%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Elijah McClain http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/elijah-mcclain <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Elijah McClain</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-02-08T17:33:10-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 8, 2022 - 17:33" class="datetime">Tue, 02/08/2022 - 17:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/elijah-mcclain" data-a2a-title="Elijah McClain"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Felijah-mcclain&amp;title=Elijah%20McClain"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Elijah McClain (1996–2019) was a massage therapist in <strong>Aurora</strong> who was walking down the street when approached and killed by Aurora Police and Aurora Fire Rescue officers on August 24, 2019. The death of McClain, a young Black man whom his family described as “exceedingly gentle,” was immediately protested as unnecessary. Prosecutors initially refused to charge the responding officers, but the police murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis in May 2020 renewed local calls for justice for McClain.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following intervention by the state and immense public pressure, in September 2021, the three police officers and two paramedics involved in McClain’s death were charged with manslaughter. McClain’s death and later events surrounding the case made national news and put a spotlight on the Aurora Police Department, whose violent and racially biased practices were later highlighted by a Colorado Department of Law investigation. The investigation was the first to occur under the state’s Enhance Law Enforcement Integrity law, passed in the wake of the <strong>Floyd protests</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Elijah McClain was born in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s <strong>Park Hill</strong> neighborhood and had five brothers and sisters. His mother, Sheneen McClain, moved the family from Park Hill to Aurora to get away from gang violence. As a teenager, McClain played the guitar and violin. He also cared a lot about animals, playing music for them at local shelters and becoming a vegetarian. His friends recalled him as an “oddball” who was kind and passionate about life. McClain found his calling in massage therapy by the time he was in his twenties. A fellow massage therapist who became his friend said that McClain “was never into, like, fitting in. He just was who he was.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Death</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On the night of August 24, 2019, McClain left a gas station on East Colfax Avenue and began walking home to his nearby apartment, which he shared with his cousin. Having received a 911 call about a “suspicious person,” Aurora Police officers approached the twenty-three-year-old. The caller said nobody was in danger; McClain was dancing to music and wearing a ski mask but had no weapon. Officers Nathan Woodyard, Jason Rosenblatt, and Randy Roedema aggressively contacted and restrained McClain for about fifteen minutes. They put him in a chokehold and continued to manhandle him after he was handcuffed. The officers claimed he was resisting arrest, but an audio recording revealed the young man was struggling to breathe (the officers’ body cameras had fallen off during the incident).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At that point, Jeremy Cooper and Peter Cichuniec, paramedics with Aurora Fire Rescue, arrived and injected McClain with a 500-milligram dose of the sedative ketamine—more than one and a half times the appropriate dose for his weight. The drug sent the young man into cardiac arrest. McClain was hospitalized for days until he was taken off life support and died from the altercation on August 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Initial Response</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Aurora Police Department did not release audio or video from the McClain incident until October 2019. The department report claimed that the young man “began to resist the officer contact and a struggle then ensued” before he was administered ketamine and taken into custody. On November 8, 2019, the coroner for <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/city-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a> Counties announced the cause of McClain’s death to be “undetermined.” On November 22, the district attorney for Adams and Broomfield Counties announced that the officers in the McClain case would not be charged, prompting outrage from the family and supporters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Lawsuit and Later Investigations</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>McClain’s case received renewed attention after the massive protests in response to George Floyd’s death in the spring of 2020. More than 800,000 people signed an online petition for justice for McClain in just two days. On June 25, Governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jared-polis"><strong>Jared Polis</strong></a> announced a state investigation into the McClain incident. Two days later, hundreds in the Aurora community gathered for a violin vigil to celebrate McClain’s life and call for justice. Interstate 225 was briefly shut down as demonstrators blocked the highway. Later, Aurora Police descended upon the violin vigil in full riot gear, breaking up the peaceful demonstration with pepper spray and baton prods. National and even international press condemned the response, but the Aurora Police Department defended its use of force.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 2020, McClain’s family filed a federal lawsuit against the city of Aurora and the officers involved in his death. Theirs was not the first lawsuit to allege misconduct and racial bias by the Aurora Police; the city had already shelled out some $4.6 million to cover previous settlements. The McClain lawsuit compiled a range of disturbing details, including the entire audio transcript of McClain pleading with officers to let him breathe and documented evidence of the Aurora Police’s alleged abuse of people of color.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In February 2021, three Aurora Police officers—Erica Marrero, Jaron Jones, and Kyle Dittrich—were found to have taken mocking photos of themselves in front of a memorial dedicated to McClain, reenacting the chokehold used on the young man before his death. The officers were fired, and the incident served as a scathing reminder to the community of how trivial McClain’s death was to the Aurora Police.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Charges</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In September 2021, after a grand jury investigation, state Attorney General Phil Weiser announced manslaughter charges for the three police officers and two paramedics involved in McClain’s death. That same month, Weiser’s office released the findings of its broader investigation into the Aurora Police Department—an investigation made possible by Colorado’s new <strong>police reform law</strong> passed after the Floyd protests. The report concluded the Aurora Police “culture leads to the frequent use of force, often in excess,” that the department “does not meaningfully review officers’ use of force,” and that Aurora Fire Rescue “had a pattern and practice of using ketamine in violation of the law.” The Aurora Police Department is cooperating with the state’s recommendations in the report. On November 18, 2021, the city of Aurora settled with the McClain family for $15 million.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elijah-mcclain" hreflang="en">elijah mcclain</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elijah-mcclain-story" hreflang="en">elijah mcclain story</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/elijah-mcclain-police" hreflang="en">elijah mcclain police</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora-police-department" hreflang="en">aurora police department</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/racism" hreflang="en">racism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/racism-colorado" hreflang="en">racism in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/police-brutality" hreflang="en">police brutality</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Attorney General of the State of Colorado, “<a href="https://ewscripps.brightspotcdn.com/3d/15/0226fdd94a12b23ae6dfdc72389e/pattern-and-pracice-investigation-report-aurora.pdf">Investigation of the Aurora Police Department and Aurora Fire Rescue</a>,” September 15, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Blair Miller, “<a href="https://www.denver7.com/news/local-news/aurora-police-violate-laws-use-excessive-force-and-racially-biased-practices-according-to-state-report">Aurora Police Violate Laws, Use Excessive Force and Racially Biased Practices, According to State Report</a>,” <em>Denver Channel</em>, September 15, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/09/01/1033289263/elijah-mcclain-death-officers-paramedics-charged">Officers and Paramedics Are Charged in Elijah McClain’s 2019 Death in Colorado</a>,” <em>NPR </em>via <em>Associated Press</em>, September 1, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Noelle Phillips and Elise Schmelzer, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2021/09/01/elijah-mcclain-grand-jury-aurora-police/">Elijah McClain Case: Grand Jury Indicts Police, Paramedics in Death</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, September 1, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/1/police-chief-defends-crackdown-at-elijah-mcclain-violin-vigil">Police Chief Defends Crackdown at Elijah McClain Violin Vigil</a>,” <em>Al Jazeera</em>, July 1, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/elijah-mcclain-two-year-death-anniversary-aurora-injustice-update-12189609">Aurora’s Pathetic Performance in Two Years Since Elijah McClain Death</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, August 30, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/claim-alberto-torres-one-of-at-least-13-people-of-color-abused-by-aurora-cops-since-2003-11026378">Claim: At Least 13 People of Color Abused by Aurora Cops Since 2003</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, January 23, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/elijah-mcclain-police-related-death-to-be-reviewed-by-colorado-governor-11732615">Elijah McClain Update: Polis Asks AG to Investigate Police-Related Death</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, June 25, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/no-criminal-charges-in-elijah-mcclain-aurora-police-death-update-11555397">Lawyer on Elijah McClain: It’s a Capital Crime in Aurora to Be Black, Act Weird</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, November 25, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/denver-and-aurora-protests-update-statue-arson-and-elijah-mcclain-violin-rally-pepper-sprayed-11734765">Protests Update: Statue Fire Arrests, Elijah McClain Violin Rally Sprayed</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, June 29, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elise Schmelzer, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2021/11/18/elijah-mcclain-aurora-settlement/">Aurora Agrees to Pay $15 million to Elijah McClain’s Parents to Settle Lawsuit Over 2019 Death</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, November 18, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elise Schmelzer, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2021/02/09/elijah-mcclain-aurora-police-fired-appeals/">Aurora Police Officers Fired for Photos Taken at Elijah McClain Memorial Site Lose Appeals to Rejoin Department</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, February 9, 2021.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elise Schmelzer, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2020/08/11/elijah-mcclain-lawsuit-aurora-colorado-police/">Elijah McClain’s Family Sues Aurora Officers, Paramedics Involved in His Death</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 11, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Grant Stringer, “<a href="https://sentinelcolorado.com/metro/unlikely-suspect-those-who-knew-elijah-balk-at-aurora-police-account-of-his-death/">Unlikely Suspect: Those Who Knew Elijah Balk at Aurora Police Account of His Death</a>,” <em>Aurora Sentinel</em>, October 27, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Patty Nieberg, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2020/08/22/elijah-mcclain-ketamine-police-arrests/">Elijah McClain Case Leads to Scrutiny of Ketamine’s Use During Arrests</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em> via <em>Associated Press</em>, August 22, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>DJ Summers, “<a href="https://kdvr.com/news/colorado-has-some-of-nations-highest-police-shooting-numbers/">Colorado Has Some of Nation’s Highest Police Shooting Numbers</a>,” FOX 31 Denver, May 18, 2021.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 09 Feb 2022 00:33:10 +0000 yongli 3660 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mike Coffman http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mike-coffman <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mike Coffman</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3351--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3351.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mike-coffman"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Mike_Coffman_official_photo_0.jpg?itok=h0BPvr4h" width="520" height="616" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mike-coffman" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mike Coffman</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Mike Coffman was raised in Aurora, Colorado, and represented the state's Sixth Congressional District from 2009-19. He is currently the mayor of Aurora. A veteran of the Army and Marines, Coffman is known for his support of veterans' issues.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T17:51:45-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 17:51" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 17:51</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mike-coffman" data-a2a-title="Mike Coffman"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmike-coffman&amp;title=Mike%20Coffman"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Mike Coffman (1955–) is a Colorado politician who is currently the mayor of <strong>Aurora</strong>, his childhood hometown. From 2009 to 2019, Coffman served in Congress, representing Colorado’s Sixth <strong>Congressional District</strong>, which includes Aurora. He also previously served as the state’s treasurer and secretary of state. A member of the <strong>Republican Party</strong>, Coffman is regarded as a moderate, though his positions have oscillated between the political center and the Right.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Before he became a politician, Coffman served in the US Army and Marines, with two tours in the Middle East—the first during the <strong>Gulf War</strong> and the second during the <strong>Iraq War</strong>. In Congress, Coffman proposed several bills aimed at improving the Department of Veterans Affairs, including a bill that allowed for the replacement of a VA hospital in Aurora.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Harold Coffman was born on March 19, 1955, in Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, where his father was stationed. The family soon relocated to Aurora, Colorado. Mike followed in his father’s military footsteps, dropping out of Aurora Central High School at the age of seventeen and joining the army. He completed high school while stationed in Germany, then returned to Colorado and attended the <strong>University of Colorado</strong>, graduating in 1979. That same year, Coffman left the army and joined the marines.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Military Career</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coffman avoided disaster on his first tour in 1982, when he was reassigned from Lebanon just one year before the Marine barracks there was bombed. Over the course of his military career, Coffman was deployed twice to combat zones—once to Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm in 1990, and a second time to Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2005, where he held the rank of major. Reflecting on his service years, Coffman considers himself fortunate to have avoided serious injury and to have no trauma that, in his words, “keeps me up at night.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Politics</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a veteran who also ran a property-management business in Aurora, Coffman decided to try his hand at politics in the late 1980s. He was elected to the Colorado House of Representatives in 1988, took a leave of absence for his deployment in 1990, then returned in 1994 to be elected to the State Senate. He was then twice elected state treasurer in 1998 and 2002 before his second deployment to Iraq in 2005. After Coffman returned in 2006, then-governor <strong>Bill Owens</strong> appointed him as secretary of state. By 2008 Coffman decided he had enough political experience to run for Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>US Representative</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On November 4, 2008, Mike Coffman was elected as representative of Colorado’s Sixth Congressional District, which included his hometown of Aurora. He handily defeated Democratic opponent Hank Eng, winning 60 percent of the vote to Eng’s 39. Two years later, he won reelection by a similar margin over Democrat John Flerlage.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Support for Veterans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In Congress, Coffman championed veterans’ issues, sponsoring several bills that sought to reform the Veterans Affairs Department (VA) and allow greater access to its services. In April 2017, for example, Coffman introduced legislation directing the VA to hire “at least 50” specialists “at eligible VA medical centers to ensure veterans who become involved in the criminal justice system have greater access to veterans Treatment Courts.” The bill was signed into law by President Donald Trump in 2018. Coffman was also instrumental in passing legislation to support the replacement of Denver’s VA hospital. Although he was critical of the VA’s stewardship of the project—it came in nearly $1 billion over budget—Coffman was on hand to cut the ribbon when the new hospital opened its doors in August 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Affordable Care Act Opposition</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coffman strongly supported health-care reform for veterans, but he showed considerably less support for general health-care reform. In 2010 he voted against the Affordable Care Act, President Barack Obama’s signature healthcare legislation. After the act became law, Coffman joined other House Republicans in votes to repeal the law in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During his reelection campaign in 2012, Coffman apologized after telling an audience at an <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/elbert-county"><strong>Elbert County</strong></a> fundraiser that he was not sure if President Obama was born in the United States and that he was sure the president was not “American.” Coffman went on to a narrow reelection over Democrat Joe Miklosi, earning 47.8 percent of the vote to Miklosi’s 45.8.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Gun Control</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the 2012 <strong>Aurora theater shooting</strong>, which killed twelve people and injured dozens in Coffman’s district, he acknowledged the right of the Colorado legislature to establish background checks for private gun sales and ban the sales of high-capacity magazines. However, he questioned the laws’ efficacy. Instead of supporting stricter gun control, Coffman has opted for other deterrents, such as when he voted in favor of the STOP School Violence Act of 2018, which funneled grant money to schools to improve security. Overall, Coffman received a 93 percent rating from the National Rifle Association for his tenure in Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Immigration</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The 2012 election was the first under the Sixth Congressional District’s new boundaries, which reflected a surge in Aurora’s immigrant population. Political analysts saw these shifts as making Coffman more electorally vulnerable, especially since he had a record of voting against immigrant protection measures, such as the D.R.E.A.M. Act in 2010. He also voted with Republicans to block the enforcement of President Obama’s 2013 executive order on immigration, which called for increased border security and created a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants. Coffman also voted in favor of a bill that would punish “state or local governments” for denying law enforcement requests for information on an individual’s citizenship status.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Coffman’s position on immigration became even more of a liability in his district after the election of Donald Trump in 2016. During his 2018 reelection campaign, Coffman was forced to choose between siding with the president’s hardline immigration policies or taking a more moderate approach that would appeal to his constituents but alienate him from Republicans. Coffman opted to distance himself from Trump, calling the president’s order to separate families at the border “a horrible, horrible judgment call.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>2018 Defeat and Congressional Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2018 Coffman’s difficult position as a moderate Republican in a district that now leaned Democratic proved to be his undoing. He lost the election by twelve percentage points to Democratic challenger <strong>Jason Crow</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For his ten-year congressional career, Coffman received ratings of 90 percent or above from conservative groups such as the US Chamber of Commerce and Americans for Prosperity, but he also earned a B+ from the more liberal National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML). By contrast, Coffman received his lowest ratings from traditionally progressive groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union (21 percent) and the League of Conservation Voters (20 percent).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mayor of Aurora</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Retreating from national politics, Coffman decided to run for mayor of his hometown of Aurora in 2019. Coffman believed that Aurora had “the greatest potential for economic growth of any city in Colorado” but also argued that Aurora’s “violent crime” needed to be controlled.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Overall, his vision for the city is to increase resources for public safety as well as focus on sustainable development and support for Aurora’s large immigrant population. He raised $440,000 for his campaign, which set a new city record for political fundraising, and received the endorsement of the Fraternal Orders of Police from both the Aurora Police Department and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe County</strong></a> Deputy Sheriff’s office.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In mid-August 2019, just two weeks after Coffman received the endorsement of the Aurora Police Union, Elijah McClain, a twenty-three-year-old black man, died after being in Aurora Police custody. Even though McClain was unarmed and had not committed a crime, officers restrained him with chokeholds and other physical measures. McClain went into cardiac arrest on the way to the hospital and died when his family decided to take him off life support on August 30.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Residents reacted angrily after an autopsy declared in November that McClain’s cause of death was “undetermined” and the district attorney did not recommend punishment for any of the involved officers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, Coffman was narrowly elected mayor in November, defeating Democrat and Aurora NAACP president Omar Montgomery by just 215 votes. It took county officials nearly nine days to arrive at the final tally.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elijah McClain’s death put Coffman, a white man who received endorsements from the police and then defeated the local NAACP president, in an awkward position. He was sworn in as mayor just weeks after the district attorney declined to prosecute the officers. At first, Coffman said he wanted to “get to the bottom” of the case and “build bridges” to the city’s African American community; however, he did not take action until June, after McClain's case garnered national press attention in the wake of widespread <strong>police brutality protests</strong>. In the meantime, state and federal agencies opened investigations into the McClain case.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On June 27, 2020, Coffman told NPR that the delayed response was due to a suspicion of police bias from the independent investigator appointed by city manager Jim Twombly. Although he described McClain's death as "preventable" and "tragic," Coffman also said that McClain's "preexisting conditions as a pretty fragile individual physically" contributed to his death. On July 7, with Coffman's support, Twombly announced that the city will put together an independent panel of "local and national members" to investigate the McClain case on behalf of the city.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Personal Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2005 Coffman married Cynthia Honssinger, an attorney and fellow Republican politician who served as Colorado’s attorney general from 2015 to 2019. The couple divorced in 2017.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mike-coffman" hreflang="en">mike coffman</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/republicans" hreflang="en">republicans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-politics" hreflang="en">colorado politics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-congressional-districts" hreflang="en">colorado congressional districts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/6th-congressional-district" hreflang="en">6th congressional district</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora-mayor" hreflang="en">aurora mayor</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/democrats" hreflang="en">democrats</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/politics" hreflang="en">Politics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/politicans" hreflang="en">politicans</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/aurora-police-elijah-mcclain-body-camera-autopsy/">Aurora Police Announce No Charges in Death of Elijah McClain Following Arrest</a>,” CBS 4 Denver, November 22, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://apnews.com/general-news-5ee8331356004667913ec554edf8c8d0">Coffman Sets Apparent Fundraising Record in Aurora Race</a>,” <em>Associated Press</em>, August 10, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Conor McCormick-Cavanagh, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/mike-coffman-wants-to-focus-on-elijah-mcclain-case-11542738">Mike Coffman’s First Priority as Aurora Mayor Will Be Elijah McClain Case</a>,” November 8, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mike Coffman, “<a href="https://sentinelcolorado.com/opinion/mike-coffman-aurora-crime-affects-everyone-and-must-be-a-priority/">Aurora Crime Affects Everyone and Must Be a Priority</a>,” <em>Sentinel Colorado </em>(Aurora), October 19, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mike Coffman, “<a href="http://www.mikeforauroramayor.com/">Why I’m Running</a>,” MikeForAuroraMayor.com, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Govtrack, “<a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/members/mike_coffman/412271">Mike Coffman</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Derek Kessinger, “<a href="https://www.5280.com/mike-coffman-declares-victory-in-the-aurora-mayors-race/">Mike Coffman Declares Victory in the Aurora Mayor’s Race</a>,” <em>5280 Magazine</em>, November 14 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Curtis Lee, “<a href="https://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2012/05/16/coffman-2/71235/">Coffman Says Obama ‘Not an American</a>,’” <em>The Denver Post </em>(blog), May 16, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse Paul, “<a href="https://coloradosun.com/2018/10/12/mike-coffman-bio-6th-congressional-district-colorado/">Get to know US Rep. Mike Coffman, the Republican Running for Re-election in Colorado’s 6th Congressional District</a>,” <em>Colorado Sun</em>, October 12, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse Paul, “<a href="https://coloradosun.com/2018/10/03/mike-coffman-jason-crow-on-the-issues/">Mike Coffman vs. Jason Crow</a>,” <em>Colorado Sun</em>, October 3, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.healthreformvotes.org/congress/412271">Rep. Mike Coffman: Key Health Care Votes</a>,” Healthreformvotes.org, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/elijah-mcclain-aurora-police-death-autopsy-report-ripped-by-attorney-11546039">Attorney Rips ‘Undetermined’ Autopsy in Elijah McClain Aurora Police Death</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, November 13, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Veterans History Project, “<a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/afc2001001.101146/">Mike Coffman Collection</a>,” Library of Congress, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vote Smart, “<a href="https://justfacts.votesmart.org/candidate/key-votes/1535/michael-coffman/37/guns">Michael Coffman’s Voting Record on Issue: Guns</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vote Smart, “<a href="https://justfacts.votesmart.org/candidate/key-votes/1535/michael-coffman/40/immigration">Michael Coffman’s Voting Record on Issue: Immigration</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ben Warwick, “<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/aurora-police-union-endorses-mike-coffman-for-aurora-mayor/">Aurora Police Union Endorses Mike Coffman for Mayor</a>,” CBS 4 Denver, August 6, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Thomas E. Cronin and Robert D. Loevy, <em>Colorado Politics and Policy: Governing a Purple State </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gabe Gutierrez, Rich Gardella, and Bita Ryan, “<a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/va-hospital-scandal/new-colorado-va-hospital-state-art-more-1-billion-over-n898091">New Colorado VA hospital Is State of the Art, and More Than $1 billion Over budget</a>,” <em>NBC News</em>, August 17, 2018.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 23:51:45 +0000 yongli 3282 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Jamaica Primary School http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jamaica-primary-school <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jamaica Primary School</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2018-05-21T15:43:37-06:00" title="Monday, May 21, 2018 - 15:43" class="datetime">Mon, 05/21/2018 - 15:43</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jamaica-primary-school" data-a2a-title="Jamaica Primary School"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fjamaica-primary-school&amp;title=Jamaica%20Primary%20School"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Jamaica Primary School is a midcentury elementary school designed by Atchison &amp; Kloverstrom that opened in <strong>Aurora</strong>’s Havana Park neighborhood in 1958. Part of a massive school-building effort by Aurora Public Schools to keep up with the city’s booming postwar population, Jamaica was intended to serve as a small community school for local children in kindergarten through third grade. Now home to a preschool called the Jamaica Child Development Center, the building is the best preserved of Aurora’s twenty-five midcentury schools.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Keeping Up with Postwar Growth</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Before <strong>World War II</strong>, Aurora was a small town of fewer than 3,500 people. Already by that time, however, the open land east of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> had started to attract large military and aeronautical installations that promised to transform the region. <a href="/article/fitzsimons-general-hospital"><strong>Fitzsimons General Hospital</strong></a> had opened in Aurora in 1918, while <a href="/article/stapleton-international-airport"><strong>Stapleton Airport</strong></a> was built just across the Denver border in 1929. A decade later, <strong>Lowry Field</strong> opened in 1938, during the run-up to World War II, and was followed during the war by <strong>Buckley Field</strong> and <strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong> in 1942. These installations brought huge numbers of workers and soldiers to the Aurora area; many of them remembered Colorado fondly and returned with their families after the war.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, military preparation for the Cold War and the Korean War continued to funnel new residents to Aurora, while the city’s 1949 decision to create its own water department freed it from Denver’s tighter leash on growth. By 1950 Aurora had nearly 11,500 residents, a number that would mushroom to more than 48,500 in 1960 and nearly 80,000 in 1970. Thanks to the postwar baby boom, a remarkably high proportion of these new residents—more than 20 percent—were school-age children, taking the population of Aurora Public Schools from about 1,000 in 1949 to nearly 10,000 by 1957.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Facing a crippling classroom shortage, Aurora built new schools as fast as it could. Aided by a 1950 law providing assistance to municipalities affected by an influx of government jobs, the city built fifteen new schools during the 1950s and a total of twenty-five between 1945 and 1970. To save money and time, the school board employed a single Denver-based firm, Atchison &amp; Kloverstrom, to design the vast majority of buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Schools for Modern Education</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During Aurora’s 1950s boom, the Havana Park neighborhood of midcentury ranch houses took shape rapidly between Sixth and Eleventh Avenues on the east side of Lowry Air Force Base. When up to 150 new houses were slated for construction in the area around the planned Del Mar Parkway in early 1957, Aurora announced that it would acquire a large lot for a school at Eighth Avenue and Jamaica Street for $35,000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like Boston Primary (1953) and Paris Primary (1955), two earlier Atchison &amp; Kloverstrom designs, Jamaica Primary School was built to serve neighborhood children in kindergarten through third grade. The single-story building incorporated many distinctive midcentury design elements, including a steel frame, tan brick facing, large bands of windows, exterior classroom doors, flat awnings, and a flat roof. The entrance of the U-shaped school faced west onto Jamaica Street, with two perpendicular wings extending east to frame a rear courtyard. The central section had restrooms, an office, and a library, while the north wing contained four classrooms and the south wing held four more classrooms, a multipurpose room, and a kitchen. With only eight classrooms, the school’s design reflected a progressive educational philosophy favoring small, child-focused schools with a comforting environment that emphasized social as well as intellectual development.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thanks to Aurora’s close relationship with Atchison &amp; Kloverstrom, school construction went quickly, with Jamaica Primary welcoming 300 students in January 1958. Jamaica immediately relieved severe overcrowding at other schools and became an important neighborhood center that could be used for meetings, performances, and other events. But even Jamaica had so many students that kindergarten and first grade were initially held in split sessions, with different student groups attending at different times. In the fall of 1958, Jamaica’s kindergarten moved to a separate building to alleviate the ongoing classroom shortage, but it later returned to its planned home in the school’s northwest corner.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Jamaica Primary School’s midcentury design has remained largely intact. The most significant alterations to the school occurred in 1970. That year, the building’s original skylights were removed to prevent leaks and allow classrooms to get dark enough for students to see projector displays and videos, and a rear addition was built to provide space for a teachers’ lounge. Designed by <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a> firm Lamar &amp; Kelsey, the addition mirrored the original building so closely that it was nearly indistinguishable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2009 Jamaica Primary School was converted to the Jamaica Child Development Center—the second school in the Aurora district dedicated solely to serving preschool students; in this case it served those with educational challenges. As part of the change, the school’s bathrooms were remodeled, new playground equipment was added, and the library was turned into an office. Nearby, two new buildings constructed on the Jamaica School property in 2002 and 2014 now offer additional options for early childhood education.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these changes, Jamaica Primary School retains many of its original finishes—including tiled hallway walls and exposed-brick classroom walls—and remains an excellent example of midcentury school design. In 2017 the school was listed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-schools" hreflang="en">historic schools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/havana-park" hreflang="en">Havana Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/midcentury-architecture" hreflang="en">midcentury architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/atchison-kloverstrom" hreflang="en">Atchison &amp; Kloverstrom</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Abigail Christman, “Jamaica Primary School,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (October 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven F. Mehls, Carol J. Drake, and James E. Fell Jr., <em>Aurora: Gateway to the Rockies</em> (Evergreen, CO: Cordillera Press, 1985).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Sherah J. Collins, Aurora (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2008).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 21 May 2018 21:43:37 +0000 yongli 2890 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado in World War I http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado in World War I</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-09-13T14:17:05-06:00" title="Wednesday, September 13, 2017 - 14:17" class="datetime">Wed, 09/13/2017 - 14:17</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i" data-a2a-title="Colorado in World War I"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-world-war-i&amp;title=Colorado%20in%20World%20War%20I"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>As Europe stumbled into war in late July and early August 1914, Coloradans viewed the conflict with mixed emotions. Some favored the English, French, Italians, Russians, and their allies. Others preferred the Germans and Austrians and their friends. The divisions were predictable. The 1910 federal census showed that approximately 16 percent of Colorado’s 799,024 residents were foreign-born. Among them were more than 28,000 Germans and Austrians, more than 17,000 English and Scottish, and more than 14,000 Italians. At the onset of the war, President Woodrow Wilson asked Americans to embrace neutrality, but that proved difficult for many foreign-born sons and daughters and their families.</p> <p>Some Coloradans hoped the war would spur demand for the state’s cattle, coal, crops, and minerals. Others worked for peace. Detroit automaker Henry Ford invited two Denverites—Ben B. Lindsey, nationally known as the “kid’s judge” for his promotion of juvenile justice, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/helen-ring-robinson"><strong>Helen Ring Robinson</strong></a>, the first woman elected to the Colorado State Senate—to sail to Europe with him and other prominent peace advocates. Their mission failed early in 1916. Ben Salmon, an anti-war activist, stayed home in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, where he passed out leaflets supporting Wilson’s pledge to keep America out of war.</p> <p>Wilson changed his position after Germany announced in February 1917 that it would engage in unrestricted submarine warfare—a huge threat to the considerable trade the United States enjoyed with England and France. Americans also grew alarmed when they learned in early March that in the event of war, Germany hoped to make an alliance with Mexico. Prompted by President Wilson, the US Congress declared war on Germany. Two of Colorado’s four congressmen, Benjamin C. Hilliard of Denver and Edward Keating of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, were among the fifty members of the House of Representatives who voted against the declaration on April 6, 1917.</p> <h2>The Home Front</h2> <p>Once the United States entered the conflict, most Coloradans backed the war against Germany or kept their reservations to themselves. <a href="/article/creede\"><strong>Creede</strong></a>, a small mining town, celebrated US entry into WWI with a simulated 21-gun salute using 400 pounds of dynamite. <strong><em>The</em> <em>Denver Post</em></strong> offered 300 free flags to subscribers who persuaded a non-subscriber to take the paper for a month. For some immigrants the war offered an opportunity to prove that they were as “red, white, and blue” as Uncle Sam. On April 27, 1917, the <em>Aspen Democrat Times</em> quoted one local patriot, Irish-born Reverend Patrick McSweeny: “Let no man call me an Irish-American. Just an American is all that I am—all that I care to be.”</p> <p>To turn patriotism into action, Colorado governor <strong>Julius Gunther</strong> ordered a special session of the General Assembly to meet in Denver in early July 1917. It appropriated funds for the National Guard and gave every member of the Guard a ten-dollar bonus. In early August the Guard was put under federal control. To drum up war support, Gunther organized two Councils of Defense: one made up of leading men, the other of prominent women.</p> <p>The defense councils encouraged people to save food and fuel and to lend the federal government money by buying Liberty Bonds and War Savings Stamps. By late 1918, Coloradans had purchased more than $150 million in bonds and stamps. Coloradans did not face rationing as extensive or enduring as they did in <strong>World War II</strong>, but they saw rising food and fuel prices and limited supplies of sugar and wheat. To curb coal prices, Denver mayor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/robert-w-speer"><strong>Robert W. Speer</strong></a> created a city-owned coal company in September 1917, and he pondered setting up a municipal bakery to control bread prices. Conscientious citizens planted gardens and saved food by forgoing meat on Tuesday and wheat on Wednesday. Colorado State Agricultural College in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> (now <strong>Colorado State University</strong>) dispatched home economists to teach people how to conserve and preserve food. Men mined molybdenum at Bartlett Mountain north of <strong>Leadville</strong> and tungsten near <strong>Nederland</strong> west of <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>; both elements were needed for making high-grade steel for armaments.</p> <p>Women staffed canteens at Denver’s <a href="/article/union-station-0"><strong>Union Station</strong></a> and at Pueblo, where they supplied travelling soldiers with candy, cigarettes, and stationery. At the Colorado State Hospital for the Insane in Pueblo, women wielded their knitting needles for the Red Cross. Women also filled gaps in the work force, particularly in agriculture. Helen Ring Robinson, a member of the Woman’s Council of Defense, shifted from peace promotion to war work as she tirelessly traveled around the state urging citizens to buy Liberty Bonds. Ben Lindsey went to England and France to talk with the troops. Denver journalist George Creel stoked patriotic fires as Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, the federal government’s propaganda agency.</p> <p>Hyper-patriotism sometimes degenerated into witch hunts. Historian Lyle Dorset tells of Germans and Austrians being threatened with hanging, pressured to buy war bonds, and otherwise harassed. Historian Phil Goodstein reports that a Denver “loyalty squad” attacked Fred Sietz, a German-American who made anti-war remarks and refused to kiss the flag. Putting a rope around his neck, they dragged him behind a truck from Eighteenth Avenue and Pearl Street into the downtown business district. They dumped Sietz “near Sixteenth and Champa streets where he was rushed to the hospital in poor condition.”</p> <p><a href="/article/fort-morgan"><strong>Fort Morgan</strong></a> banned teaching German in school and made a bonfire of German books. High-schoolers in <a href="/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a> burned their German books, as did grade-schoolers in Fairplay. Denver’s East High School stopped teaching German in early 1918. Peace activists also became targets. Ben Salmon, who said he would not join the Army and kill Germans who were his brothers, was sentenced to twenty-five years in federal prison.</p> <h2>The Military</h2> <p>Some Coloradans were serving in the military before the United States entered the war; as the struggle progressed, around 1,500 others volunteered by May 1918. Federalization of the National Guard probably added around 4,500, but the numbers fell far short of the nation’s needs. Unable to get sufficient volunteers, Uncle Sam resorted to drafting young men. Most served in the US Army, although the state also took pride in its Marines and seamen and the Navy cruisers named for its two principal cities, the U.S.S. <em>Denver</em> and the U.S.S. <em>Pueblo</em>, which protected convoys on their way to Europe.</p> <p>The US Army judged Colorado too cold a place to establish a major training camp, so most of the state’s volunteers and draftees learned to be soldiers at places such as Camp Funston in Kansas, Camp Kearney in San Diego, and Camp Mills at Hempstead, New York. Most Coloradans were mixed in with troops from other states, with many of them serving in the Fortieth and Eighty-ninth Divisions. A few units more or less retained their Colorado identity, including the 157th Infantry, the 341st Field Artillery, the 115th Engineers, and Base Hospital 29. Most of the state’s African American soldiers came from Denver, and most Latino troops hailed from the state’s southern counties. Blacks served in segregated units and in the Colorado National Guard, where some were assigned to protect state reservoirs.</p> <p>Most Colorado troops did not enter serious combat until July and August of 1918, although some fought in the grueling, twenty-six-day battle at Belleau Wood in June. The waning months of the conflict saw Coloradans active in major offensives such as Aisne-Marne (July 18–August 6), St. Mihiel (September 12–16), and Meuse-Argonne (September 26–November 11).</p> <p>Soldiers’ letters published in newspapers gave Coloradans a glimpse of the war. One account in the Fort Collins <em>Weekly Courier</em> of December 27, 1918, described the troops’ reaction to the Armistice that ended the carnage on November 11, 1918: “There was none of the cheering or the excitement, crying, weeping, hugging and slapping of shoulders that you would want to see. It is hard to express our feelings. We were tired.”</p> <p>In 1949 historian LeRoy Hafen wrote that “1,009 [Colorado military personnel] were killed or died in service.” Germans killed some Colorado soldiers; many others died from accidents and disease, particularly <a href="/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tuberculosis</strong></a> or <strong>influenza</strong>. At least two—Clara Orgren and Stella Raithel—were nurses. Ironically, the number of war dead paled compared to the more than 7,500 Coloradans who succumbed to the influenza pandemic that ravaged the state between September 1918 and early 1919.</p> <p>Two Coloradans, Lt. Marcellus Chiles and Cpt. John Hunter Wickersham, posthumously received the Congressional Medal of Honor for their heroism. Two other Congressional Medal recipients, Pvt. Jesse N. Funk and US Navy Quartermaster Frank Upton, survived the war. Also fortunate was Cpt. Jerry C. Vasconcells, an aviator who shot down six German aircraft—including a balloon—to become Colorado’s only World War I flying ace.</p> <p>Many of the dead were initially buried abroad, usually in cemeteries in northern France where their graves remain to this day. Others eventually returned home. Pvt. Leo T. Leyden, a Marine killed in action on June 15, 1918, was the first Denver soldier to fall in the conflict. His body was returned more than three years later in early September 1921. Given the honor of lying in-state at the Colorado Capitol, he was also memorialized by Denver’s first American Legion post, the Leo Leyden Post (organized March 20, 1919). Later it merged with other posts to become today’s Leyden-Chiles-Wickersham Post Number 1.</p> <p>Denver’s black veterans named their Legion post after Wallace Simpson, an African American cabin steward who died when the U.S.S. <em>Jacob Jones</em>, a Navy destroyer, was torpedoed by a German U-Boat on December 6, 1917. Veterans in Fort Collins gave Charles L. Conrey a similar tribute by naming their Veterans of Foreign Wars post for him in July 1921, a few months before his body was returned. Other American Legion posts named for World War I men were established in <strong>Arvada</strong>, <strong>Durango</strong>, <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>, <strong>Gunnison</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, <a href="/article/pagosa-springs"><strong>Pagosa Springs</strong></a>, Salida, and <strong>Steamboat Springs</strong>.</p> <p>At least two Coloradans had major military installations named for them. In the late 1930s Lowry Field (later <strong>Lowry Air Force Base</strong>) was named for Lt. Francis Brown Lowry of Denver, an aerial photographer who was shot down over France in September 1918. A spin-off from Lowry, originally called Lowry II, became today’s <strong>Buckley Air Force Base</strong> in <strong>Aurora</strong>. It honors Lt. John H. Buckley of Longmont, an aviator killed in France on September 17, 1918.</p> <p>On average, Colorado soldiers participated in fewer than six months of fighting, but many of them had been in the Army or Marines for a year or so before engaging in battle. After the war many remained in Europe until they could be transported back to the United States in mid-1919. On arriving home they found welcomes warm but jobs scarce, as wartime demand for farm products and minerals declined. For some the war had been a great adventure, for others an unwelcome detour in their lives, and for others a nightmare.</p> <h2>Aftermath&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2> <p>Denver and Aurora got a big plum from the war—a large Army hospital intended to treat victims of tuberculosis and poison gas. Named US General Hospital No. 21 in 1918, it was renamed <a href="/article/fitzsimons-general-hospital"><strong>Fitzsimons</strong></a> in 1920 to honor Lt. William T. Fitzsimons, a Kansan who was the first American medical officer to die in the war. For most Denverites the economic benefits provided by Fitzsimons were offset by the inflation fueled by the war. Food and other prices soared, and often wages did not keep pace. That led to <a href="/article/denver-tramway-strike-1920"><strong>strikes against the Denver Tramway</strong></a> in 1919 and 1920, with seven bystanders killed by strikebreakers in 1920. Wartime hyper-patriotism led to the attacks on suspected Communists during the 1919–20 “Red Scare” and to the rise of a powerful <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado">Colorado Ku Klux Klan</a></strong> that trumpeted “100% Americanism.”</p> <p>Some Coloradans turned their wartime experiences into lauded works of literature. Ben Lindsey used his war experience in Europe to produce a book, <em>The Doughboy’s Religion and Other Aspects of Our Day </em>(1920), which he co-authored with Harvey J. O’Higgins. Katherine Anne Porter, destined to become a Pulitzer prize-winning novelist, was a reporter for Denver’s <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> in 1918. Her short novel, <em>Pale Horse, Pale Rider</em> (1939), was shaped by her days in Denver, including her near death from influenza. Screenwriter and novelist Dalton Trumbo (born in <a href="/article/montrose"><strong>Montrose</strong></a> in 1905) drew on the horrors of World War I for his award-winning anti-war novel, <em>Johnny Got His Gun</em> (1939).</p> <p>Political enemies lambasted congressmen Benjamin Hilliard and Edward Keating for voting against the war declaration. Both were defeated when they sought re-election in November 1918. The American Civil Liberties Union and others pressured the government into releasing peace activist Ben Salmon in late 1920. According to biographer Pat Pascoe, when Helen Robinson was dying in 1923, she asked her stepdaughter to tell the newspapers that “it was the overworking of war days that made me an invalid.” Grateful for her service, Colorado allowed her body to rest in-state at the Capitol.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/leonard-stephen-j" hreflang="und">Leonard, Stephen J. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/world-war-i" hreflang="en">world war I</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/world-war-one" hreflang="en">world war one</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wwi-colorado" hreflang="en">wwi colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-world-war-i" hreflang="en">colorado in world war i</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-wwi" hreflang="en">colorado in wwi</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wwi-colorado-history" hreflang="en">wwi colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/creede" hreflang="en">Creede</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/longmont" hreflang="en">longmont</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/julius-gunther" hreflang="en">julius gunther</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/robert-speer" hreflang="en">robert speer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nederland" hreflang="en">nederland</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/union-station" hreflang="en">Union Station</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-morgan" hreflang="en">Fort Morgan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salida" hreflang="en">Salida</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tuberculosis" hreflang="en">tuberculosis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/influenza" hreflang="en">influenza</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lowry-air-force-base" hreflang="en">Lowry Air Force Base</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/buckley-air-force-base" hreflang="en">buckley air force base</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montrose" hreflang="en">Montrose</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stephen-leonard" hreflang="en">stephen leonard</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p> <p>Gail Beaton, <em>Colorado Women, A History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>Colorado State Adjutant-General’s Office, <em>Roster of Men and Women Who Served in the World War from Colorado, 1917</em>–<em>1918 </em>(Denver: Colorado National Guard, 1941).</p> <p>Philip L. Cook, “Red Scare in Denver,” <em>The Colorado Magazine</em>, fall 1966.</p> <p>Lyle W. Dorsett, “The Ordeal of Colorado’s Germans during World War I,” <em>The Colorado Magazine</em>, fall 1974.</p> <p>George H. English, Jr., <em>History of the 89<sup>th</sup> Division, U.S.A.</em> (Denver: Press of Smith-Brooks, 1918).</p> <p>Torin R.T. Finney, <em>Unsung Hero of the Great War: The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon</em> (New York: Paulist Press, 1989).</p> <p>Phil Goodstein, <em>Curtis Park, Five Points, and Beyond: The Heart of Historic East Denver</em> (Denver: New Social Publications, 2014).</p> <p>Phil Goodstein<em>, Robert Speer’s Denver, 1904-1920: The Mile High City in the Progressive Era</em> (Denver: New Social Publications, 2004).</p> <p>LeRoy Hafen, ed., <em>Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State, Volume I</em> (New York: Lewis Publishing Company, 1949).</p> <p>Edward Keating, <em>The Gentleman from Colorado: A Memoir</em> (Denver: Sage Books, 1964).</p> <p>Leonard Larsen, <em>The Good Fight: The Life and Times of Ben B. Lindsey</em> (Chicago: Quadrangle Press, 1972).</p> <p>Stephen J. Leonard, “The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in Denver and Colorado,” <em>Essays and Monographs in Colorado History</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, No. 9, 1989).</p> <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: From Mining Camp to Metropolis</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p> <p>John H. Nankivell, <em>History of the Military Organizations of the State of Colorado</em> (Denver: W. H. Kistler Stationary, 1935).</p> <p>Pat Pascoe, <em>Helen Ring Robinson: Colorado Senator and Suffragist </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p> <p>Clark Secrest, “Echoes From ‘Over There’,” <em>Colorado Heritage</em> magazine, winter 1992.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Arvada Center for the Arts and Humanities, “‘<a href="https://arvadacenter.org/on-stage/world-war-i-centennial">Where Do We Go From Here?’—America in the First World War</a>,” 2017.</p> <p>James K. Jeffrey, “<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/sites/history/files/Fallen_Heroes_of_World_War_I_from_Denver_Colorado.pdf">Fallen Heroes of World War I</a>,” Denver Public Library Western History and Genealogy Department.</p> <p>William Porter, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/05/26/history-colorado-shows-off-world-war-i-vets-trove-of-letters-home/">History Colorado shows off World War I vet’s trove of letters home</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, May 26, 2013.</p> <p>The United States World War I Centennial Commission, “<a href="https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/colorado-in-wwi-home-page.html">Colorado in World War I</a>,” 2017.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 13 Sep 2017 20:17:05 +0000 yongli 2737 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Hayden Ranch http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hayden-ranch <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Hayden Ranch</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2706--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2706.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/hayden-ranch-headquarters"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Hayden%20Ranch%20Media%201.jpeg?itok=-P_zJlTH" width="1090" height="527" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/hayden-ranch-headquarters" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Hayden Ranch Headquarters</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Hayden Ranch was an early and important agricultural operation in the Upper Arkansas Valley, supplying cattle and hay to the people and livestock that worked the area's mines. In 1998 Aurora bought the ranch for its water rights, and the ranch headquarters was stabilized and sold to Colorado Mountain College for use as an experiential education center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-07-05T13:02:51-06:00" title="Wednesday, July 5, 2017 - 13:02" class="datetime">Wed, 07/05/2017 - 13:02</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hayden-ranch" data-a2a-title="Hayden Ranch"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fhayden-ranch&amp;title=Hayden%20Ranch"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Located about ten miles south of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> in the Upper Arkansas Valley, Hayden Ranch was one of the most important early agricultural operations in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county">Lake County</a>. Owned by the Hayden family from 1872 to 1933, the ranch raised hay and cattle for sale in Leadville, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver">Denver</a>, and other markets throughout the state. In 1998 the city of<strong> Aurora</strong> bought the ranch for its <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> rights and sold the historic <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a> to the nonprofit Colorado Preservation Inc., which then worked with <strong>Colorado Mountain College</strong>’s Leadville campus to stabilize the ranch buildings and develop a plan for an experiential education center at the site.</p> <h2>Early Years</h2> <p>Hayden Ranch started as one of the earliest agricultural operations in Lake County. The ranch already existed in 1860, the year miners streamed into the Upper Arkansas Valley to pan for gold at California Gulch. Known as Elkhorn Ranch and owned by Benson and Company, the property lay on the west side of the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"> <strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in the shadow of <strong>Mt. Elbert</strong>. The ranch had a short growing season because of its high elevation—about 9,200 feet—but it had plenty of water and could be used to grow hay to feed the horses and mules that the area’s mining operations required.</p> <p>One of the new settlers who arrived in Lake County in the early 1860s was <strong>John L. Dyer</strong>, a Methodist Episcopal preacher and mail carrier who became famous for delivering letters and sermons to mining camps throughout Colorado’s central mountains. Dyer also tried his hand at prospecting and ranching, and in May 1864 he acquired Elkhorn Ranch, which soon became known as the Dyer and Harrington Hay Ranch. In the late 1860s, Dyer operated the ranch along with his son Elias, a county probate judge who was later assassinated during a conflict between rival ranching factions in 1875.</p> <p>Long before ranching violence erupted in Lake County, Dyer sold his ranch to <strong>Charles Mater</strong> in 1871. A German immigrant and early settler at California Gulch, Mater had opened his first store in Granite in 1870. His mercantile empire soon grew to six stores, and he became a mining investor and founding member of the Leadville Chamber of Commerce.</p> <h2>Hayden Ranch</h2> <p>Mater owned the ranch for only a year before selling it in 1872 to Francis and Olive Hayden. From then on, the property was known as Hayden Ranch. For two decades the family focused on producing hay and gradually expanded the ranch to about 3,500 acres. After a silver boom started at Leadville in 1877–78, the ranch’s hay and cattle helped sustain the people and animals who worked in the area’s bustling mines. In 1880 the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> built a siding at Hayden Ranch on its way up the Arkansas Valley to Leadville, providing the ranch with easier access to markets. At its height, the ranch yielded 3,000 tons of hay per year, with some of it supposedly being hand-sorted for quality and shipped to the Royal Stables in England.</p> <p>Unfortunately, the mines that fed the demand for Hayden Ranch’s agricultural produce also undermined it. Hayden Ranch was downstream from Leadville, so the water it used to irrigate its hay and other crops contained pollution from Leadville’s toxic mine tailings. By the early 1890s, the pollution was so bad that it affected both the quantity and quality of hay grown at the ranch. The ranch’s fortunes declined even further after 1893, when a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>major economic panic</strong></a> and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act caused many of Leadville’s mines to close and ended much of the local demand for Hayden Ranch’s produce.</p> <p>In 1918 management of the struggling ranch passed to Francis Hayden’s son-in-law, John Weir. Weir expanded the ranch’s operations beyond hay so it could survive, as hay-fueled horses and mules were displaced by cars, trucks, and other fossil-fuel machines. Weir immediately installed a waterwheel in a new wing that he built over a creek that ran east of the main hay barn. The waterwheel powered a sawmill, which Weir used to cut lumber for new ranch buildings, and a hay baler, which prepared hay for shipment from the ranch’s rail siding to markets across the state. Weir also moved the ranch into the livestock business. Each spring he bought a group of two-year-old steers that grazed at the ranch through the summer before being sent to Denver for sale in the fall.</p> <h2>After the Haydens</h2> <p>In 1933 the Hayden family sold the ranch to the Callahan Construction Company, which used the property as a Hereford cattle operation supporting about 500 head of cattle per year. In 1936 the company hired a graduate of the Colorado A&amp;M (now <strong>Colorado State University</strong>) School of Forestry to manage the ranch. The new manager started seasonal breeding so that all the calves would be the same age and size, and he also implemented new grazing patterns to avoid overgrazing.</p> <p>In 1939 the ranch took part in the US Army Remount Service, a program designed to breed top cavalry horses for the army. An army stallion was posted at the ranch’s horse barn, and the ranch got unlimited use of the stallion for breeding on the condition that the army received first choice of the offspring. The program proved to be a bust, however, because most of the stallion’s offspring soon died from a degenerative bone disease that was probably caused by the toxic mining waste that laced the Arkansas River. At the same time, the onset of <strong>World War II</strong> quickly showed that horses were obsolete in a new era of highly mechanized warfare.</p> <p>World War II also hurt the ranch in other ways. Labor was scarce during the war, and production decreased. In 1947 Callahan sold the ranch, which started to be used for seasonal cattle grazing. Most of the ranch buildings were no longer needed and began to deteriorate.</p> <p>As <strong>skiing</strong> took off in the 1960s, an optimistic group of investors bought thousands of acres of ranchland in Lake County with the dream of building a ski area on the slopes of Mt. Elbert. The only part of the plan that ever took shape was the Pan Ark Lodge (now the Moosehaven Condominiums) just north of the Hayden Ranch headquarters. In 1997 the investment group officially gave up and sold its 7,000 acres of land, including Hayden Ranch.</p> <h2>Preservation</h2> <p>In 1998 the city of Aurora bought Hayden Ranch’s roughly 1,800 acres to secure valuable water rights. The city soon approached Lake County to determine how best to use the land itself, which was still home to a cattle-grazing operation. The county quickly formed the Lake County Open Space Initiative (LCOSI)—a consortium of more than two dozen governmental agencies, nonprofit organizations, and citizens’ groups—to help guide and implement its decisions. The major goals for the land were to provide outdoor recreation opportunities while also preserving the ranch’s history and open spaces. To accomplish these goals, Aurora gave sixty acres of the property to Lake County and sold more than 1,400 acres to the <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong> and 360 acres to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-parks-and-wildlife">Colorado Parks and Wildlife</a>. In the early 2000s, Lake County received more than $350,000 from Great Outdoors Colorado to develop the Hayden Meadows Recreation Area with a pond, fishing docks, restrooms, and picnic tables.</p> <p>It proved more difficult to determine what to do with the historic buildings that made up the Hayden Ranch headquarters—including a large ranch house, several barns, and a variety of other ranch facilities—which needed significant stabilization and restoration work before they could be adapted for new uses. In 2003 the thirty-six-acre Hayden Ranch headquarters was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Two years later, Aurora sold the headquarters to the nonprofit Colorado Preservation, Inc., which started working with the Colorado Mountain College (CMC) campus in Leadville to stabilize the ranch’s historic structures and figure out preservation options at the site. In 2006 students in the College of Architecture and Planning at the <strong>University of Colorado–Denver</strong> developed designs for new and renovated spaces to house CMC classrooms and offices as well as the <strong>Rocky Mountain Land Library</strong>, which briefly considered moving to Hayden Ranch before ultimately leasing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buffalo-peaks-ranch"><strong>Buffalo Peaks Ranch</strong></a>.</p> <p>In 2007–8 Colorado Preservation secured grants from the <strong>State Historical Fund</strong> and several other agencies and foundations for the restoration of the ranch’s waterwheel and the stabilization of several ranch buildings. With that work complete, Colorado Preservation placed a conservation easement on the property and sold the site to CMC. Further stabilization work took place in stages over the next three years. In 2011 CMC completed a master plan for the Hayden Ranch headquarters and received a State Historical Fund grant for restoration work at the site, which it turned into an experiential education center for students in fields such as historic preservation, resource management, outdoor recreation, and sustainability. The program did not attract sufficient student interest, however, and ended after a few years.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/upper-arkansas-valley" hreflang="en">Upper Arkansas Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-mountain-college" hreflang="en">Colorado Mountain College</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-dyer" hreflang="en">John Dyer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/francis-hayden" hreflang="en">Francis Hayden</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-ranches" hreflang="en">historic ranches</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-preservation-inc" hreflang="en">Colorado Preservation Inc.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Michael Conlin, <a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2011-december/the-revival-of-the-hayden-ranch">“The Revival of the Hayden Ranch,”</a> <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, December 2011.</p> <p>Conlin Associates Resource Planners, <a href="https://www.gigshowcase.com/EndUserFiles/27096.pdf">“Hayden Homestead Master Plan,”</a> January 10, 2011.</p> <p><a href="https://www.auroragov.org/residents/water/water_system/recreation/hayden_meadows">“Hayden Meadows,”</a> City of Aurora, n.d.</p> <p><a href="https://coloradopreservation.org/projects/current-projects/hayden-ranch-stabilization/">“Hayden Ranch Stabilization,”</a> Colorado Preservation Inc., n.d.</p> <p>Suzy Kelly, <a href="https://www.leadvilleherald.com/free_content/article_66af4c2e-21e4-11ea-93fe-33da37fea2c0.html">"Hayden Ranch Dates Back to Before 1861,"</a>&nbsp;<em>Leadville Herald Democrat</em>, December 18, 2019.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Upper Arkansas: A Mountain River Valley</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1990).</p> <p>Sarah Zaske, “Hayden Ranch Headquarters,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (February 18, 2000).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John L. Dyer, <em>The Snow-Shoe Itinerant</em> (Lake City, CO: Western Reflections, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Fiester, <em>Look for Me in Heaven: The Life of John Lewis Dyer</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Don L. Griswold and Jean Harvey Griswold, <em>History of Leadville and Lake County, Colorado: From Mountain Solitude to Metropolis</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society in cooperation with the University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 05 Jul 2017 19:02:51 +0000 yongli 2705 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Buffalo Peaks Ranch http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buffalo-peaks-ranch <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buffalo Peaks Ranch</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-06-28T16:14:47-06:00" title="Wednesday, June 28, 2017 - 16:14" class="datetime">Wed, 06/28/2017 - 16:14</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buffalo-peaks-ranch" data-a2a-title="Buffalo Peaks Ranch"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbuffalo-peaks-ranch&amp;title=Buffalo%20Peaks%20Ranch"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Buffalo Peaks Ranch is one of the oldest ranches in <a href="/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a>, with roots in Adolphe and Marie Guiraud’s 1862 <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a> along the Middle Fork of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river">South Platte River</a> between <strong>Hartsel</strong> and <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>. Over the next eighty years, three generations of the Guiraud family gradually expanded the ranch before selling it to the McDowell family in 1943. In 1985 the city of <strong>Aurora</strong> acquired the ranch for its <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> rights and fishing access, and in 2013 Aurora leased the ranch’s historic buildings and some land to the <strong>Rocky Mountain Land Library</strong>, which plans to open a residential library on the property.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Guiraud Ranch</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Adolphe (sometimes spelled Adolph) and Marie Guiraud were pioneers in South Park ranching. Originally from France—Adolphe was born there in 1823, Marie in 1830—they came to the United States in 1850 and made their way to <strong><a href="/article/denver">Denver</a></strong> in 1860, soon after the <strong><a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush">Colorado Gold Rush</a></strong> of 1858–59. Adolphe opened a store in the town of Hamilton, which was just north of Como in<strong> <a href="/article/park-county">Park County</a></strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Guirauds quickly saw South Park’s agricultural potential. The park lay at a high elevation and received little precipitation, but it was relatively level and had lots of water running through the Platte and Tarryall drainages, making it suitable for growing hay and raising livestock. In 1861, while still in Hamilton, Adolphe claimed South Park’s first permanent ditch rights for agriculture, and in March 1862 the Guirauds <strong><a href="/article/homestead">homesteaded</a></strong> 160 acres along the Middle Fork of the South Platte River in the west-central part of the park. Because they had one of the earliest ranches, they also acquired some of the most valuable water rights in South Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the next few years, Adolphe continued to work as a merchant. In 1864 he had a meat market in Denver, and in 1865 he ran a store in Fairplay. By the winter of 1865, however, the Guiraud family started to focus on developing and expanding its South Park ranch. By 1868 the family had more than forty acres planted in wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, and other vegetables, and expanded the ranch by purchasing adjacent homesteads. By the time of Adolphe’s death in 1875, the ranch had grown to 640 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marie Guiraud and her ten children proved to be excellent ranch managers after South Park recovered from the locusts and grasshoppers that swept through the area in 1874 and 1876, respectively. The Guirauds were helped by the arrival of the <strong>Denver, South Park &amp; Pacific Railroad</strong>, which in 1879 built a line that passed about fifty feet west of the ranch house. Marie platted a town called Garo—an Anglicized version of Guiraud—across the river from the ranch, and the railroad established a station there. Garo grew in importance when a spur line was built from the station to Fairplay and <strong>Alma</strong> in the early 1880s. At its height, the town boasted about eighty people, a post office, and a store.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Guirauds were expanding their ranch and getting into the beef business. One of the Guiraud children, Louis, started a slaughterhouse in 1880, allowing him to ship beef to the lucrative <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> market. That year the ranch had 600 cattle and 2,000 acres of grazing land, making it one of the most valuable ranches in Park County. By the early 1900s, the Guirauds had enlarged their ranch to about 5,000 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1906 the original ranch house burned down, but Marie Guiraud immediately replaced it with a new one-story frame house featuring horizontal siding and a high-hipped roof. When Marie died in 1909, her son Ernest took over the ranch. He later passed it to his daughter, Mildred, and her husband, Harry Johns, who managed the ranch and served in the state legislature.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>McDowell Ranch</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Mildred Johns died in 1942, Harry Johns sold the ranch to James T. McDowell, Sr. A contractor by trade, McDowell used his construction experience to improve and modernize the ranch, especially after his son, James T. McDowell, Jr., returned from World War II to help run the ranch. They enlarged the main house with two additions and built new garages, barns, granaries, and shops, as well as a cookhouse, bunkhouse, and scale house. The buildings were arranged north and east of the main ranch house east of Highway 9.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>McDowell, Jr., had studied animal husbandry at <strong>Colorado State University</strong>, and he helped expand the family’s Hereford cattle operations on its extensive South Park ranch lands. He served as president of the Central Colorado Cattlemen’s Association and was a member of the Colorado Cattlemen’s Association.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aurora and the Rocky Mountain Land Library</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1976 the McDowell family sold their holdings, which then passed through the hands of several investors over the next nine years. Meanwhile, in 1981 the city of Aurora completed <strong>Spinney Mountain Reservoir</strong> east of Hartsel, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a> several miles of fishing waters along the Middle Fork of the South Platte River. As mitigation, Aurora agreed to make six miles of previously private fishing waters open to the public for ninety-nine years. To get valuable water rights and help fulfill its fishing mitigation requirement, in 1985 Aurora bought 1,840 acres of the former Guiraud-McDowell Ranch—by that time known as Buffalo Peaks Ranch—from the Swiss corporation Oecofintra AG. In 1987 the city opened part of the Middle Fork of the South Platte River through the ranch to public fishing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As with other acquisitions by thirsty <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> cities, Aurora’s purchase of Buffalo Peaks Ranch left it with a large historic property for which it had no clear use. Starting in 2005, Aurora entered discussions with Park County to consider how the land and its historic ranch buildings might be used. A variety of ideas were floated—including a mushroom farm, a wind farm, a shooting ranch, and a brewery—but Park County ultimately wanted to find an educational use focused on the ranch’s history and landscape.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Aurora and Park County found a suitable tenant when they met Jeff Lee and Ann Martin. Long-time employees of the<strong> Tattered Cover</strong> book store in Denver, Lee and Martin had amassed tens of thousands of books about natural history and the West, and they had established an organization, the <strong>Rocky Mountain Land Library</strong>, to promote greater understanding of the relationship between humans and nature. They were searching for a place where they could house all their books and host visiting writers and scholars, and they said they “saw their home” when they visited Buffalo Peaks Ranch.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It took years to work out the details, but in September 2013 Lee and Martin signed a ninety-five-year lease for the ranch buildings and sixty acres of land. With help from grants, crowdfunding campaigns, and volunteers, they plan to renovate the remaining historic buildings (including the 1906 ranch house) into a residential library where writers, artists, researchers, and others can stay from a few days to a few months to consult the 30,000 volumes that will be kept there. As of April 2017, Lee and Martin had raised more than $130,000 for the project. The library’s collection devoted to ranching will be named the Marie Guiraud Ranching Library in honor of the ranch’s longtime owner.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/guiraud-ranch" hreflang="en">Guiraud Ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mcdowell-ranch" hreflang="en">McDowell Ranch</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-land-library" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountain Land Library</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/garo" hreflang="en">Garo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/adolphe-guiraud" hreflang="en">Adolphe Guiraud</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/marie-guiraud" hreflang="en">Marie Guiraud</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/james-t-mcdowell" hreflang="en">James T. McDowell</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jeff-lee" hreflang="en">Jeff Lee</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ann-martin" hreflang="en">Ann Martin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p><a href="https://www.auroragov.org/residents/water/water_system/recreation/buffalo_peaks_ranch">“Buffalo Peaks Ranch,”</a> City of Aurora, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p> </p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Laurie Simmons and Thomas H. Simmons, “Guiraud Ranch / McDowell Ranch,” Colorado Cultural Resource Survey (March 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>Bayou Salado: The Story of South Park</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Van Dusen, <a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2014-july/oasis-south-park-buffalo-peaks-ranch-transforming-rocky-mountain-land-library">“An Oasis in South Park: Buffalo Peaks Ranch Transforming Into Rocky Mountain Land Library,”</a> <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, July 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Park County Local History Archives, <em>Park County</em> (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://landlibrary.wordpress.com/">Rocky Mountain Land Library</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Wenzel, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2017/04/06/rocky-mountain-land-library-kickstarter-goal/">Rocky Mountain Land Library Hits Ambitious Kickstarter Goal, Sets Its Sights Higher</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, April 6, 2017.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 28 Jun 2017 22:14:47 +0000 yongli 2686 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Denver http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1610--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1610.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/denver-dmns"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Santomarco_Denver_DMNS_0.jpg?itok=ohZid4mJ" width="815" height="427" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/denver-dmns" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Denver from DMNS</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the Denver skyline looking west from the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-03T15:33:26-06:00" title="Wednesday, August 3, 2016 - 15:33" class="datetime">Wed, 08/03/2016 - 15:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver" data-a2a-title="Denver"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdenver&amp;title=Denver"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Denver is the capital of Colorado and the twenty-first largest city in the United States, sprawling over six counties and 3,497 square miles of the High Plains and the<strong> <a href="/article/rocky-mountains">Rocky Mountain</a></strong> foothills. Centered at the confluence of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> and <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>, the city and county of Denver together have a population of about 600,000. At an elevation of 5,280 feet, Denver has been nicknamed “The Mile High City.” <a href="/article/michael-hancock"><strong>Michael Hancock</strong></a> has served as mayor since 2011. More a conglomeration of suburbs than a single city, the Denver metropolitan area consists of Denver, <a href="/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe</strong></a>, <a href="/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a>, <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> and <a href="/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams</strong></a> Counties and has a population of about 3.4 million. This area forms the cultural, economic, political, and social center of Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Historically, Denver’s location at the intersection of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> made it a place where people in the American West came together. Local prehistoric indigenous sites provide a record of cultural contact and mixing, featuring stone tool styles from sometimes hundreds or thousands of miles away. These early groups did not mark their boundaries on maps. Their territories were irregular and widespread, fluctuating with the ebb and flow of resources and political alliances. Nuche (<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) and <strong>Apache</strong> peoples frequented the area of present-day Denver by the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and by the nineteenth century, the site became a favorite winter campsite of the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Golden Gamble</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>William Green Russell</strong>, a veteran of both the Georgia and the California Gold Rushes, was one of many nineteenth-century Americans who surmised that the massive granite cordillera of the Rockies held mineral treasure. In July 1858, about eight miles above the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte, Russell’s prospecting party found a few ounces of gold. His find initiated the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> (1858–59), which gave birth to Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the west side of Cherry Creek, Russell and his party founded the first permanent settlement in what is now Metro Denver—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a>, from the Latin word for gold. On November 22, 1858, General <a href="/article/william-larimer-jr"><strong>William H. Larimer, Jr.</strong></a><strong>,</strong> jumped a claim across Cherry Creek from Auraria. He named his town Denver City, after Kansas Territorial Governor James Denver. Denver City became the seat of what was then <a href="/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe County</strong></a>, a huge swath of land stretching from the current Kansas border to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> soon swept Auraria’s Georgians away, and Yankee town builders took command, reorganizing the city as West Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The gold rush prompted Congress to establish the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. That year the federal government also brokered the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>, reducing the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho people to a small reservation in eastern Colorado. Amidst rising tensions between whites and Native Americans, US troops under Col. <strong>John Chivington</strong> slaughtered more than 150 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho women, children, and elderly men at a camp on <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre">Sand Creek</a> </strong>in November 1864. Enraged by the massacre, the Cheyenne and Arapaho, along with other Plains Indians, fought a protracted war against the US Army in Colorado until 1869, when the Cheyenne leader <strong>Tall Bull</strong> was defeated at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a>. By that time, much of the remaining Cheyenne and Arapaho populations had been forced onto reservations in Wyoming and Oklahoma via the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> of 1867. The next year the government brokered a <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty</strong></a> with the Ute people that relocated most of them to a large reservation on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“The Great Braggart City”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver City was a long shot, since most gold rush “cities” became ghost towns. But while other Coloradans <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mined gold</strong></a>, Denverites mined the miners, providing them with food, liquor, and entertainment in exchange for the wealth they found up in the hills. Denverites also bet on everything from dogfights to <a href="/article/snow"><strong>snowfall</strong></a>, gambling with mining stock, real estate, railroads, and bank notes. During the slow winter months, city fathers amused themselves with card games. Using town lots as poker chips, they won and lost whole blocks of downtown Denver in an evening.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver’s persistence puzzled visitors. The city had few visible means of support. It lacked the navigable waterways which usually helped cities thrive. Other towns, notably <a href="/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a> and <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, were closer to mines. <strong>Littleton</strong>, with its Rough and Ready Mill, had a solid agricultural base. Meanwhile, Denver faced the same problems—aridity and isolation—that left the prairies and mountains littered with ghost towns. It seemed that Denverites lived solely on excitement and speculation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beset by isolation and Indian conflicts, by drought and grasshoppers, the city owed its early survival to capable town builders and determined boosters. Chief among them were William Larimer and <a href="/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William N. Byers</strong></a>, founder and longtime editor and publisher of the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>. Although stigmatized by some as the “Rocky Mountain Liar,” Byers and the <em>News</em> persisted in promoting Denver as the capital of Colorado. In early issues, Byers even puffed Denver as the steamboat hub of the rockies. It is not difficult to see why English traveler Isabella Bird called Denver “the Great Braggart City” when she visited in 1873.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While steamboats never negotiated the South Platte River, railroads did arrive in 1870. This spiderweb of steel first enabled Denver to establish its metropolitan sway over Coloradans. Gold and silver ores mined in the mountains rode the rails into Denver’s smelters. The giant <strong>Argo</strong>, Globe, and Grant <strong>smelters</strong> became Denver’s biggest employers by the 1890s. Acrid, black smelter smoke hung over the city, signaling its emergence as an industrial center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The city drew not only Colorado’s gold and silver, but also attracted the state’s mining magnates. Wealth and the wealthy from <a href="/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>, <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juans</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> flowed into Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Rush to Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s gold and silver rushes led to a culture rush, as Denver’s overnight millionaires hoped to impress the rest of the world—or at least other Coloradans—with their artistic and humanistic pursuits. Denver’s nouveaux riches found cultural trappings a way to separate themselves from less successful gold-grubbers. Peacocks in the front yard of mansions in <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-capitol-hill"><strong>Capitol Hill</strong></a>, servants in the kitchen, and children off to Vassar and Yale helped the successful flaunt their new status. Inspired by both a sincere interest in culture as well as a means to defining an aristocracy, Denverites rushed to respectability. <a href="/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a>, the “Silver King,” epitomized this trend, going from nouveau riche to a patron of the cultural arts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado did not produce any literary giants to immortalize the frontier era, no Willa Cather or <a href="/article/mari-sandoz"><strong>Mari Sandoz</strong></a>. Travelers such as Isabella Bird, Richard Townsend and Louis Simonin left lively, literary accounts, but not until the twentieth century would Coloradans such as <strong>Hal Borland</strong>, <strong>Marshall Sprague,</strong> and <strong>Frank Waters </strong>do literary justice to the white settlement of mountain and plain.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Historians have been luckier. <strong>Robert Athearn</strong>, Leroy Hafen, Frank Hall, Jerome C. Smiley, and Wilbur Fisk Stone all published state histories. Nearly every town and county compiled at least a booster booklet. The first generation of Coloradans were conscious of both history and culture. They prided themselves on being the first white Americans to see, to name, to settle, and to build.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 1872, Denver and other towns held pioneer picnics for their founding mothers and fathers. In 1879 the State Historical and Natural History Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>) was created. The state legislature gave the society $500 to collect, preserve, and exhibit Colorado’s heritage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denverites emphasized the edifying, ignoring the fact that their city and territorial governments had been conceived in saloon halls. Saloons also housed the first theaters, art exhibits, dance music, theater, and even libraries. By 1910 Denver had 410 saloons, offering a side variety of goods, services, arts, and amusements, as well as nickel beers and free lunches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bar art attested to early cultural aspirations. Today, original art is often confined to museums, corporate board rooms, and the homes of the wealthy, but in nineteenth-century Denver, much original saloon art was public art. Charles Stobie, a now celebrated western artist, lived above the Gallup &amp; Stanbury Saloon (which still stands at 1445 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer Street</strong></a>) and exhibited his work downstairs in the bar. Byers of the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> appraised Stobie’s work as “the most excellent and beautiful work in oil painting we have seen executed in this country.” Stobie’s works, like the paintings Charles Russell once swapped for drinks in the Mint Saloon, now command five- and six-digit prices. Most of Denver’s bar art perished under the reckless demolition of nineteenth-century buildings. Two exceptions are the landscapes on the old high-back booths at the <strong>Punch Bowl Tavern</strong> (2052 Stout Street) and the Windsor Hotel bar mural in the <strong>Oxford Hotel</strong> dining room.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado artists and art lovers organized the Artists Club in 1893 to promote the visual arts. During the 1920s, this club was reorganized as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-art-museum"><strong>Denver Art Museum</strong></a>. Anne Evans, a leading benefactor and an artist herself, helped to establish what is still the Denver Art Museum’s strongest collection: its American Indian materials. In their rush to culture, many in the pioneer generation overlooked the treasures of earlier Indian cultures that are now showcased in public and private collections. Ironically, Anne was the daughter of territorial governor <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>, who was removed from office for his role in the <u><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</a></u>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s performing arts were also born in barrooms. Apollo Hall on Denver’s Larimer Street staged Colorado’s first theatrical performances in 1859, and the Occidental Hall on Blake Street featured Colorado’s “favorite balladist” to “delight all with operatic and sentimental, as well as comic songs.” At other times, this Blake Street bar advertised a reading room with the latest newspapers and free stationery, offering readers a haven two decades before the <a href="/article/denver-public-library"><strong>Denver Public Library</strong></a> was founded in 1886.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Such astonishing artistic efforts helped make Denver a cultural as well as a commercial capital for Colorado. Farmers from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>eastern plains</strong></a>, ranchers from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and the Western Slope, and mountain miners have long relied on Denver as an entertainment center.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Diversity</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Flush times ended abruptly for Coloradans with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a>. The price of silver—then the state’s chief product—tumbled from over one dollar an ounce to under sixty cents. In response, Denver diversified its economy. The city had previously relied on supplying and smelting for the mining industry, but now it shifted to other endeavors, including tourism and agricultural processing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1894 Denverites launched the Festival of Mountain and Plain to promote tourism, boost local spirits, and advertise the region’s industrial diversity. A prominient example of the latter was <strong>Charles Gates</strong>, an out-of-work mining engineer, and his brother John. They invented the world’s first rubber v-belt, which, unlike earlier flat belts, did not slip off machinery wheels and helped improve machinery performance. The Gates hired Buffalo Bill to promote their belts, tires, and hoses. Gates rode his rubber accessories for horseless carriages into prominence and wealth with the auto age. As they built factories, sugar mills, barley elevators, train depots, and gas stations, Gates and other enterprising Denverites transformed not only the city but also the rest of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of these entrepreneurs were immigrants. <a href="/article/adolph-coors"><strong>Adolph Coors</strong></a>, a teenage orphan from Germany, transformed long-stagnant Golden into a thriving brewery town. <strong>John Kernan Mullen</strong>, a young Irish immigrant, skipped school to work in a flour mill and wound up with a multi-million-dollar milling empire. Mullen’s <strong>Colorado Grain Elevator</strong> and Hungarian Flour empires owned wheat fields, grain elevators, and flour mills throughout the state. Rather than sink his money into mining, <strong>Charles Boettcher</strong>, a German immigrant, concentrated on hardware and mining supplies, then fathered the Great Western Sugar Company, the Ideal Cement Company, Capitol Life Insurance, the National Fuse and Powder Company, and the Bighorn Rand in North Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Racial and Ethnic Diversity</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the area’s long history as a gathering place, Denver has drawn people of many different races and ethnicities. Yet, as in other American cities, those who were considered white—a definition that has changed over time—had held most of the economic and political power since the mid-nineteenth century. Beginning then, relations between the various groups that have called Denver home were often fraught with tension.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the city’s first white residents held ambivalent views toward Native Americans. Some even argued for their extermination through violence or other means. In 1866 the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> declared that “savage tribes must give way to the western advance of empire,” suggesting that in lieu of extermination “by the sword … the remedy then consists in feeding them, and they will gorge themselves to death.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White Denverites also looked upon their Chinese neighbors with disdain, even though Chinese residents helped build the nation’s railroads and operated nearly all of the city’s laundering businesses, a critical part of the local service industry. By the late nineteenth century, Chinese residents in Denver had built a thriving community along present-day Wazee Street. Anti-Chinese sentiment came to head in the <strong>Anti-Chinese Riot of 1880</strong>. A white mob descended upon <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-chinatown"><strong>Denver’s Chinatown</strong></a>, destroying property and beating dozens of Chinese residents, killing one. Denver’s Chinatown endured the assault and remained an integral part of the city until the 1940s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the late nineteenth century, black railroad workers began moving their families to the<a href="/article/five-points"> <strong>Five Points</strong></a> neighborhood north of downtown, as it was closer to the tracks along the South Platte. By the 1920s Five Points had become majority black and was known as the “Harlem of the West,” attracting Louis Armstrong, Billie Holiday, and other great musicians of the day. White Denverites enacted discriminatory housing practices, including racially restrictive covenants, to keep blacks in Five Points. Such agreements effectively barred black Denverites from new housing developments until the state supreme court outlawed racially restrictive covenants in 1957.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While black businesses and culture were thriving in north Denver during the 1920s, the city’s Latino population grew in the Auraria neighborhood on the west side of Cherry Creek. By 1940 the city’s Spanish-speaking population had expanded to other neighborhoods northeast and southwest of downtown. Like blacks, Latinos faced discrimination in housing, education, law enforcement, and employment, but because they were relative newcomers, their plight was often worse. A survey conducted by the Denver Area Welfare Council in 1950, for instance, found that Spanish-speaking residents were twice as likely to live in substandard housing as black residents, and blacks’ per capita income was double that of Latinos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the resurgence of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> in the early 1920s, race relations had reached a nadir. The KKK numbered in the hundreds of thousands and eventually achieved de facto political control over the entire state. Members included Denver mayor <strong>Benjamin F. Stapleton</strong>, Denver police chief William J. Candlish, at least twenty Denver police officers, a state supreme court justice, and even the governor, <strong>Clarence J. Morley</strong>. Klan members threatened the local chapter of the NAACP, held well-attended cross-burnings, boycotted Catholic businesses, hurled insults while driving through Jewish neighborhoods, and chased blacks out of new white neighborhoods. By 1925, corruption and political ineptitude doomed the Klan in Colorado, as Klan policemen’s ties to vice trades were exposed and the Colorado Grand Dragon was investigated for tax evasion. Stapleton, however, remained Denver’s ineffective yet immovable mayor until 1947.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Social Struggles and Civil Rights Campaigns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as they did in other American cities, black and Latino Denverites took part in social movements that sought to change long-entrenched patterns of discrimination. De facto <strong>segregation</strong> and discrimination continued in Denver, despite the state supreme court’s 1957 ban on restrictive housing covenants and the election of Denver’s first black city council member, <a href="/article/elvin-r-caldwell"><strong>Elvin Caldwell</strong></a>, in 1955. In the 1960s black Denverites organized boycotts of discriminatory businesses such as Denver Dry Goods and staged sympathy sit-ins to demonstrate their solidarity with other black sit-ins across the country. In the late 1960s the local chapter of the Black Panther Party found traction, sponsoring free breakfasts for black school children while loudly criticizing racist policies and actions by Denver officials and police.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1965 <a href="/article/rodolfo-%E2%80%9Ccorky%E2%80%9D-gonzales"><strong>Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales</strong></a> organized "La Crusada para La Justicia," the Crusade for Justice, which became part of the broader Chicano Movement that gained traction in Denver and across the country in the 1960s. Gonzales’s crusade advocated for Latino self-determination through control of local schools and ethnic solidarity, while also calling for an end to employment and police discrimination against Denver’s Latino population. While the candidate for his Chicano political party,  La Raza Unida, garnered just 2 percent of the vote in the gubernatorial election of 1970, Gonzales’s campaign nonetheless demonstrated the political power of Latinos in the Mile High City.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Gonzales was unifying Denver’s Latinos, the city’s Native American population was growing. It began to increase in the 1950s, when the federal government encouraged members of western tribes to move to western cities. Many of the city’s new Native American residents were poorer than either blacks or Latinos, and several intertribal support agencies—such as the White Buffalo Council and the <strong>Denver Indian Center</strong> of Denver Native Americans United—provided social support and services to members of the Navajo, Lakota, and other tribes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Decline and Renewal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Denver’s economic fortunes again crashed alongside the price of a major Colorado commodity. This time it was not silver but oil. In the 1970s Colorado had enjoyed an energy boom thanks to development of oil shale deposits on the Western Slope. But in 1983 the price of crude oil plummeted from $42 a barrel to $10, and unemployment and office vacancy rates soared. The oil bust retaught lessons of the Silver Panic of 1893. Led by Governor <strong>Roy Romer </strong>and Denver mayor <strong>Federico Peña</strong>, Denverites explored new economic possibilities, such as high-tech, computer-age enterprises. Meanwhile, Coloradans could take some comfort in economic mainstays such as tourism and recreation. Additionally, in 1988 the city designated the portion of Lower Downtown Denver between Twentieth Street, Larimer Street, Cherry Creek, and Wynkoop Street—locally known as “<a href="/article/lodo-lower-downtown-denver"><strong>LoDo</strong></a>”—as a historic district. In 1991 Denverites elected the development-minded <strong>Wellington Webb </strong>to the mayor’s office. Webb, the city’s first black mayor, served for twelve years and oversaw the completion of a new airport, the arrival of new sports teams, and the expansion of the city’s parks and art museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The successful redevelopment of LoDo brought Major League Baseball’s <strong><a href="/article/colorado-rockies">Colorado Rockies</a> </strong>to Denver in 1995. The franchise built its stadium, <strong>Coors Field</strong>, on the northeast edge of the Historic District at Twentieth and Blake Streets. Architects incorporated elements of the surrounding buildings into the stadium’s design, adding red brick and stone trim. Just across Cherry Creek, the Pepsi Center (now <strong>Ball Arena</strong>) opened in 2000 as home for the National Basketball Association’s <a href="/article/denver-nuggets"><strong>Denver Nuggets</strong></a> and the National Hockey League’s <a href="/article/colorado-avalanche"><strong>Colorado Avalanche</strong></a>. These two giant venues, along with the addition of <strong>Dick’s Sporting Goods Park</strong> in Commerce City in 2006, made the Denver Metro Area into a sports fan’s paradise. Of course, Mile High Stadium, the home of the <a href="/article/denver-broncos"><strong>Denver Broncos</strong></a> on the west bank of the South Platte, had already been a national sports landmark for decades.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Metro Denver Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver is different from other large American cities in several ways. First, its population is generally well educated, with the second-highest per capita education level in the country. Second, most are residents by choice rather than birth—the city, and especially the suburbs, are filled with immigrants from across the nation and world who are more likely to be “United in Orange” (as Broncos fans) than by a common ancestry. In recent years, Denver residents have also continued the city’s long tradition of political activism, organizing protests against Wall Street, police brutality, the federal government and Internal Revenue Service, and the city’s treatment of the homeless.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denverites are also unusually mobile, both in vehicles and with their legs. The American Fitness Index ranks Denver as the third-fittest city in the nation, ahead of both Seattle and Portland. Denverites also own about 1.5 vehicles per household, ranking in the top 25 percent among American cities; the emissions from so many vehicles often creates a visible layer of smog above the city. <a href="/article/union-station-0"><strong>Union Station</strong></a> once made Denver a hub for state and regional travel, but since 1995 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-international-airport"><strong>Denver International Airport</strong></a> (DIA) has taken up that mantle. DIA is the sixth-busiest airport in the United States and the largest by land area, covering more than 33,500 acres. The <strong>Regional Transportation District</strong>, meanwhile, supplies Metro Denver residents with bus and light rail service, including to DIA.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Perhaps the greatest asset of this automobile metropolis is easy escape to the wide open spaces. Within an hour’s drive to the east lie prairie ghost towns and the exquisite solitude of the Great Plains. An hour’s drive to the west takes Denverites to <a href="/article/denver-mountain-parks"><strong>Denver’s Mountain Parks</strong></a> system and the campgrounds, hiking trails, and <a href="/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski</strong></a> areas of the Continental Divide. Long after the founding generations of Denver extolled the beauty of the Front Range, the easy escape to Colorado’s other attractive regions remains one of the Mile High City’s best attributes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>This article is an abbreviated and updated version of the author’s essay “Denver: Mile High Metropolis and Capitol of the Five States of Colorado,” distributed in 2006 as part of <strong>Colorado Humanities</strong>’ “Five States of Colorado” educational resource kit.</em></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/noel-thomas-j" hreflang="und">Noel, Thomas J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field 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id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tom-noel" hreflang="en">tom noel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/metro-denver" hreflang="en">metro denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-larimer" hreflang="en">william larimer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jr" hreflang="en">Jr.</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mile-high-city" hreflang="en">mile high city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/queen-city" hreflang="en">queen city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lower-downtown-denver" hreflang="en">lower downtown denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coors-field" hreflang="en">coors field</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/five-points" hreflang="en">Five Points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capitol-hill" hreflang="en">capitol hill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arvada" hreflang="en">arvada</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/commerce-city" hreflang="en">commerce city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thornton" hreflang="en">Thornton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brighton" hreflang="en">brighton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakewood" hreflang="en">lakewood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cherry-creek" hreflang="en">Cherry Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/regional-transportation-district" hreflang="en">Regional Transportation District</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range" hreflang="en">front range</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-broncos" hreflang="en">Denver Broncos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-rockies" hreflang="en">Colorado Rockies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/interstate-25" hreflang="en">Interstate 25</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/interstate-70" hreflang="en">interstate 70</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tourism" hreflang="en">tourism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rossonian-hotel" hreflang="en">rossonian hotel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/robert-s-roeschlaub" hreflang="en">robert s. roeschlaub</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/barney-ford" hreflang="en">Barney Ford</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/washington-park" hreflang="en">Washington Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-park" hreflang="en">City Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-hall" hreflang="en">city hall</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Air Traffic Activity System, “<a href="https://aspm.faa.gov/">Airport Operations: Ranking Report</a>,” Federal Aviation Administration, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>American Fitness Index, “<a href="https://acsmsoftware.com/afi/rankings/">2016 AFI Report</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=RMD18660706.2.2&amp;srpos=48&amp;e=-------en-20-RMD-41">Among the Mountains</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, July 6, 1866.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Isabella Bird, <a href="https://www.mckinley.k12.hi.us/ebooks/pdf/llirm10.pdf"><em>A Lady’s Life in the Rockies</em></a> (1879).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Summer Burke, “<a href="https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&amp;amp;httpsredir=1&amp;amp;article=1017&amp;amp;context=psi_sigma_siren">Community Control: Civil Rights Resistance in the Mile High City</a>,” <em>Psi Sigma Siren </em>7, no. 1 (January 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://voicesofthecivilrightsmovement.com/Video-Collection/2015/12/04/denvers-sit-in-movement/">Denver’s Sit-In Movement</a>,” Voices of the Civil Rights Movement, December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Governing.com, “<a href="https://www.governing.com/archive/car-ownership-numbers-of-vehicles-by-city-map.html">Car Ownership in US Cities</a>,” 2010-13.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Ingold, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2009/04/15/5000-attend-tax-day-tea-party-at-capitol/">5,000 attend tax-day ‘tea party’ at Capitol</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, April 15, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Invisible Government,” <em>Denver Express</em>, March 27, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah M. Nelson, K. Lynn Berry, Richard F. Carrillo, Bonnie L. Clark, Lori E. Rhodes, and Dean Saitta, <em>Denver: An Archaeological History</em> (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Thomas J. Noel, <em>The City and the Saloon, Denver, 1858–1916 </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, <em>Showtime: Denver’s Performing Arts, Convention Centers &amp; Theatre District </em>(Denver: Denver’s Division of Theatres &amp; Arenas, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, “<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/when-kkk-ruled-colorado-not-so-long-ago">When the KKK Ruled Colorado: Not So Long Ago</a>,” Denver Public Library Western History and Geneaology, June 19, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kristin Leigh Painter, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2012/05/01/occupy-denver-joins-occupy-wall-street-in-may-day-protest/">Occupy Denver joins Occupy Wall Street in May Day protest</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, May 1, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas H. Simmons, R. Laurie Simmons, and Dawn Bunyak, “Historic Residential Subdivisions of Metropolitan Denver, 1940–1965,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Serivice form 10-900 (Denver: History Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/tea-party-activists-rally-at-denver-irs-office/">Tea Party Activists Rally At Denver’s IRS Office</a>,” <em>CBS Denver</em>, May 21, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chris Walker, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/homeless-sweeps-protests-planned-at-rockies-opener-denver-art-museum-7784003">Homeless Sweeps: Protests Planned at Rockies Opener, Denver Art Museum</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, April 8, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18591214&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-">Denver City Charter, 1859</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://digital.denverlibrary.org/">Denver Public Library, Western History &amp; Geneaology Digital Collections</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.denverwater.org/">Denver Water</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.englewoodco.gov/">Englewood</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steve Grinstead, ed., <em>Denver Inside and Out</em>,<em> Colorado History </em>16 (2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://lodo.org/">Lower Downtown Denver</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, <em>Mile High City: An Illustrated History of Denver </em>(Encinitas, CA: Heritage Media, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365603226/">"Speer &amp; the City,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, November 5, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 03 Aug 2016 21:33:26 +0000 yongli 1575 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Arapahoe County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapahoe County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1288--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1288.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/colorado-freedom-memorial"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Arapahoe-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=V46F2hLZ" width="1000" height="747" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/colorado-freedom-memorial" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Freedom Memorial</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Colorado Freedom Memorial in Aurora was completed in 2013 to honor all Colorado veterans who were killed or missing in action. More than 6,000 names are etched into the memorial’s glass panes.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1111--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1111.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapahoe-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/ArapahoeCounty_0.png?itok=VWXmGjhB" width="800" height="579" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapahoe-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapahoe County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arapahoe County, named for the Arapaho people, covers 805 square miles and is home to more than 572,000 Coloradans.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1718--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1718.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapahoe-county-google-map"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Arapahoe_0.jpg?itok=jrFIMdLz" width="1090" height="240" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapahoe-county-google-map" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapahoe County on Google Map</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><div class="widget-pane-section-facts-description">Arapahoe County, stretching from&nbsp;the Denver Metro Area to the Great Plains,&nbsp;is the third-most populous county in Colorado. The county seat is Littleton, and the most populous city is Aurora.</div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1592--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1592.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-camp"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Arapahoe%20County%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=PXEnTSWt" width="593" height="838" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-camp" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho Camp</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arapahoe County is named for the Arapaho Native Americans, who frequented the area from the 1820s to the late 1860s. The Arapaho followed buffalo herds across the plains during the summer, hunted in the mountains of the Front Range in fall, and spent the winter along the foothills.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1259--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1259.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=dkaJwxJr" width="1000" height="782" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho Camp, 1858</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arapaho camp across Cherry Creek from the gold seekers camp in 1858.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-28T15:28:24-07:00" title="Monday, December 28, 2015 - 15:28" class="datetime">Mon, 12/28/2015 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county" data-a2a-title="Arapahoe County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Farapahoe-county&amp;title=Arapahoe%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Arapahoe County covers 805 square miles in north central Colorado, running east across the high plains from the southern edge of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. It is named for the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, who once inhabited the area. One of the oldest counties in the state, Arapahoe County is bordered on the north by Denver and <a href="/content/adams-county"><strong>Adams</strong></a> Counties, on the west by <a href="/content/jefferson-county-0"><strong>Jefferson County</strong></a>, on the east by <a href="/article/washington-county"><strong>Washington County</strong></a>, and on the south by <a href="/article/douglas-county"><strong>Douglas</strong></a> and <a href="/content/elbert-county-0"><strong>Elbert</strong></a> Counties. With a population of more than 572,000, it is the third-most populous county in the state. Most of the county’s inhabitants live in the south Denver metro area, in the communities of <strong>Aurora</strong>, <strong>Englewood</strong>, and<strong> Littleton</strong>; the eastern part of the county consists mainly of farms, ranches, and smaller towns such as <strong>Byers</strong> and Bennett.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Arapahoe has the distinction of being Colorado’s first county, as it was created as part of the western limits of the Kansas Territory in 1855. The large, vertical rectangle that surveyors marked out in the middle of the plains certainly would have appeared strange to the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, the two major Native American groups who followed the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds across the plains from the early nineteenth century. After Kansas was admitted to the union in 1861, Arapahoe County was resized and named one of the first seventeen counties in the new <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>. The original borders of the county stretched from the current western edge of Denver to the Kansas border. After gold was discovered along Dry Creek in 1858, a continuous flow of migrants from the east prompted the creation of new counties, and Arapahoe County was gradually pared down to its current size.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early nineteenth century, the area now known as Arapahoe County was the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho people. Both groups began as farmers in the upper Midwest, and gradually made their way west in the late eighteenth century. Territorial struggles with other groups, such as the dominant Lakota in the Black Hills, pushed them farther away from their original homelands, and the prospect of horses lured them onto the plains and into a life of nomadic hunting. The Cheyenne and Arapaho struck an alliance in 1811, and they chased bison herds and smaller game across the short-grass prairies of what are now the eastern stretches of Arapahoe County. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>Cottonwood</strong></a> stands along Cherry Creek and other tributaries of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> provided the Native Americans with food and shelter during the plains’ scorching summers and frigid, snowy winters.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1820s, French fur trappers and traders were active in the region. The first <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> on the South Platte River was established in 1832 along Cherry Creek. Rumors of gold along the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> of the <a href="/content/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, circulated by trappers and mountain men, were common during this era, but no one paid much attention to them.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Discovery of Gold</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1848 a group of prospectors on the way to California stopped to pan a few streams just west of present-day Denver. They found gold near present-day Englewood, where Dry Creek ran into the South Platte River. This was the first important discovery of gold in Colorado, but a bonanza was already going on further west and Colorado was not politically organized, so the find did not attract many people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>California-bound whites traveling through the area also feared attacks by Native Americans. In 1851 and 1853, the US government signed treaties with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, along with several other Plains groups, in which Native Americans agreed not to attack whites traveling along the overland routes. But white migration continued in the following years, and the Native Americans found their essential stands of cottonwoods depleted and huge swathes of their grazing grasses trampled by wagons or eaten by cattle. Many Cheyenne and Arapaho began to realize that the ceaseless flow of whites into their lands meant the complete destruction of their resource base; thus, the earlier treaties were broken and raiding resumed. Then, in 1857, Colonel Edwin V. Sumner of the US Army routed a group of Cheyenne in Kansas, and the small victory was enough to convince easterners that the westward routes were safe again.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The combination of Sumner’s victory and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which created Arapahoe County within the Kansas Territory, now allowed so-called gold strikes to be investigated. By the summer of 1858, the <strong>Cherokee Party</strong>, headed by <strong>William Green Russell</strong> and named for the contingent of Indians he had brought with him from Georgia, had been panning the tributaries of the South Platte near present-day Denver for weeks. Many of the party, including frustrated Cherokees and impatient Georgian farmers who expected a quick strike, had given up and headed back east. Finally, on July 6, 1858, Russell and the remaining members of the party found gold along Dry Creek, just downstream from where traces had been panned out ten years earlier. News of the find quickly raced east, and others quickly assembled their own gold-digging parties. Several months later, on the east side of Cherry Creek, <strong><a href="/content/william-larimer-jr">William Larimer, Jr.</a> </strong>founded Denver City, the first seat of Arapahoe County.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Removal of Indigenous People</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Farmers and ranchers soon followed the prospectors into what is now the southwest corner of Arapahoe County. Their houses, fences, and crops took wood and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> from the all-important groves along the tributaries, and their herds ate up acres of the Cheyenne and Arapaho’s best grazing lands. In 1861 a reservation was established in southeastern Colorado for the Cheyenne and Arapaho, but by this time the Indian bands were split between those who favored cooperating with the whites and those who favored resisting them.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Both paths led to the end of the nomads’ life on the plains as they knew it: the government rarely had the ability or the desire to take care of peaceful Indigenous groups, and warrior bands had to deal not only with the larger and better-equipped US military, but also with dwindling plains resources due to growing white settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The unprovoked <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>massacre</strong></a> of more than 150 peaceful Arapaho and Cheyenne—mostly women, children, and the elderly—at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a> in 1864 prompted more than a decade of warfare between the US military and resulted in an alliance of Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and other Plains Indians. In 1867, the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> established the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in central Oklahoma, then known as “Indian Territory.” Though sporadic raiding by the Arapaho and their allies continued into the 1870s, by the end of the nineteenth century Arapahoe County was mostly cleared of the people it was named for.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Towns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, farming and ranching were the backbone of eastern Arapahoe County, while towns continued to develop around Denver. Englewood, established in 1864 by the Irish homesteader Thomas Skerritt, was connected to Denver via roads by the 1880s and featured a notorious skid row in an area known as Orchard Place. Meanwhile, G. A. Snow, a cattle rancher from New York, owned some 12,000 acres—almost half his ranch—in the eastern part of the county. The Snow family maintained the ranch from 1871 until 1957. Other large ranches included Parrett Ranch, Owens Ranch, and Price Ranch.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The town of Bijou was founded in 1870, and in 1889 the name was changed to Byers, in honor of <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> founder <a href="/content/william-n-byers"><strong>William Byers</strong></a>. In 1872, Richard Little, an engineer from New Hampshire who had come to Denver to map out <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches during the gold rush, obtained a permit to develop his land into the village of Littleton. The arrival of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad </strong>in 1871 brought more residents to the town, and in 1890 Littleton was incorporated with a population of 245. Englewood incorporated in 1903.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1902 the state legislature divided the old Arapahoe County into the current counties of Arapahoe, Adams, Denver, Washington, and <a href="/content/yuma-county-0"><strong>Yuma</strong></a>. Littleton was at first deemed the temporary county seat; an election in 1904 secured it as the permanent seat of the new Arapahoe County.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like many other rural areas on the outskirts of major US cities, Arapahoe County experienced rapid growth after <strong>World War II</strong>, when housing developments sprang up and led to the suburbanization of the county. As both Littleton and Aurora began annexing more and more of these developments, communities in the western portion of the county faced many challenges associated with rapid growth, including effective urban planning and the provision of municipal services. As their communities grew, residents of Arapahoe County were also aware that they would likely have to decide whether they should link up with the city—then facing its own postwar dilemmas of a shrinking tax base and urban decay—or remain independent.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Disputes with Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After World War II, the suburban communities of Littleton and Aurora found themselves at odds with the state capital over multiple issues, particularly water rights and land annexation. At the beginning of a seven-year drought in 1950, Denver sought to protect its water supply by prohibiting new hookups beyond a boundary drawn by members of the <strong>Denver Water Board</strong>. Both Littleton and Aurora were beyond this boundary and had to come up with their own water supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Aurora pieced together its supply by purchasing rights to irrigation water from ranches on the South Platte River. Although the Littleton City Council purchased additional tanks in 1949 and 1951, in 1953 it still lacked enough water to adequately provide for residents. Littleton eventually entered into a tri-city agreement with Denver and Englewood to purchase and share additional water. The city reentered Denver Water’s service area in 1970 and continues to receive Denver water today. Aurora, meanwhile, continued to secure additional water on its own into the 1990s. In 1967 it brokered a $50 million agreement with Colorado Springs to share water from the Homestake Project, which diverted Homestake Creek—a tributary of the Eagle River—into Spinney Mountain Reservoir.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sources of tension between city and suburb were not limited to the drought crisis during the 1950s. In 1955, Arapahoe County residents in the subdivision adjacent to the University Hills Shopping Center petitioned for annexation to Denver, but county officials sought to retain the shopping center area for its important tax revenue. Arapahoe County won the first round of litigation but was ultimately unable to keep Denver from annexing the property.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Annexation was another major source of tension between Denver and its suburbs during the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1960s, Republican legislators from Arapahoe County were part of the core opposition to multiple efforts to create an “Urban County” that would have assimilated Littleton and Aurora into Denver. In 1972 Arapahoe County sued Denver, arguing that it should provide water to its residents even though they did not live within city limits. Although the suit had poor legal foundation and was settled out of court, it did prompt Denver to drop its condition that areas wishing to be served by Denver Water be annexed first. In 1973 Aurora countered Denver’s annexation campaign with its own, seizing some 4,000 acres (although it targeted many more) and securing the coveted Cherry Hills School District. The series of annexation disputes between Arapahoe and Denver Counties was finally put to an end in 1974, when the <strong>Poundstone Amendment</strong> to the state constitution froze Denver’s boundaries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aurora</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The town of Fletcher was incorporated in 1891 and received its current name of Aurora in 1902. The city, now supporting a population of more than 335,000, has a rich military heritage. Army General Hospital No. 21 was built on Aurora’s east side in 1918, and <strong>Lowry Air Force Base</strong> was established just southwest of the city in 1938. The general hospital, renamed <a href="/content/fitzsimons-general-hospital"><strong>Fitzsimons Army Hospital</strong></a>, was expanded in 1941 and treated soldiers injured during World War II. Aurora is also home to the <strong>Colorado Freedom Memorial</strong>, completed in 2013 and dedicated to all of Colorado’s deceased military veterans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Over the past few decades, Aurora has become one of Colorado’s most diverse cities, making it a destination for immigrants and refugees from around the globe. In 1990 Latinos made up just 7 percent of the city’s population, but today they account for nearly a third of its 353,000 residents. African Americans make up 4 percent of the state population but nearly 16 percent of Aurora residents, and Asians account for almost 5 percent of the city’s population as opposed to just 2.8 percent of Coloradans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The city’s diversity and economic opportunities have also made it attractive for immigrants and refugees. People from Bhutan and Ethiopia began arriving in larger numbers in the mid-2000s, and an estimated 4,000 refugees from Sudan and other nations arrived between 2012 and 2013. As of 2013, 21 percent of Aurorans were born in another country—the highest percentage in the Denver metro area. In response, the city opened the Immigrant Welcome Center in 2014 to help newcomers learn English, become citizens, and find employment and legal counsel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2012 the city became nationally known because of the horrific Aurora theater shooting. On July 20, twenty-four-year-old James Holmes entered a midnight screening of <em>The Dark Knight Rises </em>at the Century Aurora 16 theater and opened fire on the audience with an AR-15 assault rifle, killing twelve and wounding fifty-eight. Police found that Holmes had been stockpiling weapons and ammunition for months, and he also apparently expected his apartment to be searched, leaving it rigged with booby traps. He obtained all his weapons and ammunition legally. The tragedy sent emotional shockwaves across the nation, and renewed a previously dormant conversation about gun control in the midst of a bitterly polarized presidential election season.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The western quarter of Arapahoe County is currently home to the expanding Denver metro area, with many subdivisions, parks, and businesses. Office complexes such as the <strong>Denver Technology Center</strong> and Greenwood Plaza house many local and international corporations. Farms and ranches occupy the rest of the county. Between 2007 and 2012, the county added 128 farms, and in 2012 Arapahoe was ranked in the top third of wheat-producing counties in the state.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapahoe-county" hreflang="en">arapahoe county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/englewood" hreflang="en">Englewood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/littleton" hreflang="en">littleton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/byers" hreflang="en">byers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapahoe-county-history" hreflang="en">arapahoe county history</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen Leonard, and Dave McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.arapahoeco.gov/DocumentCenter/View/353">Arapahoe County History</a>,” Arapahoe County.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Aurora Water, “Water Supply Fact Book, 2010–2011.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eugene H. Berwanger, <em>The Rise of the Centennial State: Colorado Territory, 1861–76 </em>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jennifer Brown, <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2012/07/20/12-shot-dead-58-wounded-in-aurora-movie-theater-during-batman-premier/">“12 shot dead, 58 wounded in Aurora movie theater during Batman premier,”</a> <em>Denver Post, </em>July 21, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.englewoodco.gov/our-community/englewood-history">Englewood History</a>,” City of Englewood.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles C. Fisk, <a href="https://mountainscholar.orgwebclient/DeliveryManager/digitool_items/csu01_storage/2008/04/08/file_1/5649"><em>The Metro Denver Water Story: A Memoir</em></a> (Denver: n.p., 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.littletonco.gov/index.aspx?page=182">General History of Littleton</a>,” City of Littleton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“History,” City of Aurora, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Megan Mitchell, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/11/25/immigrant-welcome-center-opens-in-aurora-school-building-this-month/">Immigrant Welcome Center opens in Aurora school building this month</a>,” <em>Denver Post</em>, November 25, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Diane Wray Tomasso, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/SI_postWWII_Littleton_1949-1967.pdf">Historic Context of Littleton, Colorado 1949–1967</a>” (Littleton, CO: City of Littleton, Office of Community Development, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Arapahoe County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Megan Verlee, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2012/09/27/161885219/aurora-colo-tries-to-capitalize-on-its-ethnic-riches">Aurora, Colo., Tries To Capitalize On Its Ethnic Riches</a>,” <em>All Things Considered</em>, NPR, September 27, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliot West, <em>Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.arapahoeco.gov/">Arapahoe County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Aurora Welcome Center</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.auroragov.org/">City of Aurora</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.englewoodco.gov/">City of Englewood</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.littletonco.gov/">City of Littleton</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 28 Dec 2015 22:28:24 +0000 yongli 1061 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org