%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Precious Metal Mining in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3767--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3767.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold_%28Dixie_Mine%2C_Idaho_Springs%2C_Colorado%2C_USA%29_3_%2817030135106%29_0.jpg?itok=RpPwBrd-" width="1090" height="757" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gold Taken from Colorado Mine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>During the raising of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> millions of years ago, superheated fluids rose from deep within the Earth and pushed minerals such as gold and silver up through the Earth's crust. Erosion brought pieces of gold downstream in creeks (placer gold), while the deeper deposits (lode gold) could only be recovered by skilled labor and technology.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3768--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3768.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/argo-tunnel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/6210103088_252254fdb0_k_0.jpg?itok=DjskRzJC" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/argo-tunnel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Argo Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Argo Tunnel was part of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>precious metal minin</strong></a>g operations in <a href="/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a> and <a href="/article/clear-creek-county"><strong>Clear Creek County</strong></a> during the late nineteenth century. At more than four miles long, it connected a host of gold mines between <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a> and <strong>Idaho Springs</strong> before it was shuttered following an accident in 1943.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-08-09T11:55:06-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 9, 2022 - 11:55" class="datetime">Tue, 08/09/2022 - 11:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado" data-a2a-title="Precious Metal Mining in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprecious-metal-mining-colorado&amp;title=Precious%20Metal%20Mining%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From the 1850s to the 1920s, gold and silver mining drove Colorado’s economy, making it into an urbanized, industrial state. The rapid development of Colorado’s mineral resources had political, social, and environmental consequences. The mining of gold and silver in Colorado began in earnest during the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. The state’s first miners used metal pans to sift gold nuggets out of riverbeds. Prospecting these streams quickly outlined a mineral belt stretching diagonally across the state from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Colorado’s principal towns and mines were developed within this belt. Industrial mining followed, allowing for deeper extraction of gold and silver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining spurred many events in Colorado history, including the removal of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/person/native-americans"><strong>Indigenous people</strong></a>, the development of commercial agriculture, the organization of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>territory</strong></a> and state of Colorado, the <strong>Civil War</strong> in the West, the development of <strong>railroads,</strong> and heavy industry such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal mining</strong></a>, precious- and base-metal <strong>smelting</strong>, and<strong> steel production</strong>. Most of the state’s influential political figures from the late nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries had connections to the metal industry. That industry attracted immigrants, ideas, and technology from all over the world. Mining and smelting also led to the development of unions, strikes, and labor conflicts in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it no longer underwrites the state economy, precious metal mining continues in Colorado today, the ongoing legacy of discoveries made more than 150 years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology of Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s precious metals were embedded into the rocks of the northeastern <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> tens of millions of years ago. Superheated fluids transported dissolved minerals into fractures in pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks and into soluble Paleozoic limestone. As the solutions cooled, free metals and metallic compounds were deposited in the rock. Gold is generally found throughout veins of quartz-rich igneous rocks called “pegmatites” or compounded with another element called tellurium into “gold telluride.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silver, meanwhile, is rarely found on its own. It is usually associated with lead, zinc, iron, and <strong>other metals,</strong> as well as non-metallic sulfur, carbonate, and chloride in minerals such as galena, cerussite, and sphalerite. These minerals formed the heavy, dark gray silver-lead ore found in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> during the 1870s. And as the iron sulfide (also called pyrite or “fool’s gold”) was exposed to air, it was altered to form weak sulfuric acid that leaks out of mines and into local water sources, a phenomenon known as <strong>acid mine drainage</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the northeastern Colorado mineral belt, the mountains were uplifted at the end of the Cretaceous Period (65–70 million years ago). Fast-flowing water and glacial ice eroded these rocks and deposited the metals in the gravel and sand of stream channels, sand bars, and terraces. These streams were the first locations where gold was found in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southwestern portion of the mineral belt was formed very differently. Around 25–35 million years ago, a long episode of volcanic eruptions deposited thick lava flows over the entire region. Some of these were super-sized, explosive volcanoes that created calderas similar to the Yellowstone caldera, only smaller. Superheated fluids containing dissolved metals, similar to the geysers in Yellowstone, flowed into fractures in these volcanic rocks and precipitated the metals as they cooled. These calderas—including the Silverton, Lake City, Creede, Bonanza, La Garita, and others—are now the locations of the principal San Juan mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Types of Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Placer Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Panning gold from stream and terrace gravels is called <em>placer </em>mining, derived from the Spanish word <em>placer</em> or “pleasure”—the gold is available at one’s pleasure. Between 1858 and 1867, Colorado placer miners took out more than $14 million in gold (when gold was valued at about $20 per troy ounce) from creeks and streambeds. The early Colorado prospectors needed only a large pan that looked like a pie pan, a pick, and a shovel to pan for gold. Being denser than the sand around it, the gold settled to the bottom of the pan as the water and lighter sand swirled away.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A strong magnet could then separate heavy black iron (magnetite) that would settle to the pan's bottom. A problem in some parts of Colorado was the presence of another heavy black mineral that was non-magnetic. During the early gold rush, this mineral was assayed as a lead compound, which was worthless to gold miners. Only later would it be found to contain silver as well as lead, zinc, and other metals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To process more gold-bearing sand than an individual with a pan, miners began working in teams using rockers, a cradle-like wooden box, and sluices—long, high-sided wooden flumes with numerous cross-pieces nailed to the bottom. Both techniques emulated the natural stream-sorting of the denser gold nuggets, flakes, and dust while carrying off the gravel and sand. Because a considerable flow of water was needed to separate the gold, this technology was little used in areas with seasonal stream flows.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hydraulic Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>When placer deposits ran out, miners in places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a> turned to hydraulic mining, in which highly pressurized water was used to blast thick terrace gravel away from hillsides, sending the metal-containing debris down into a series of sluices. However, the relative lack of water and hose materials, as well as the fact that many gulches had already been placer-mined to exhaustion, meant that hydraulic mining did not become as prevalent in Colorado as it had in California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hard-Rock Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Instead of hydraulic mining, most of Colorado’s gold and silver were taken out by mining the bedrock. Miners started using this method in the early 1860s. Lode or hard-rock mining required digging shafts and tunnels into the mountains, following the veins downward from the surface. Recoverable gold and silver in the lodes is called <em>ore</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first, hard-rock miners used hand drills, sharpened pieces of steel like long chisels, that were hit with hammers to drill holes for black powder. The explosive would blow apart the ore-bearing rock, allowing the ore to be shoveled into ore cars for the trip to the surface. By the 1890s, when the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> gold rush and silver booms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/creede">Creede</a> </strong>were in full swing, hand drills began to be replaced by steam-powered or compressed-air drills.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Processing Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early days of the Colorado Gold Rush, placer miners borrowed the Spanish process of using mercury to extract gold; the two heavy metals were bound together in an amalgam and would sink to the bottom of the sluice. The amalgam was then heated in a retort until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold and retorted mercury to be collected.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1860s, before successful smelting in Colorado, ore was taken from a mine to a stamp mill, where it was crushed into sand and then washed over copper plates embedded with mercury, or simply into sluice boxes to recover the gold. The use of mercury posed a threat to miners, mill workers, and local wildlife, as documented by the gold seeker-turned-naturalist <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/edwin-carter"><strong>Edwin Carter</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early stamp milling was relatively inefficient, with as little as 25 percent of the gold content recovered. The inefficiency came because milling is only a physical separation process and does not break the chemical bonds between the rock and gold. As mines became deeper, lower-grade ore and ore laden with sulfides made profitable milling difficult. The result was the first “bust” in Colorado’s gold “boom.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Advent of Smelting</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1860s, entrepreneurial chemistry professor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathaniel-p-hill"><strong>Nathaniel P. Hill</strong></a> applied a process he learned in Wales to build the state’s first successful smelter in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>. Smelters use heat to melt milled ore and chemically separate the precious metals. The advent of smelting not only revived the struggling mining industry in Colorado but also launched the potential extraction of silver from complex ores.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Smelting also galvanized the <a href="file:///C:/Users/yongli/Downloads/coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal industry</strong></a>, as large amounts of coke—an industrial fuel derived from coal—were needed to fuel the smelters. By 1890 Leadville had fourteen smelters, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and Denver had three, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>, Aspen, and <strong>Durango</strong> each had one.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A new gold-extraction process gained traction in Colorado during the Cripple Creek gold boom of the 1890s. Using cyanide to separate gold was, as mining historian Jay Fell writes, “far more efficient than stamp milling and far less expensive than smelting.” Like earlier stamp milling, the process involved crushing the gold ore into sand, but instead of running it over copper plates or through sluices, the cyanide mills sent the sand into vats of a cyanide solution which dissolved gold for extraction.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like smelting, cyanide milling was developed overseas; it was used extensively in South Africa during the 1880s before being implemented in Colorado mining operations at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crestone"><strong>Crestone</strong></a> and Cripple Creek. Despite the success of cyanide in gold processing, silver-lead-zinc ores still had to be smelted. Many Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters operated until the 1920s, and one each in Denver and Leadville operated until the 1960s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Timeline of Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Early History</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1849 California Gold Rush set off the search for precious metals across the American West. On their way to California, various groups traveling across the Rockies began finding small amounts of gold in <strong>Cherry Creek</strong> and other streams near present-day Denver. These early findings attracted little attention after the 1851 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> made the area more accessible to non-Natives and an economic depression in 1857 led many eastern Americans to seek their fortunes in the West. In 1858 the party of <strong>William Green Russell</strong>, prospectors with experience from gold rushes in Georgia and California, made a minor gold discovery in Cherry Creek.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The ensuing Colorado Gold Rush saw thousands of people cross the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> to newly established towns such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, Cañon City, and Golden; by 1860, the non-Native population of Colorado—which was then still controlled mainly by Indigenous people and officially part of western Kansas Territory—numbered over 34,000. The following year, with the Civil War looming, Congress organized Colorado Territory in part to safeguard the gold-producing region from the emerging Confederacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s population swiftly declined in the early 1860s, as many of the most popular gold streams were panned out and hard rock mining began. People left the area to join the Union or Confederate armies and to seek their fortunes in the Idaho and Montana gold rushes that began in 1862.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Spread Across the Rockies</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the mid-to-late 1860s, the violent removal of the <strong>Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, as well as treaties with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of the Rocky Mountains and the importing of stamp milling and smelting, revived Colorado’s gold-mining industry. This was followed in the 1870s by the development of railroads in the mining districts and discoveries of gold and silver in the San Juan Mountains, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison Valley</strong></a>, and Leadville. The forced removal of much of Colorado’s Ute population in 1881 made industrial mining possible in places such as Aspen (silver) and the San Juan Mountain towns of <strong>Ouray</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> (gold and silver).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Silver’s Rise and Fall</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The fates of Colorado’s gold and silver mining industries were always bound to national events. Beginning in the late 1850s, during the Colorado Gold Rush, the rapid development of the Comstock Lode, a massive silver deposit in Nevada, sent the price of silver tumbling. The price drop continued when Colorado’s silver industry came alive in Leadville in the late 1870s, prompting those invested in western silver to lobby Congress for support. The Bland-Allison Act, passed in 1878, compelled the government to purchase a set amount of silver each year and was a boon for Colorado mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 increased the government’s silver-buying obligation and further stimulated silver production in Colorado. During the ensuing debate over which precious metals would back US currency, most Coloradans supported silver because Colorado’s silver mines, anchored by booming Leadville and Aspen, were producing some $20 million in silver each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The overproduction of silver had already caused its price to drop by about a quarter when another <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>economic depression hit in 1893</strong>.</a> That year, the US government sought to protect its diminishing gold reserves by halting its silver purchases. After the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, the price of silver dropped even further, to about sixty-three cents per ounce by 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the repeal was intended to stimulate the national economy, it devastated Colorado’s. Of the silver mining towns, Leadville suffered the most, with ninety mines closed and 2,500 unemployed. Aspen’s silver boom effectively ended, and the town later had to reinvent itself as a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski</strong></a> destination to survive. Altogether, more than 9,500 jobs dried up in mining towns across the state. Colorado’s silver industry never recovered, with production dwindling to below $10 million per year after the turn of the century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Cripple Creek and Consolidation</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the bane of Colorado’s silver industry, repealing the Sherman Act was a boon for mining gold and other metals. Many out-of-work silver miners flocked to new discoveries in the Cripple Creek gold mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cripple Creek district was on the western flank of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, where local rancher Bob Womack found gold in 1890. With the repeal of the Sherman Act, the value of gold in Colorado increased by about $4 million (40 percent) from 1894 to 1895 and reached a peak of $28 million in 1900, due primarily to Cripple Creek production.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As in other industries—such as railroads, steel, and petroleum—the precious metals industry began to consolidate in the 1890s. This led to the creation of large companies that controlled both mines and smelters. Formed in 1899, the <strong>American Smelting and Refining Company</strong> (ASARCO) was the most significant of these companies in Colorado, operating the <strong>Globe smelter</strong> in Denver, the Arkansas Valley smelter in Leadville, and the <strong>Colorado smelter</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, as well as dozens of mines across the state. Several years later, ASARCO also acquired the Guggenheim family’s smelters at those locations, creating a near-monopoly in Colorado’s smelting industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Twentieth Century</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thereafter, the amount of gold produced in Colorado began to taper off, dropping from 20 million ounces in 1900 to 8.5 million by 1910, then down to 5.4 million ounces in 1920. Gold’s value, however, remained steady throughout the 1910s, hovering around $20 million for the better part of the decade. Its value declined as English investors pulled out of Colorado mines to support their home nation during <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1910s, dredging provided hope for gold mining outfits in five Colorado counties. Dredging used a mechanical chain of buckets attached to a boom on a huge flat-bottom barge floating on a self-dug pond. The dredge buckets scooped large volumes of riverbed gravel into an onboard sluice, where gold was separated. The “waste” gravel was then stacked by a conveyor belt in huge dredge piles still visible along the Blue River near Breckenridge and southeast of <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>. Although it did not bring gold mining back to its heyday, dredging yielded modest gold production in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a> Counties through the early 1940s, when the federal government halted gold mining during <strong>World War II</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, with mine production continuing to fall, most Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters had been shut down by the late 1920s, leaving only one Leadville and one Denver facility in operation. Fewer smelters meant higher costs for transporting ore, making it even harder to turn a profit on the lower-grade ore that remained. Gold and silver production and values dwindled. To compensate, the US Mint stopped coining gold in 1933 and raised the price from $20 per troy ounce to $35 per troy ounce, where it remained until 1972.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war, gold and silver became mere nuggets in the state’s mining stream, which was dominated by <strong>molybdenum </strong>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/uranium-mining"><strong>uranium</strong></a>. The last underground mine in the Cripple Creek District shut down in 1964. By 1975, when US citizens could again own gold bullion, Colorado still produced some $5.4 million in gold annually. However, along with silver, gold was primarily a by-product of mining for other, more profitable metals. Colorado’s molybdenum production, for instance, was $183 million that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Labor Strife</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the precious-metal mining industry consolidated in the late nineteenth century, the era of the individual prospector rushing to strike it rich came to an end, replaced by the grueling drudgery of workers mining for a company. Hard-rock mining was dangerous, with daily hazards including rock falls, injuries from drills and other equipment, and dynamite blasts. As mining historian Duane Smith put it, many accidents and injuries stemmed from “general rashness and lack of care” on behalf of the companies and fellow workers. In addition, many miners developed silicosis, a deadly lung disease caused by inhaling tiny rock particles all day. By 1900 miners braved all these risks for an average of about three dollars per eight-hour day, paltry earnings compared to those of the company bosses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Disgruntled hard-rock miners joined the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners</strong></a> (WFM), which lobbied for better pay and working conditions and organized strikes in such places as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896%E2%80%9397"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <strong>Cripple Creek</strong>, and <strong>Telluride</strong>. The tensions that stemmed from the miners’ exploited condition sometimes boiled over into outright labor conflict, such as when WFM members in Cripple Creek blew up a train platform where strikebreakers arrived in 1894 or when striking miners shot at and bombed strikebreakers in Leadville in 1896. For all their organizing and sacrifice, miners’ gains in this period were relatively small; slight pay increases, as well as the state’s implementation of an eight-hour workday in 1899, were among their victories—although subsequent strikes proved necessary to get mine owners to follow the law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Production</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it is far from being as profitable as it was in the nineteenth century, gold and silver mining continues in Colorado today. After a brief hiatus in the 1960s, gold and silver mining resumed at the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine in the late 1970s. Today the mine produces about 322,000 ounces of gold and silver each year. While this is nothing compared to the 25 million ounces pulled out of Colorado mines in 1893, its value—some $580 million at a rate of roughly $1,800 per troy ounce—is still substantial.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mine operators still use milling technology to crush the ore to a usable size. From there, the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine now use a process called <em>heap-leaching </em>to recover gold from ore instead of cyanide vats. In heap-leaching, the ore is crushed into sand, piled up, and dripped with a cyanide solution that causes the metals to dissolve and leach into a catchment pond, where the gold can be recovered, and the cyanide reused.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Legacy</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining played an essential role in the development of modern Colorado, but it also touched off a statewide environmental crisis that is ongoing today. Acid mine drainage—the breakdown and leaching of sulfide metals from mine workings, mine waste rock, and mill tailings into local water sources—became a concern in the late twentieth century due to the Clean Water Act and similar environmental laws. This has resulted in lawsuits against mining companies and the creation of several <strong>Superfund sites in Colorado</strong> where the US <strong>Environmental Protection Agency</strong> (EPA) has worked to contain and treat contaminated water from mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the EPA is tasked with cleaning up mines with acidic drainage, the agency has sometimes caused further damage. In 2015, EPA crews <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-king-mine-spill"><strong>accidentally released</strong></a> some 3 million gallons of metal-contaminated water into the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>. That spill, originating from the <strong>Gold King Mine</strong> north of Durango, demonstrated the risk of modern environmental disasters arising from nineteenth-century gold and silver mining in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the mines themselves, processing precious metals also produced environmental problems. Emissions from smelters caused localized acid rain; the emissions, as well as the waste material from smelting called <em>slag</em>, contained high levels of arsenic and lead, both harmful to human health. Multiple smelter locations across the state, including in Denver’s <strong>Globeville</strong> neighborhood and in Pueblo, became Superfund cleanup sites in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with the EPA and in some cases, the smelting company working to remove contaminated soil and slag piles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, the legacy of Colorado’s precious-metal mines also continues in other, more positive ways. As a result of its durability and malleability, much of the gold mined in Colorado during the 1800s is still in use today, whether in jewelry, electronics, space probes, or the treasury reserves of nations across the globe. And the silver, used in US coins until 1972 and in film processing until the 1990s, is now found in jewelry and high-conductivity electronic circuits. Although more than 160 years have passed since the Colorado Gold Rush began, the sun’s gleam off the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>State Capitol</strong></a>’s gold dome continues to reflect the state’s mining heritage.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/hart-steve" hreflang="und">Hart, Steve</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/fell-james-e" hreflang="und">Fell, James E.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">gold mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">silver mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/metal-mining" hreflang="en">metal mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/acid-mine-drainage" hreflang="en">acid mine drainage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-hawk" hreflang="en">Black Hawk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cripple-creek" hreflang="en">Cripple Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smelter" hreflang="en">smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/breckenridge" hreflang="en">Breckenridge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hosa" hreflang="en">hosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brunot-agreement" hreflang="en">Brunot Agreement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>American Museum of Natural History, “<a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions">Forming Deposits</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vladimir Basov, “<a href="https://www.mining.com/heap-leach-minings-breakthrough-technology/">Heap Leach: Mining’s breakthrough technology</a>,” Mining.com, August 20, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.asarco.com/about-us/company-history/">Company History</a>,” ASARCO, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.newmont.com/operations-and-projects/global-presence/north-america/cripple-creek-victor-us/default.aspx">Cripple Creek &amp; Victor</a>,” Newmont Mining, updated 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell and Eric Twitty, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2017/651.pdf">The Mining Industry in Colorado</a>,” National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Documentation Form, OMB No. 1024-0018 (March 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Henderson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0138/report.pdf">Mining in Colorado: A History of Discovery, Development and Production</a>,” USGS Professional Paper 138 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hobart M. King, “<a href="https://geology.com/minerals/silver.shtml">Silver</a>,” Geology.com, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terry Norgate and Nawshad Haque, “Using life cycle assessment to evaluate some environmental impacts of gold production,” <em>Journal of Cleaner Production</em> 29-30 (July 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1860/population/1860a-38.pdf">Population of the United States in 1860: Territory of Colorado</a>,” US Census Bureau, 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/coloradoslag.html#:~:text=The%20waste%20materials%20were%20then,the%20only%20ones%20at%20risk.">Pueblo, CO Exposure Investigation Success Story</a>,” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, updated April 11, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Shunk, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/restaurants/globeville-was-a-superfund-site-could-we-garden-there-10767357">Here’s the Dirt on Gardening in Globeville</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, September 12, 2018. Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold &amp; Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/case-summary-epa-funded-sites-and-communities-asarco-bankruptcy-settlement">Case Summary: EPA Funded Sites and Communities in the ASARCO Bankruptcy Settlement</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://semspub.epa.gov/work/08/312995.pdf">Fact Sheet: Yak Tunnel Cleanup—California Gulch Superfund Site</a>,” April 1989.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.cleanup&amp;id=0802700">Superfund Site: Colorado Smelter—Pueblo, CO—Cleanup Activities</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell, <em>Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Henry Jackson and John Fielder, <em>Colorado: 1870–2000 </em>(Silverthorne, CO: John Fielder Publishing, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Aug 2022 17:55:06 +0000 yongli 3721 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sand Creek Massacre http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sand Creek Massacre</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2019-09-19T13:42:07-06:00" title="Thursday, September 19, 2019 - 13:42" class="datetime">Thu, 09/19/2019 - 13:42</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre" data-a2a-title="Sand Creek Massacre"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsand-creek-massacre&amp;title=Sand%20Creek%20Massacre"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>On November 29, 1864, US volunteer cavalry killed&nbsp;at least 230&nbsp;<strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> people—mostly women, children, and the elderly—who were camped peacefully along Sand Creek in what was then <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>.&nbsp;Learning about the Sand Creek Massacre encourages people to reflect on the ways the massacre was part of the larger effort by the United States to dispossess Indigenous peoples across the American West.</p> <p>Far from the bustle of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>, the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site sits on the dry, rural land of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a> in southeastern Colorado. Visitors may see the waterless creek bed and prairie grasses and get a sense of the quiet, contemplative nature of the site, but for many it is harder to fully grasp the violence that happened there. The Sand Creek historic site is particularly significant for the Cheyenne and Arapaho, as they have played a central role in the site’s development and repatriated the remains of their ancestors. The descendants are still working to tell the story of Sand Creek and help their communities heal from this trauma.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>The Sand Creek Massacre was the result of a convergence of historical forces that spanned over three decades. First, American traders such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a>, <strong>Ceran St. Vrain</strong>, and <a href="/article/louis-vasquez"><strong>Louis Vasquez</strong></a> built <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> on the Colorado plains that pulled Indigenous people into a network of international commerce. Then, the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1848 added a massive amount of territory to the western United States, prompting American expansion under the belief of “<strong>Manifest Destiny</strong>.” As this was going on, epidemics of Old-World <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> continued to decimate Cheyenne and Arapaho populations in Colorado and elsewhere. Finally, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> in 1858–59 and the outbreak of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> prompted the organization of the Colorado Territory in 1861.</p> <p>Ten days before the territory’s establishment, US officials organized a peace council at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Fort Wise</strong></a> in southeastern Colorado to renegotiate the terms of the 1851 <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Fort Laramie Treaty</strong></a>, which had left more than 40,000 square miles of present Colorado to the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The terms of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> reduced indigenous lands by over 90 percent.</p> <p>At the end of March 1862, Abraham Lincoln appointed <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>—an Illinois town developer, university founder, and railroad entrepreneur—as the second territorial governor of Colorado. Evans calculated that Colorado’s mining riches would make it a major rail destination in the West. In his view, the ongoing presence of the Cheyenne and Arapaho in their ancestral homelands posed a threat to that vision. Additionally, Evans and other Colorado officials feared that the Confederacy, which already had a strong influence in Colorado, would form an alliance with Native Americans. Evans also worried about the potential of a large-scale massacre of settlers, like the one in Minnesota involving the Santee Dakota in August 1862.</p> <p>When the <strong>Hungate </strong>family, who had settled on Box Elder Creek near Denver, was found murdered, Evans pointed to their violent death as evidence confirming the threat from Colorado’s Cheyenne and Arapaho bands, despite the fact that no guilty party was ever identified and the murders were likely part of a reprisal for the death of an Indigenous person. Evans wired Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton that Indigenous people of the Colorado plains had committed “extensive murders” within a day’s ride of Denver and demanded that troops of the First Colorado Cavalry be returned to the city. The macabre and calculated decision to display the mutilated bodies of the Hungate family on the streets of Denver substantially contributed to the terror among the territory’s settler population.</p> <p>Two months later, Evans received congressional approval to raise a new regiment of US volunteers to bolster the territory’s defenses. The new <strong>Third Colorado Cavalry</strong> fell under the command of Colonel <strong>John M. Chivington</strong>, an ambitious citizen-soldier in command of the military district of Colorado. Chivington, a former Methodist pastor who voiced his hatred for both slavery and Native Americans, had his own motives for precipitating war on the plains.</p> <h2>Massacre</h2> <p>In the late summer of 1864, Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders contacted Major <strong>Edward Wynkoop</strong> at <strong>Fort Lyon</strong> in an attempt to secure peace with Colorado officials. Wynkoop escorted a contingent of Cheyenne and Arapaho representatives to Denver to meet with Evans and Chivington at Camp Weld. The meeting concluded not with a negotiated peace but with a veiled warning that war against the Plains Indians was still a real possibility. Instructed to turn themselves over to the authority of Wynkoop, the Indians drifted into Fort Lyon that autumn to find he had been replaced by Major Scott Anthony. Anthony directed the bands to move north, to camp along the dry streambed of Sand Creek.</p> <p>On November 29, Chivington led a force of 675 troops from the First and Third Colorado Cavalry in a surprise attack on the village. Over the course of the day, Chivington’s forces killed at least 230 of the nearly 700 people in the village. Among the dead was the Arapaho leader <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Left Hand</strong></a>, who just six years earlier had graciously allowed American prospectors to camp on his land near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>. US soldiers scalped and mutilated many of the bodies. The survivors, many of whom were wounded, fled to the <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>’ camps more than 100 miles to the north. The Dog Soldiers and other warrior bands retaliated in winter raids of unprecedented scale and ferocity; among the casualties was the town of <strong>Julesburg</strong>, which was burned to the ground in January 1865. Colorado had descended into <strong>full-fledged war</strong>.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>The memory of Sand Creek has been contested since the massacre. In the immediate aftermath, people offered conflicting accounts and explanations for the event. Chivington and many of the soldiers who participated in the massacre described it as a heroic battle. Captain <strong>Silas Soule</strong>, an officer of the First Colorado Cavalry who refused to fight at Sand Creek, characterized it as an unjust and brutal massacre perpetrated on a peaceful camp.</p> <p>In 1865 the US Joint Committee on the Conduct of War investigated Sand Creek and concluded that Chivington “deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre.” An army inquiry conducted at the same time reached essentially the same conclusion. Despite the findings of Congress and the army, many Coloradans at the time considered Sand Creek to be a justified battle. This idea was solidified on a Civil War memorial at the <a href="/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>state capitol building</strong></a> in Denver, which lists Sand Creek as one of many Civil War “battles” in the West, and on a plaque at the massacre site that reads, “Sand Creek Battle Ground.” Aside from these monuments, local memory of Sand Creek had largely faded from public recognition by the early twentieth century.</p> <p>Because Chivington’s commission had expired, he was immune from military justice. While the unprovoked slaughter at Sand Creek effectively ended Evans’s political career, he avoided criminal charges and went on to become one of the leading citizens of the territory and later the state of Colorado. Both Chivington and Evans fared better than Soule, who was gunned down outside his home in April 1865. It was widely suspected his killing was in retaliation for his testimony that detailed the horrors at Sand Creek. Later that year, tribal leaders and US officials signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Treaty of the Little Arkansas</strong></a>, in which the government assumed responsibility and promised reparations to survivors of the massacre and descendants of those who were killed. Hostilities between the Cheyenne and Arapaho and US military continued until the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers were finally defeated at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Battle of Summit Springs</strong></a> in 1869.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Renewed attention to Sand Creek came with the publication of <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>’s account of the massacre and increased tribal autonomy in the 1930s. The Arapaho and Cheyenne began pressing for the reparations guaranteed in the Treaty of the Little Arkansas. Tribal political activism in the 1960s and 1970s inspired even more public attention to and debate over Sand Creek.</p> <p>Public attention further increased with the dedication of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site in 2007. In 1998 Colorado Senator <strong>Ben Nighthorse Campbell</strong>, of Northern Cheyenne ancestry, sponsored legislation that began the long process of creating the historic site. The development of the site represents a successful collaboration between the descendants of the massacre survivors and <strong>National Park Service</strong> representatives.</p> <p>During the summer and fall of 2014, considerable energy and focus went into commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Sand Creek Massacre. Governor <a href="/article/john-hickenlooper"><strong>John Hickenlooper</strong></a> established the Sand Creek Massacre Commemoration Commission, which supported Cheyenne and Arapaho events, including their annual Spiritual Healing Run. Northwestern University and the <strong>University of Denver</strong> released investigations on the role that John Evans, their founder, played in Sand Creek. The United Methodist Church, to which Evans and Chivington belonged, also investigated its role in Sand Creek. Museums, universities, and other organizations hosted a number of events related to Sand Creek and the 150th commemoration.</p> <p>Today, Coloradans generally recognize Sand Creek as an unjust massacre. Reflecting this shift in public opinion, Governor Hickenlooper issued a formal apology to Cheyenne and Arapaho descendants in a culminating event of the sesquicentennial on the steps of the Colorado Capitol. In the twenty-first century, the focus has turned from debating the nature of the massacre to raising awareness and healing within Native American communities affected by the tragedy. More recently, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society">History Colorado</a> opened "The Sand Creek Massacre: The Betrayal That Changed Cheyenne and Arapaho People Forever,"&nbsp;an exhibition that shares a history of the massacre through the oral histories and tribal accounts of the descendants of those murdered at Sand Creek.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/thomas-tom" hreflang="und">Thomas, Tom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/neely-brooke" hreflang="und">Neely, Brooke</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-arkansas-treaty" hreflang="en">little arkansas treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-chivington" hreflang="en">John Chivington</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-evans" hreflang="en">John Evans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/left-hand" hreflang="en">left hand</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/white-antelope" hreflang="en">white antelope</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/genocide" hreflang="en">genocide</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, <em>Halfbreed: The Remarkable True Story of George Bent—Caught Between the Worlds of the Indian and the White Man</em> (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2004).</p> <p>Stan Hoig, <em>The Sand Creek Massacre</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961).</p> <p>Ari Kelman, <em>A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling Over the Memory of Sand Creek</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).</p> <p>Patricia Limerick, <em>What’s in a Name? Nichols Hall: A Report</em> (Boulder: University of Colorado, 1987).</p> <p>National Park Service, <em>Sand Creek Massacre NHS General Management Plan/Environmental Assessment</em> (2015).</p> <p>Simon Ortiz, <em>From Sand Creek</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000).</p> <p>Gary L. Roberts, <em>Massacre at Sand Creek: How Methodists Were Involved in an American Tragedy</em> (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2016).</p> <p>Elliot West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> <p>"The Sand Creek Massacre: The Betrayal that Changed Cheyenne and Arapaho People Forever" (Denver: History Colorado, 2022).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://remembersandcreek.org/">Remember Sand Creek website</a></p> <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, "<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/colorado-experience-sand-creek-massacre/">Colorado Experience: Sand Creek Massacre</a>," aired November 27, 2014.</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/sand/index.htm">Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site</a></p> <p>Donald L. Vasicek, "<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylmM2KL5D7w&amp;feature=youtu.be">The Sand Creek Massacre - Modified Version of Award-Winning Film</a>," YouTube, 6:36, July 15, 2012.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 19 Sep 2019 19:42:07 +0000 yongli 3080 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Margaret Coel http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/margaret-coel <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Margaret Coel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2019-01-08T14:36:04-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 8, 2019 - 14:36" class="datetime">Tue, 01/08/2019 - 14:36</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/margaret-coel" data-a2a-title="Margaret Coel"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmargaret-coel&amp;title=Margaret%20Coel"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p class="rtecenter"><img alt="Margaret Coel" src="/sites/default/files/Margaret_Coel.jpg" style="width: 480px; height: 586px;" /></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel (1937– ) is a <em>New</em> <em>York</em> <em>Times</em> best-selling author of both fiction and nonfiction. She is best known for her <em>Wind River</em> <em>Mystery Series</em> but has also published five nonfiction books, a book of short stories, and two additional mystery novels that take place in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. She is a fourth-generation Coloradan who has dedicated her writing career to the state and its history.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel’s family ties to Colorado go back to the year 1865. She is the daughter of Samuel F. Speas and Margaret McCloskey Speas. Coel’s mother, Margaret Speas, was an executive secretary for a large architectural firm for seventeen years until she decided to retire and stay home with her kids. Coel’s father, Samuel F. Spears, was a locomotive engineer for the <strong>Colorado &amp; Southern Railroad</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel comes from a long line of pioneer railroaders. She and her father collaboratively wrote the book <em>Goin’ Railroading</em>, which tells a first-person story of railroading in the mountains and plains of Colorado. This work draws heavily on the stories passed down from her father and grandfather and details her family’s involvement in the railroad as well as the romance and difficulties of early railroad life. <em>Goin’ Railroading</em>, along with <em>Chief Left Hand</em>, has been listed by the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History</strong> <strong>Colorado</strong></a>) as among the 100 best books on Colorado’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel was born and raised in Denver. She attended and graduated from the Holy Family High School in Denver in 1955. While attending Holy Family High School she was involved in the school newspaper and the school’s theater productions, including its annual Gilbert and Sullivan show. Coel spent many of her early years writing. She wrote everything from short stories to newspaper articles. She said she knew from a very young age that she wanted to be a professional writer, a dream that inspired her to pursue a bachelor’s degree in journalism.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After high school, Coel attended Marquette University, where she graduated in 1960 with a degree in journalism and a minor in French literature. In 1961 she married her husband, George W. Coel, a dentist in the Air Force. Together they had three children. Tragedy struck the family when their son Bill Coel passed away in 1976 at the age of thirteen. The couple currently has two daughters, Kristin Coel Henderson and Lisa Coel Harrison, who have provided them with six grandchildren.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Coels moved to Alaska in 1961, following George Coel’s reassignment to Eielson Air Force Base outside of Fairbanks. They remained in Alaska until 1963, when they settled in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, their current home.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Career</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel began her writing career shortly after graduating from Marquette University in 1960. While living in Alaska, she began freelancing for newspapers and magazines. Soon after returning to Colorado, she took a job as a reporter for the <em>Westminster Journal</em>, a small paper in the Denver suburb of <strong>Westminster</strong>. She covered almost everything that was going on in the small town, from city council meetings to the sheriff’s office. Coel says this is where she really learned how to do research and put it together into a story—a necessary skillset for writing a historical novel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Soon after moving back to Colorado, she became interested in <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a>—also known as Chief Left Hand—an Arapaho leader who allowed the first white prospectors to camp near present-day Boulder. Coel set out to write an article for a western magazine about Niwot, but after extensive research she realized she had enough information to write a book. In 1981 Coel completed her book, <em>Chief Left Hand</em>, which was published by the University of Oklahoma Press.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel has said she writes about the Arapaho people because they are Colorado people, even though most now live on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. The Arapaho still have a very close affinity with Colorado and still consider it their home. She was also drawn to the Arapaho because they were diplomats and traders as well as warriors, activities that run counter to their traditional depiction in Western American lore. Coel maintains that one of the goals of her work is to get people to know the Arapahos as more than just warriors.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel first began visiting the Wind River Reservation in the 1970s when she was researching Chief Left Hand. During this time, she met many Arapahos who became and remain her dear friends. She spent a lot of time speaking to the elders and listening to their oral histories of early life on the plains. Coel attended the sun dance, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sweat-lodge-0"><strong>sweat lodge</strong></a> ceremonies, feasts, and powwows. Some of her Arapaho friends have read through her manuscripts to make sure the information was correct and to give her feedback on the stories. In addition to her time talking with people on the reservation, she spent countless hours doing archival research there.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From History to Mystery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel has said her transition from nonfiction to fiction was difficult, but she maintains that “underneath every writer is a would-be novelist.” Coel realized that she had never tried writing fiction before and wanted to see if she could do it. She says the main difference in writing the two is that “in nonfiction you can tell the story, while in fiction you have to show the story.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After four years of work, Coel’s first mystery novel, <em>The Eagle Catcher</em>, was published in 1995 by the University Press of Colorado. During the same four-year period, she also wrote two nonfiction books and a dozen articles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel has said she chose mystery over other fiction genres because the situations that unfold in mysteries requires the characters to “put up their best game in what are often life and death situations.” She also believes that readers can learn a lot about how the world works from mystery novels. One of Coel’s themes in all of her books is the importance of understanding history. She has said that she wants her books to help people understand that their actions have a lasting effect on the world and that things done 100 years ago—both good and bad—are still being felt in the present. One of her other stated goals is to help others gain an appreciation for different people and cultures.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Awards</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel’s <em>Chief Left Hand</em> received numerous awards, including the Best Non-Fiction Book Award from the National Association of Press Women in 1982, and it was named one of the best 100 books on Colorado History by the Colorado Historical Society (now <strong>History Colorado</strong>) in 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Her fictional works have also received praise. She received five Colorado book awards for her <em>Wind River</em> <em>Mystery Series</em> and another for her novel <em>The Spirit Woman </em>(2000). <em>The Spirit Woman </em>also won a Willa Cather Award, which recognizes outstanding literature about life on the Great Plains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Coel’s other awards include the Frank Waters Award and the High Plains Emeritus Award in 2010, both of which recognize lifetime literary achievement. Coel has also been a keynote speaker at numerous events and has been invited to appear as a guest of honor at multiple book festivals.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel still lives in Boulder, where she says she is “sort of” retired, barring sudden inspiration for another novel. Coel still writes, though it is mostly newsletters and Facebook posts. After twenty books, she considers her Wind River series complete. If she were going to write another novel it would most likely be featuring the character Catherin McLeod, an urban Arapaho woman who works as an investigative reporter for a major Denver newspaper. This character comes from the Catherin McLeod mystery series, which currently has two installments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In reflecting on her life, she said, “I did what I wanted to do. I wanted to write about Colorado’s history and its people and I did that” and that she “had a good time doing it.”</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/massimi-alex" hreflang="und">Massimi, Alex</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/margaret-coel" hreflang="en">margaret coel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/author" hreflang="en">Author</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-authors" hreflang="en">colorado authors</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history" hreflang="en">history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/left-hand" hreflang="en">left hand</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Margaret Coel, “<a href="https://margaretcoel.com/about.php">About</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel, Interview by David Montgomery, <em>Crime</em> <em>Fiction</em> <em>Blog,</em> August 9, 2005</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel, interview by Alexander Massimi, March 20, 2018, Boulder, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel, interview by Jeff Rutherford, <em>Reading and Writing Podcast</em>, March 10, 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret Coel, “Off The Page,” Presentation at Broomfield Library, Broomfield, Colorado, November 8, 2014.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://margaretcoel.com/">Margaret Coel, official website </a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sandra Dallas, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2016/09/01/margaret-coel-releases-last-in-wind-river-series-but-shes-not-done-with-writing/">Margaret Coel Releases Last in Wind River Series, but She’s Not Done With Writing</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, September 1, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fiction Database, “<a href="https://www.fictiondb.com/author/margaret-coel~18527.htm">Margaret Coel</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 08 Jan 2019 21:36:04 +0000 yongli 3002 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Boulder http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Boulder</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-22T12:34:17-07:00" title="Wednesday, February 22, 2017 - 12:34" class="datetime">Wed, 02/22/2017 - 12:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder" data-a2a-title="Boulder"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fboulder&amp;title=Boulder"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Boulder is Colorado’s eleventh-most populous city, twenty-five miles northwest of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a><strong>, </strong>nestled against the foothills of the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. Home of the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> (CU), the city has a population of 97,385 and is the seat of <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a>. Boulder was founded during the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59, and the university was established in 1861.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the educational capital of Colorado for more than 150 years, Boulder has fostered a unique cultural amalgam of middle- and upper-class intellectuals, enthusiasts of the arts and outdoors, entrepreneurs, and college students. The counterculture of the 1960s found a comfortable niche in Boulder, and the area became a haven for hippies and socially liberal politics. Of course, Boulderites may fit all, some, or none of those categories, but the city’s culture is nonetheless distinct from the rest of the state and has earned it the nickname, “the People’s Republic of Boulder.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient and Indigenous Boulder</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s unique landscape is the result of tens of millions of years of mountain-building and thousands of years of human habitation. The <strong>Flatirons</strong>, Boulder’s iconic triangular mountains, are remnants of a prehistoric seafloor pushed up by the same geologic forces that built the Rocky Mountains between 60 and 70 million years ago. With the uplift of the mountains came streams such as Boulder Creek, which carried snowmelt down from the <strong>Indian Peaks </strong>and carved today’s Boulder Canyon.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2009 workers at a west Boulder residence found primitive tools that date aboriginal occupation of the Boulder valley to the late Pleistocene, or at least 13,000 years ago. Native American occupation continued uninterrupted from the late Pleistocene to the present. During the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> (9500 BC–5500 BC), <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> (5500 BC–AD 1), and Late Prehistoric Period (AD 1–1550), hunters and gatherers moved seasonally between the mountains and plains. Many of these groups spent the harsh Colorado winters in the shelter of the natural trough along the Front Range, where Boulder now sits. By the sixteenth century, <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people occupied what is today western Boulder County, and by the early nineteenth century they were joined by the <strong>Arapaho</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Boulder</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Modern Boulder got its start in late fall of 1858, when <strong>Thomas Aikins </strong>and his group of Anglo-American prospectors arrived at <strong>Boulder Canyon</strong> during the Colorado Gold Rush. Aikins’s group built log cabins for shelter just below the mouth of the canyon. <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a> (“Left Hand”), a local Arapaho leader, allowed the prospectors to stay for the winter as long as they promised to leave in the spring. The decision would eventually cost his people their land and many of their lives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 16, 1859, Aikins’s son James and several others found placer (surface) gold along a fork of Boulder Creek. The group set up a mining camp called <a href="/article/gold-hill"><strong>Gold Hill</strong></a>. In June, drawn by news of Aikins’s discovery, prospector David Horsfal arrived and found an even larger deposit: a massive, gold-bearing quartz seam that he named the Horsfal Lode. These discoveries not only brought more miners to the area but also merchants, farmers, and others looking to cash in on the newest pin on the gold-rush map.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 10, 1859, Tom Aikins, A. A. Brookfield, and fifty-three other men formed the Boulder City Town Company, platting a small settlement at the mouth of the canyon to serve the mining camps. The town had its first irrigation ditch later that year, and by 1860 it boasted some seventy cabins, mostly occupied by Anglo-American families of miners and merchants. Non-whites were part of Boulder’s early history, but they are rarely pictured. Chinese miners kept to themselves in mountain communities. Few blacks or Asians hired photographers to have their portraits taken, and photos of Boulder prostitutes were even rarer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1861 Boulder County was formed as one of the original seventeen counties of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, and the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> led to the removal of the Arapaho people from the Front Range. With their numbers thinned by disease and their resource base dwindling on account of mining and other white activities, Niwot’s band held out as long as they could but soon moved to the new Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in southeastern Colorado. By 1862 the Boulder Creek deposits had already yielded $100,000 in gold, and more than 300 people lived in the modest community at the canyon’s mouth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The town, consisting of a few log cabins, was centered around Twelfth (Broadway) and Pearl Streets. Except for a few cottonwoods, willows, and box elders along Boulder Creek, there were no trees. <strong>Isabella Bird</strong>, an adventurous Englishwoman who traveled through Boulder on horseback a few years later, called Boulder “a hideous collection of frame houses on the burning plain.” By contrast, the City of Boulder’s Forestry Division estimates that there are about 650,000 trees in the city today, supported by more than a century’s worth of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> delivery projects.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Horsfal mine supported both Gold Hill and Boulder for several years. Then came what is known as “the slump of 1863.” Gold ore farther from the surface required more sophisticated milling, and gold was lost in the processing. Meanwhile, American Indian uprisings on the plains, spurred by the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864, interrupted shipments of supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the miners left to prospect elsewhere or fought in the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>.  Others saw their future in agriculture and <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteaded</strong></a> farms around Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Civil War ended in 1865, many former slaves and their children moved west, and some settled in Boulder. The 1880 census listed blacks as approximately 1 percent of Boulder County’s 3,069 residents, but they nonetheless had formed their own thriving community in the city. Many of Boulder’s early black residents lived on the city’s west side, in a section of the Goss-Grave neighborhood known as the “Little Rectangle.” There, several houses originally built by former slaves still stand, including the home of Ruth Cave Flowers, one of the first black graduates of CU, as well as the home of musician John Wesley McVey.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Among the most prominent black Boulderites was <a href="/article/oliver-toussaint-jackson"><strong>Oliver Toussaint Jackson</strong></a>, the son of former slaves from Ohio who bought a farm outside the city in 1894. Jackson built a home at 2228 Pine Street, and he also opened a restaurant on Thirteenth Street, the Stillman Café and Ice Cream Parlor. Later, he opened a restaurant at Fifty-fifth and Arapahoe Streets that was famous for its seafood. Jackson went on to found the all-black agricultural settlement of <a href="/article/dearfield"><strong>Dearfield</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As African Americans built a community in Boulder, prospectors continued to search for gold in the mountains. In 1869 they found silver near present-day <strong>Nederland</strong>, setting up a small town called <strong>Caribou</strong>. A road up Boulder Canyon was completed to get supplies to Caribou, and revenues from the new mines began pouring into the city. By November 1871 Boulder’s economy was much improved, and the city was incorporated. In 1872 gold-bearing telluride ore was discovered near Gold Hill, and prospectors again rushed to the mountains west of Boulder to stake their claims. Mines cropped up all over the area, from Jamestown to Sunshine to <strong>Ward</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Miners west of Boulder depended on the city for supplies, and it grew steadily. Brick and stone commercial buildings began to replace the frame businesses on Pearl Street. Street merchants delighted Pearl Street crowds with flaring gaslights and displays of ventriloquism in order to sell hair restoratives, electric belts for rheumatism, and other cure-alls. The <strong>Colorado Central </strong>and Denver &amp; Boulder Valley Railroads arrived in 1873, and in 1878 another line connected the city to the coalfields several miles to the south. As its commerce and culture coalesced in the 1870s, Boulder continued its push to build Colorado’s first university.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>University of Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 1861, when the University of Colorado was officially founded, Boulderites took steps to ensure that their community would house the first university in the fledgling Colorado Territory. It took more than a decade to build the campus, however, as Boulder struggled to stay afloat after the first mining boom subsided. The town survived by catering to the needs of neighboring farmers and coal miners. To build the initial campus, the Territorial Legislature gave the city $15,000 on the condition that residents match that amount. Boulderites raised the money, and by the time Colorado became a state in 1876, the city finished Old Main, CU’s first building. Dr. <strong>Joseph Sewall</strong>, the university’s first president, and his family lived in the building, which also hosted the first classes. In the spring of 1882, CU graduated its first class, an all-male group of six. The university augmented Boulder’s industry-related growth, attracting people from elsewhere in the state. By 1890, Boulder had a population of 3,330.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The 100-Year Flood</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s late-nineteenth century growth was interrupted by a so-called 100-year <a href="/article/boulder-flood-1894"><strong>flood in 1894</strong></a>. The deluge completely severed Boulder from the rest of Colorado, wiping out all road and rail bridges and telegraph lines. It also destroyed farms and irrigation infrastructure. Most of the city’s red light district, which covered the area along Water (Canyon) Street between the current Municipal Building and the Boulder Public Library, was destroyed. Madams promptly moved their girls to upstairs rooms in the downtown business district.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Goss and Grove Street neighborhood, home to most of the city’s minorities and immigrants, fared little better. Although the neighborhood was rebuilt, the majority of large homes, churches, and public buildings built after the flood were located north of downtown or on higher ground. It took the city several years to fully recover from the flood.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“Athens of the West”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After recovering from the catastrophic flood, Boulder became a sophisticated city in the early 1900s, calling itself “the Athens of the West” and “the Place to Be.” The business district, comprising late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings, was located between the new residential areas on Mapleton Hill and University Hill. Hardwoods and fruit trees were imported from the East.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CU was also growing. By 1902 the university had many more buildings, including dormitories, a president’s house, and a library. Its student body had grown to 550, taught by 105 faculty members. At the outbreak of <a href="/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> in 1914, barracks were established at CU, and the university became one of the first college campuses to have a Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). It was also during this period that CU buildings began taking on their signature look: flagstone walls covered by red-tile roofs, a style referred to as Tuscan Vernacular and chosen by Day and Klauder, the architectural firm hired to homogenize the campus buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the university, temperance was a key part of Boulder’s identity as a sophisticated city. Although the city featured nineteen saloons by 1883 and was not known as a particularly drunken city, a significant segment of the citizenry opposed drinking establishments. Organizations such as the Golden Sheaf Lodge (1869), the local chapter of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (1881), and the Better Boulder Party (1900) vigorously opposed saloons and drinking by working to raise liquor license fees.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907 the Better Boulder Party and nativists played on the moralist fears of many Boulder County citizens when they argued that going dry would curtail the licentious activities of prostitutes and alcohol-drinking immigrant groups such as the Germans, Irish, and Italians. That year, Boulder County approved a ban on alcohol that lasted until the repeal of federal prohibition in 1933. Boulder itself was a dry city until 1967.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As temperance advocates won prohibition, Boulder set its sights on obtaining the best drinking water for its growing population. The city purchased the watershed of the <strong>Arapaho Glacier</strong>, and later the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a> itself. A $200,000 steel pipeline brought the nearly flawless water from an intake pipe on Boulder County Ranch (now <strong>Caribou Ranch</strong>), to the Chautauqua and Sunshine Reservoirs in Boulder. All over Boulder, drinking fountains were installed that read “Pure Cold Water from the Boulder-Owned Arapahoe [sic] Glacier.” The only drinking fountain still marked today is in the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hotel-boulderado"> <strong>Hotel Boulderado</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between Boulder’s drinking fountains lay stores that held just about anything a shopper wanted. Dress goods for both sexes and ready-to-wear clothing were available, and women could buy imported perfumes, diamond lockets, plumed hats, button shoes, and even rust-proof corsets. Stores stocked gourmet foods such as oysters and a wide selection of coffees, as well as choice and smoked meats. In the 1930s, nineteenth and early twentieth century storefronts were lowered and modernized.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shoppers in early twentieth-century Boulder often rode streetcars, while boys on bicycles darted around early automobiles. In 1909 the automobile was still a novelty, but people were taking notice. Meanwhile, the Denver &amp; Interurban’s electrically powered trains made sixteen round-trips per day between Boulder and Denver. From 1908 to 1917, this cheap, clean, and efficient means of public transportation ran down Pearl Street on its way to <strong>Louisville</strong>, <a href="/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a>, and Denver. Between 1917 and 1926 the Interurban trains stopped at the Union Pacific depot and alternated their routes with runs through the university and Marshall. Narrow-gauge railroads, meanwhile, provided access to Nederland and other mountain towns to the west. Soon, automobiles began to replace stagecoaches, and trucks instead of wagons carried freight.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Postwar Growth</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of World War II, its chief support lay with the university. Enrollment at CU doubled over the course of a single year after World War II, going from 5,483 in 1946 to 10,421 in 1947. Over the next several decades, the university added new facilities to keep pace with increasingly higher enrollment, and the school was admitted to the American Association of Universities in 1967. The university had an enrollment of 20,000 by 1980.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the broader cityscape, postwar growth and the increasing popularity of the automobile took businesses away from downtown. The North Broadway, Arapahoe Village, and Basemar Shopping Centers were built in the 1950s. By 1955 Boulder was a city of nearly 30,000 people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1960s Boulderites talked about revitalizing downtown, buying open space, and limiting growth. In 1963, when the first segment of Crossroads Shopping Center was built, Boulder merchants and property owners organized “Boulder Tomorrow, Inc.” to help plan the redevelopment of the downtown area. Construction of a downtown pedestrian mall began in 1976 and was completed in 1977. The mall eliminated traffic on <strong>Pearl Street</strong> between Eleventh and Fifteenth Streets.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Historic preservation</strong> also came into style. Businesses and street merchants returned downtown. Many of Boulder’s original buildings were restored. In the early 1970s Historic Boulder, Inc. was formed to recognize and preserve Boulder’s historic buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since then, Boulder has become an indisputable high-tech mecca, with entrepreneurs drawn to the town for its combination of a skilled workforce, ambitious entrepreneurs, available venture capital—and healthy mountain living. <em>Inc.</em> magazine recently reported that Boulder has more startups per capita than any city in the United States—six times more startups than the national average. Companies like the tea maker <strong>Celestial Seasonings</strong> and the biotech firm Amgen have led the way.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s reputation as a citadel of freethinking has also continued to grow apace. With the pedestrian mall of Pearl Street as the physical focal point and the university as the draw, the city continues to evolve as a petri dish for new ideas. But Boulder has expanded carefully, keeping nearly 100,000 acres of open space under city management.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder remains so attractive that real estate prices can be 1.5 times more expensive than nearby Denver. Commuters between the two cities are often frustrated by high congestion rates on US Highway 36, which was expanded in 2016 to include HOV and bus lanes. As of 2016 Denver’s <a href="https://www.rtd-denver.com"><strong>Regional Transportation District</strong></a> (RTD) is extending the B Line of its light rail system to Boulder, with an eye toward relieving some commuters.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Parts of this essay adapted from Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, eds., <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th Ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013) and Robert R. Crifasi, <em>A Land Made from Water</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-boulder" hreflang="en">history of boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flatirons" hreflang="en">flatirons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-creek" hreflang="en">boulder creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thomas-aikins" hreflang="en">thomas aikins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/david-horsfal" hreflang="en">david horsfal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/isabella-bird" hreflang="en">isabella bird</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oliver-toussaint-jackson" hreflang="en">Oliver Toussaint Jackson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cu" hreflang="en">cu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1894-boulder-flood" hreflang="en">1894 boulder flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/better-boulder-party" hreflang="en">better boulder party</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-glacier" hreflang="en">arapaho glacier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pearl-street-mall" hreflang="en">pearl street mall</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/celestial-seasonings" hreflang="en">celestial seasonings</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David Baron, <em>The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature (New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company</em>, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Burt Helm, “<a href="https://www.inc.com/magazine/201312/boulder-colorado-fast-growing-business.html">How Boulder Became America’s Startup Capital</a>,” <em>Inc.</em>, December 2013-January 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Kieffer, <em>Boulder, Colorado</em><em>:</em> <em>A Photographic Portrait</em> (Rockport: Twin Lights Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erica Meltzer, “<a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2013/04/24/boulder-weighs-fate-of-historic-house-in-little-rectangle-neighborhood/">Boulder Weighs Fate of Historic House in ‘Little Rectangle’ Neighborhood</a>,” <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, April 24, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel and Dan Corson, <em>Boulder County: An Illustrated History </em>(Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Silvia-Pettem/e/B001JSA6II/ref=dp_byline_cont_book_1">Silvia Pettem</a>, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, “<a href="https://www-static.bouldercolorado.gov/docs/J_Tracking_Down_Boulder,_Colorado%E2%80%99s_Railroads-1-201509031602.pdf">Tracking Down Boulder, Colorado’s Railroads” and “Roads of the Mountains and Plains</a>,” Boulder Historic Context Project (Boulder, CO: Silvia Pettem, 1996).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/pearl-street-mall-beloved-boulder-attraction">Pearl Street Mall: Beloved Boulder Attraction</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://boulderdowntown.com/visit">Explore Downtown Boulder</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.cu.edu/cu-careers/cu-boulder">University of Colorado</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 22 Feb 2017 19:34:17 +0000 yongli 2378 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Niwot (Left Hand) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Niwot (Left Hand)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1257--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1257.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-and-cheyenne-delegation-camp-weld-1864"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=zvtDSm32" width="1000" height="794" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-and-cheyenne-delegation-camp-weld-1864" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho and Cheyenne Delegation at Camp Weld, 1864</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Arapaho and Cheyenne delegation at Camp Weld in September 1864. Kneeling in front are Major Edward W. Wynkoop (left) and Captain Silas Soule. The seated delegates are (l-r) Neva, Bull Bear, Black Kettle, White Antelope, and No-ta-nee. Standing in back are (l-r) unidentified, unidentified, John Simpson Smith, Heap of Buffalo, Bosse, Dexter Colley, unidentified.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1258--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1258.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cheyenne-and-arapaho-arrive-denver-1864"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=ijkkJho4" width="1000" height="794" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cheyenne-and-arapaho-arrive-denver-1864" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cheyenne and Arapaho Arrive in Denver, 1864</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Wagons on Fourteenth Street between Lawrence and Larimer Streets in Denver carrying the Indian delegation to meet with Governor John Evans, September 28, 1864.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1259--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1259.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Niwot-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=dkaJwxJr" width="1000" height="782" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arapaho-camp-1858" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arapaho Camp, 1858</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Arapaho camp across Cherry Creek from the gold seekers camp in 1858.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-04T09:41:44-07:00" title="Friday, March 4, 2016 - 09:41" class="datetime">Fri, 03/04/2016 - 09:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand" data-a2a-title="Niwot (Left Hand)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fniwot-left-hand&amp;title=Niwot%20%28Left%20Hand%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Niwot (c. 1820s–64), known to English speakers as "Left Hand," was a prominent <strong>Arapaho</strong> leader in the mid-1800s. The tumultuous period in Colorado history followed the 1858 <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>discovery of gold</strong></a> near present-day <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, on the traditional lands of the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. Diplomat, negotiator, linguist, and fluent English speaker, Niwot spent the last years of his life trying to establish a peaceful agreement between Indigenous nations of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and the thousands of gold seekers converging on Colorado. He was killed in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of November 29, 1864, an event he had worked tirelessly to prevent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The exact date of Niwot’s birth is unknown, but by 1860 he had become a respected leader and close confidant of the Arapaho chief <strong>Hosa (</strong><strong>Little Raven</strong><strong>)</strong>. This suggests that Niwot was in his early forties, old enough to have gained prominence in the tribe. His Arapaho name means "Left Hand," and since Arapaho names often allude to physical characteristics, he was most likely left-handed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Results of the Gold Discovery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1858 gold discovery electrified the country and sent an estimated 150,000 gold seekers to Colorado by the spring of 1859. The vast numbers overwhelmed the Arapaho and Cheyenne, small groups that together numbered about 10,000 people. The long wagon trains disrupted the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds, upon which the Indigenous nations depended for food, clothing, shelter, and tools. New towns sprang up, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> and Denver City, as well as other towns along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The migration placed tremendous pressure on Indigenous people. They had to ride farther to find buffalo. Once a vast land of abundance, the plains and foothills became a natural arena in which white immigrants and Native Americans competed for timber, game, and other limited resources. White immigrants brought smallpox and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>other diseases</strong></a> to which indigenous people had no immunity. They raided the forests for timber and polluted the streams.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Violent clashes began to occur between Indigenous people and whites. Groups of Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors raided new outposts, killing the inhabitants and driving off the cattle. In retaliation, <a href="/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a>, the first territorial governor of Colorado, and his successor, <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>, dispatched troops to pursue the Native Americans. Whites' invasion of the Front Range precipitated suffering on both sides, and anger and distrust settled over Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Niwot Seeks Peace</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot emerged during this period as the leading spokesman for the Arapaho and Cheyenne. Since the other leaders, including Hosa and the Cheyenne chiefs <strong>Black Kettle</strong> and <strong>White Antelope</strong>, could not speak English, they relied on Niwot as an interpreter and a mediator. Niwot had learned English as a boy from John Poisal, who had married his sister, Mahom. In 1859, for instance, Boston journalists <strong>Horace Greeley</strong> and Albert D. Richardson interviewed Hosa with Niwot as interpreter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On numerous occasions, Niwot met with Governor Evans and other white authorities to express the peaceful intentions of his people and ask for a peace agreement. At one point, he took ten warriors to a performance of Lady of Lyons at the Apollo Theater on Larimer Street in Denver. After the play, Niwot jumped onto the stage and told the audience that his people wanted peace. When the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> printed an account of an Arapaho attack on a ranch, Niwot visited the newspaper and told editor <a href="/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William Byers</strong></a> what had actually happened: the rancher, without provocation, had attacked a young Arapaho man. Niwot then demanded reparations of food and clothing. Byers accepted Niwot’s account.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Attacks and Reprisals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1864, bands of Cheyenne, Lakota, and Arapaho warriors broke with Niwot and the other peace chiefs and attacked wagon trains on the <a href="/article/overland-trail"><strong>Overland Route</strong></a>, halting all traffic. Denver was isolated. For two weeks, no food or supplies from the East reached the settlement. Alarmed, Governor Evans petitioned the military for immediate help and received permission to raise a volunteer regiment for 100 days to fight the Indigenous groups and reopen the road.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot and the other peace chiefs were also alarmed. With the help of <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George Bent</strong></a>—the educated son of the famous trader <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> and his Cheyenne wife, <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a>—the chiefs composed a letter asking for a meeting with Evans to make a treaty. To demonstrate their peaceful intentions, Niwot and Black Kettle rode to hostile Cheyenne and Lakota camps and gave their own ponies and buffalo robes in ransom for white captives taken in raids. Niwot ransomed three white children and seventeen-year-old Laura Roper, whom he brought safely to an army camp on the plains. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Camp Weld Council</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of the actions of the peace chiefs, in September 1864 Major <strong>Edward Wynkoop</strong> brought a delegation of Arapaho and Cheyenne leaders to Denver to meet with Governor Evans. The governor refused to see them, but Wynkoop persisted until the governor agreed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The meeting, known as the Camp Weld Council, took place at Camp Weld near the present-day interchange of I-25 and 6th Avenue in Denver. Four Arapahos attended, including Neva, Niwot’s brother, and No-Ta-Nee, a relative. Niwot himself remained on the plains to prevent the warriors from attacking settlements while the chiefs worked for peace. At the council, Governor Evans and Colonel <strong>John M. Chivington</strong>, military commander of the district of Colorado, instructed the Indigenous leaders to bring their bands to Fort Lyon on the Arkansas River, place themselves under the protection of the commander, and await a peace agreement. Niwot and the other chiefs complied, but when their people began arriving at Fort Lyon, the commander told them to move to Sand Creek, forty miles away.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Sand Creek Massacre</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By late November 1864, between 500 and 600 Cheyenne under Black Kettle and White Antelope, as well as sixty Arapaho under Niwot, were camped along the dry bed of Sand Creek. A larger group of Arapaho under Hosa had not yet arrived. The Cheyenne and Arapaho believed themselves under the protection of the military, as Governor Evans had stated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At dawn on November 29, 1864, Colonel Chivington, in command of the Third Colorado Regiment and troops from Fort Lyon, attacked the sleeping Indigenous camp. The attack raged all day. When it ended, at least 230 Indigenous people had been killed along with thirteen troops. Niwot’s band had been annihilated. The Cheyenne peace chief White Antelope was also killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Firsthand accounts confirm Niwot’s fate. Letters written by George Bent, Lieutenant Silas Soule and Lieutenant Joseph Cramer—all of whom were at Sand Creek—confirm that Niwot was mortally wounded. William Bent, George’s father, said that Niwot “got over to the Sioux [Lakota],” where he died. Later, Hosa said that it saddened his heart to leave Colorado, where Niwot was killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to George Bent, Niwot and other survivors—many wounded—made their way out of the camp and onto the plains. Other survivors captured ponies and rode to nearby Indigenous camps to sound the alarm. When news reached a large Lakota camp near present-day Cheyenne Wells, warriors rode out with extra ponies, food, and blankets to look for survivors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Niwot’s Death</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Among those rescued and brought to the Lakota camp were Niwot and George Bent. Within a few days, the Arapaho chief died from his wounds and was buried according to the Arapaho Way.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>No known photographs of Niwot exist. Over the years, photographs of other Arapaho, including a later chief in Oklahoma with the same name, and No-Ta-Nee, have been erroneously identified as photographs of Niwot. The photograph of No-Ta-Nee was taken at the Camp Weld Council, which Niwot did not attend.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot’s memory lives on in places that bear his name around <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, where he and his band spent the winters, including the town of Niwot, Left Hand Creek, and Left Hand Canyon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/coel-margaret" hreflang="und">Coel, Margaret</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Margaret Coel, <em>Chief Left Hand</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians,” <em>Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War</em>, Senate Report 142, 38th Congress, 2nd session, 3 (Washington, DC: US Congress, Senate, 1865).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Albert D. Richardson, <em>Beyond the Mississippi</em> (Hanford, CT: American Publishing, 1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Sand Creek Massacre,” <em>Report of the Secretary of War</em>, Senate Executive Document 26, 39th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC: US Congress, Senate, 1867).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Cheyenne &amp; Arapaho Tribes, “<a href="https://www.cheyenneandarapaho-nsn.gov/">Historical Photograph Collection</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/sand/index.htm">Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, Colorado</a>,” last modified October 23, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs</em>, 1863–1864 (Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, Denver, April 25, 1859 to January 3, 1865.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Mar 2016 16:41:44 +0000 yongli 1175 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org