in October the WPA announced that it would give Julesburg nearly $10,000 for the building. The JWC funded the rest of the building’s cost.</p> <p>A groundbreaking ceremony for the library was held on February 22, 1936, and the cornerstone was laid on May 28. Like many other WPA buildings in northeastern Colorado, which had few local quarries, the library was designed in a modernistic style, using cinderblocks covered with stucco and painted a light buff color. The interior featured stucco walls, oak floors, and dark wood trim. The building’s main floor included space for a library and a club room for the JWC, and its large basement had two rooms that could be used by community groups.</p> <p>On September 15, 1937, the JWC held its first meeting in its new club room, and the building was officially dedicated on October 8. Located in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sedgwick-county"><strong>Sedgwick County</strong></a> seat, it quickly became a center for social and civic events attended by people from across the county.</p> <h2>Pioneer Museum</h2> <p>In 1940 the Pioneer Museum opened in the library basement’s north room. The museum was based around the collection of Leslie M. Lytle, who served as the museum’s curator until his death in 1946. In 1949 the room was named for Lytle. By the 1960s, the museum had outgrown the basement’s north room and started to store items in the basement’s south room, which had previously served as an activities room for sewing groups, Boy Scouts, and other local groups.</p> <p>In 1975 the museum moved to the <a href="/article/julesburg-union-pacific-depot"><strong>Julesburg Union Pacific Depot</strong></a>. Since then the basement’s north room has been used for dance and Tae Kwan Do classes. The Fort Sedgwick Historical Society, which operates the museum, still uses the basement’s south room for storage.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Today the library contains more than 7,000 volumes as well as several computers for public use. The building is owned by the town of Julesburg, and the library is managed by the JWC, which continues to meet in its club room on the building’s main floor. A variety of community groups regularly use the building for reunions, celebrations, political meetings, and church services.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg-womans-club" hreflang="en">Julesburg Woman&#039;s Club</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/libraries" hreflang="en">libraries</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/works-progress-administration" hreflang="en">Works Progress Administration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-deal" hreflang="en">New Deal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pioneer-museum" hreflang="en">Pioneer Museum</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Muriel L. Nelson, “Julesburg Public Library,” Colorado State Register of Historic Properties Nomination Form (May 15, 2001).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Abigail D. Christman, <em>The Legacy of the New Deal on Colorado’s Eastern Plains</em> (Denver: Colorado Preservation, 2008).</p> <p>Deon Wolfenbarger, “New Deal Resources on Colorado’s Eastern Plains,” National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Documentation Form (September 23, 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 31 Oct 2016 15:55:07 +0000 yongli 1998 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org The Dust Bowl http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Dust Bowl</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1348--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1348.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plow-broke-plains"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/MCC-882_0.jpg?itok=qV2EYZN7" width="1000" height="804" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plow-broke-plains" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Plow that Broke the Plains</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A steam-powered tractor pulls a harrow on the open plains of Colorado. The mechanization of farming contributed significantly to the environmental catastrophe of the dust bowl in the mid-1930s.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1349--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1349.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fury-dust"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-7371_0.jpg?itok=PVjxkvkz" width="1000" height="668" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fury-dust" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Fury of Dust</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A dust storm bears down on the town of Burlington in Kit Carson, County, enveloping everything in its path.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" 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field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T10:53:44-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 10:53" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 10:53</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl" data-a2a-title="The Dust Bowl"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdust-bowl&amp;title=The%20Dust%20Bowl"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the 1930s, eastern Colorado experienced the worst ecological disaster in the state’s history. Unsustainable farming practices and widespread drought transformed the once fertile <strong><a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains">Great Plains</a> </strong>into a barren landscape, inhospitable to both humans and animals. The experience of the Dust Bowl provides Coloradans a prism through which to view humanity’s historic, and often troubled, relationship with the sensitive ecosystems of the Great Plains.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862 allowed American citizens to claim parcels of 160 acres in the arid West. The promise of free land and above-average rainfall in the 1870s encouraged the rapid settlement of the Great Plains. After setbacks in the dry 1890s, the development of mechanized farming in the 1910s proved to be the final ingredient necessary to turn what was known as the "<strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/%E2%80%9Cgreat-american-desert%E2%80%9D">Great American Desert</a>"</strong> into America’s breadbasket. Steam-driven tractors transformed thousands of acres of native prairie grasses into undulating fields of wheat, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beets</strong></a>, and other crops. This exponentially increased the productivity and profitability of farming in southeastern Colorado, but it also removed the dense network of grass roots that held down the topsoil, making Colorado’s prairies vulnerable to ecological crisis.</p> <p>Throughout the 1930s, southeastern Colorado and the Great Plains experienced extreme droughts. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/baca-county"><strong>Baca</strong></a><strong>,</strong> <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prowers-county">Prowers</a> </strong>Counties were among those areas hit hardest by drought. The region received a meager 126 total inches of moisture between 1930 and 1939, 205 fewer inches than the previous decade. Annual precipitation fell below the eighteen inches needed to grow wheat, which had a devastating effect on the region’s wheat crop. For instance, in 1930 Baca County had 237,000 acres in wheat production; by 1936 that number had fallen to 150 acres. The lack of precipitation meant hundreds of thousands of acres no longer had plants to anchor the soil to the ground.</p> <h2>From Drought to Dust</h2> <p>Dust was not uncommon in the semiarid regions of Colorado when the prairie winds blew, so it was no surprise when a few “dusters”—large dust clouds—appeared in 1931. In 1932 the dusters returned with greater intensity. By 1933&nbsp;the frequency and intensity of dust storms endangered the health of livestock and people alike.&nbsp;The destructive storms earned the decade the moniker the “dirty thirties.”&nbsp;The storms destroyed millions of farmland acres and induced mental and physical anguish among residents.&nbsp;Towns had to turn on their streetlights during the day and the ubiquitous dust forced people to put wet sheets over doors and windows.&nbsp;Colorado’s farmers ate meals under tablecloths and wore goggles and masks of wet towels when they dared venture outdoors. Cases of dust pneumonia reached epidemic proportions in animals and humans.</p> <h2>Black Sunday</h2> <p>On April 14, 1935, a “black duster” overtook Robert E. Geiger, a reporter for the <em>Washington (DC) Evening Star</em>, and photographer Harry G. Eisenhard six miles from Boise City, Oklahoma. Geiger coined the term <em>Dust Bowl</em> when he used it in a subsequent article for the <em>Lubbock (TX) Evening Journal</em>. The Dust Bowl encompassed the entire Great Plains, stretching from southwestern Kansas into southeastern Colorado, northeastern New Mexico, and the panhandles of Oklahoma and Texas. Although Baca County experienced the brunt of the Dust Bowl, dust storms occurred as far north as <strong>Burlington</strong> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson-county"><strong>Kit Carson County</strong></a> and <strong>Julesburg</strong> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sedgwick-county"><strong>Sedgwick County</strong></a>. Las Animas and Prowers counties were especially hard hit. Dust covered roads and made them impassable, suffocated livestock, destroyed crops, and laid ruin to the livelihoods of thousands of eastern Coloradans.</p> <p>During the Dust Bowl, Colorado’s plains also suffered from grasshopper infestations. Grasshoppers thrived in the desiccated prairie soils and first descended upon Colorado in 1934. In 1937 and 1938, swarms of the insects almost blacked out the sun as they consumed entire fields of barley, wheat, and alfalfa. The federal government sent employees from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civilian-conservation-corps-colorado"><strong>Civilian Conservation Corps</strong> </a>and the <strong>Soil Conservation Service</strong> (SCS) to eradicate the pests by poisoning them. Although some families endured, many residents found it impossible to support themselves and ended up migrating to places like California and Oregon. Baca County, for example, lost 4,363 residents during the 1930s.</p> <h2>The New Deal</h2> <p>Several <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> programs provided direct relief to Colorado residents in the form of provisions and clothing, while others assisted in long-term economic recovery.&nbsp;New Deal programs provided loans to struggling farmers and businesses, while&nbsp;direct relief to families came in the form of cash payments and food allotments.&nbsp;Relief figures indicate that almost all of Baca County’s residents benefited from New Deal programs. In 1936 more than 50 percent of Baca County residents were on the relief rolls.</p> <p>The <strong>Works Progress Administration </strong>(<strong>WPA</strong>), created by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on April 8, 1935, aimed to provide both direct and long-term relief. At its peak in 1938 the WPA provided employment for more than 3 million unemployed men and women. The federal government allocated $1,064,021 to the WPA for public construction projects in Baca County, including the improvement or construction of roads, bridges, schools, and other public and municipal buildings.</p> <h2>Toward an Ethic of Land Use</h2> <p>In 1935 agricultural experts met in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> to discuss how human interaction with Great Plains environments had caused the Dust Bowl. The group estimated that the prairie winds had blown 850 million tons of topsoil off the southern plains in 1935 alone. New Deal programs were designed to combat erosion immediately and educate current and future generations of farmers in appropriate soil conservation techniques to prevent a repeat of the disaster. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the Resettlement Administration (later the Farm Security Administration), and the SCS all addressed the environmental crisis of the Dust Bowl.</p> <h2>Rehabilitating the Land&nbsp;</h2> <p>The <strong>Taylor Grazing Act </strong>ended the homestead movement when it passed Congress in 1934. The act authorized the <strong>US</strong> <strong>Department of the Interior</strong> to establish grazing districts and manage a grazing permit system aimed at curbing destructive grazing practices.</p> <p>Established in 1934, the <strong>Land Utilization Program</strong> (<strong>LUP</strong>) sought to alleviate rural poverty and restore the economic vitality of agriculture. The LUP purchased submarginal and eroded lands, restored them, and converted them to grazing, forestry, wildlife, or recreation areas. According to President Roosevelt, “Many million acres of such land must be returned to grass or trees if we are to prevent a new and man-made Sahara.”</p> <p>Under the LUP, the federal government purchased more than 4.7 million acres of submarginal farmland in Baca<strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county">Otero</a>, </strong>and Las Animas counties in Colorado and throughout the West. In 1953 the SCS transferred management of those lands to the <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service (USFS)</strong></a>. On June 20, 1960, the USFS established the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/comanche-national-grassland"><strong>Comanche National Grasslands</strong></a> in what are now Baca<strong>, </strong>Otero<strong>, </strong>and Las Animas counties. Many of the lands purchased from bankrupt farmers during the Dust Bowl had been rehabilitated into the public domain to be enjoyed for their natural splendor.</p> <p><strong>Adapted from Cindy Nasky, “<a href="https://coloradopreservation.org/crsurvey/rural/baca/sites/baca_resources_depression.html">Depression and the Dust Bowl</a>,” Colorado Preservation, Inc., n.d.</strong></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dust-bowl" hreflang="en">dust bowl</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dust-bowl-colorado-0" hreflang="en">dust bowl in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/baca-county" hreflang="en">baca county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otero-county" hreflang="en">otero county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prowers-county" hreflang="en">prowers county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-county" hreflang="en">Cheyenne County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa-county" hreflang="en">kiowa county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson-county" hreflang="en">kit carson county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julesburg" hreflang="en">julesburg</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plains" hreflang="en">colorado plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dust-bowl-history-colorado" hreflang="en">dust bowl history colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, “<a href="https://www.weather.gov/oun/">The ‘Black Sunday’ Dust Storm of 14 April 1935</a>,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, last modified February 12, 2015.</p> <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/news-room/eighty-years-ago-week-dust-bowl-storm-wreaks-havoc-colorado-plains">Eighty Years Ago This Week Dust Bowl Storm Wreaks Havoc on Colorado Plains</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>R. Douglas Hurt, “<a href="http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.pe.022.xml">Dust Bowl</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia of the Great Plains</em>, ed. David J. Wishart, 2011.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p> <p>Richard N. Ellis and Duane A. Smith, eds., <em>Colorado: A History in Photographs</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</p> <p>Brad D. Lookingbill, <em>Dust Bowl, USA: Depression America and the Ecological Imagination, 1929–1941</em> (Athens: Ohio State University Press, 2001).</p> <p>Carter Revard, <em>Winning the Dust Bowl</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2001).</p> <p>Dave Showalter, <em>Prairie Thunder: The Nature of Colorado’s Great Plains</em> (Pueblo, CO: Skyline Press, 2007).</p> <p>Donald Worster, <em>Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).</p> <p>John R. Wunder, Frances W. Kaye, and Vernon Carstensen, eds., <em>Americans View Their Dust Bowl Experience</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 16:53:44 +0000 yongli 1347 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org