%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en 1936 Border Closure http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1936-border-closure <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">1936 Border Closure</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-02-07T17:42:47-07:00" title="Monday, February 7, 2022 - 17:42" class="datetime">Mon, 02/07/2022 - 17:42</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1936-border-closure" data-a2a-title="1936 Border Closure"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2F1936-border-closure&amp;title=1936%20Border%20Closure"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>For ten days in 1936, Colorado governor <strong>Edwin “Big Ed” Johnson</strong> declared martial law in the state, which allowed him to close Colorado’s southern border to migrant workers from nearby states and Mexico. Amid record unemployment during the <strong>Great Depression</strong>, Johnson closed the border because he feared an “invasion” of “alien and indigent persons” who would take scarce jobs from white Coloradans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For the next week and a half, immigrants from Mexico and South and Central America, and much of the state’s Latino population, experienced acute anxiety and distress as the National Guard and white vigilantes disproportionately targeted them. However, Johnson was eventually forced to rescind the order under pressure from Colorado businesses, the federal government, and neighboring states, especially New Mexico. Historically, Colorado’s 1936 border closure fits into a long pattern of states challenging the federal government in order to enforce white supremacy. It also remains a remarkable event, however, because few other states so openly defied the federal government’s authority on immigration in the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Background</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For much of the country, the 1930s were a time of large-scale destitution, displacement, and migration—all of which produced significant anxiety and xenophobia in the public. The stock market crash of 1929 halted business growth nationwide and led to widespread unemployment, and in 1934 agriculture was devastated when severe drought combined with loose, over-plowed soil on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> to create massive dust storms. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> came in waves during the decade, destroying farms and towns and creating thousands of refugees who sought safety and work elsewhere. In 1936 the Los Angeles Police Department formed its own vigilante border patrol in California and turned away hundreds of these refugees, reflecting the rampant xenophobia of the times.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, Northern Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a> did not experience the worst of the Dust Bowl conditions that rocked surrounding states, so workers from Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas came to Colorado to seek jobs. Many of these job seekers were of Mexican descent and sought steady employment as <em>betabeleros</em>, or beet field workers. These migrant workers bolstered the Mexican population of the state, which stood at 5.6 percent in 1930.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the same time, many white Coloradans held the same anti-Mexican and xenophobic sentiments on display in California and elsewhere during the Depression. Beginning in 1929, many states instituted a system of “Mexican repatriation.” Rooted in the belief that Mexicans and other migrants took scarce jobs away from white Americans and threatened their culture, these attitudes led the federal government to indiscriminately arrest and deport as many as 1.8 million Mexican immigrants—many of them American citizens—between 1929 and 1936. Arguments that migrant workers of color threaten white Americans’ economic opportunity and cultural dominance are still made today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Great Depression affected American politics just as profoundly as American social and economic life. The policies of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> created a split in the Democratic Party as President Franklin Roosevelt’s new focus on working-class Americans, and his preference for wielding federal authority to relieve the pains of the Depression, alienated many white, middle-class Americans who believed in individualism and state sovereignty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado governor Ed Johnson was a strong advocate of state sovereignty, and, therefore, despite sharing a party with President Roosevelt, he opposed the New Deal. The governor also had an ongoing feud with Paul D. Shriver, the head of Colorado’s federal Works Progress Administration (WPA). Shriver arrived in Colorado in June 1935 to oversee the development of federal projects that were expected to bring between $40 and $50 million into the state. Although he was happy to ask for and receive federal cash, Johnson made Shriver’s job difficult, alleging the WPA rolls were filled with supporters of a political rival. The two officials also clashed over labor, where Johnson disagreed with the WPA’s allowance of “aliens” on its relief rolls. Johnson’s belief that Mexican immigrants stole relief jobs from white Americans echoed that of a sizable chunk of the state’s white population and drove his efforts to rid the state of immigrants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the spring of 1935, Johnson proposed a plan to round up, detain, and deport some 40,000 “Mexican aliens” so that “Americans get relief jobs instead.” This plan was scuttled, however, because it would illegally usurp the federal government’s immigration authority. In late summer 1935, Johnson proposed the idea of martial law—which was legal under the state’s constitutionally protected power to police—and indicated he would use it to maintain state control over the borders. One of Johnson’s major concerns was that some Colorado businesses, especially the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-western-sugar-company"><strong>Great Western Sugar Company</strong></a>, would attempt to bring in Mexican workers as a source of cheap labor. Shriver maintained that the federal government did not allow for the purging of Mexican laborers from relief rolls and that workers could not be deported unless they had committed a crime.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Martial Law</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On April 18, 1936—right in the middle of sugar-beet-planting season, and just as workers began to enter the state to take up jobs in the beet fields—Governor Johnson declared martial law in Colorado. He instructed the Colorado National Guard to patrol the state’s southern border and stop all vehicles and persons trying to cross. Those attempting to enter the state to find work were to be turned away. Even workers trying to travel through to jobs in Wyoming, Kansas, and Nebraska were told to make their way around the state. Those who could demonstrate means or show that they were coming to the state for business or tourism were allowed to enter. Defending his actions, Johnson stated, “The entering of alien and indigent persons into this state in such large numbers constitutes an invasion that will create, encourage and cause a condition of lawlessness.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While Johnson’s declaration did not name a specific ethnic group, it was widely understood that the law was targeting people of Mexican descent. Thus, enforcement of the law was expressly racist. In California, the LAPD may have held racist views, but in 1936 it tried to keep out <em>all </em>poor migrants, not just Mexicans. In Colorado, however, authorities focused their energy and resources solely on the border with New Mexico, which had a much larger nonwhite population. Colorado authorities rarely stopped anyone coming from Kansas or Oklahoma—until they got word that nonwhites were traveling there to get around the southern border blockade.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Reaction to martial law varied. Many Coloradans believed the move to be too extreme, but others, including a sizable portion of the state’s native <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispano</strong></a> population, applauded the bold crackdown on migrant workers. Business owners and farmers were rankled at the move to stifle the flow of cheap labor into the state. In response to Johnson’s actions, William A. Petrikin, chairman of the Great Western Sugar Company, stated, “We will employ all the beet labor in Colorado and after that, well, if the governor doesn’t want beets grown in Colorado, that’s that.” Chairman Petrikin’s statement suggested moving the company to more tolerant areas if the governor did not change his policies toward migrant labor.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Citing reports that representatives from the sugar and railroad industries were in neighboring states, attempting to recruit cheap labor, Johnson directed the Colorado National Guard to pay special attention to any groups of “aliens” they might encounter. Adjutant General Neil Kimball, commanding officer along the border, said the Guard was primarily focused on the “wholesale importations” of Mexicans and other workers via railroads. Railroad companies operating in Colorado agreed to submit to searches of both passenger and freight trains, as the troops would also be looking to remove transients. The National Guard stopped and boarded passenger trains (except for first-class cars) to search for laborers, and Kimball patrolled the border from the air.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kimball oversaw many of the inspections and reported to Governor Johnson on the details of the operation. His updates from the border were even published in newspapers such as the<em> Colorado Transcript</em>, which included an update on the state of the border closing in Kimball’s regular political feature, “Capitol Comment.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Johnson’s decision to close the border found support from those Coloradans for whom Mexican immigration was already a source of anger. Vigilante committees—many of which had formed in the early Great Depression years and embraced the rising nationalist sentiment throughout the country—began placing large signs throughout the border areas that proclaimed, “Warning to all Mexican and all other aliens to leave the state of Colorado, by order of Colorado state vigilantes.” Throughout the period of martial law, Latino workers across the state found themselves especially vulnerable to intimidation, harassment, and detention.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado businesses largely opposed the border closure because they relied heavily on the itinerant labor that came and went with planting and harvest seasons. Johnson’s motivation for closing state borders stemmed from his desire to keep migrant workers from Mexico out so those jobs would remain open to Coloradans during the Great Depression. However, white Coloradans continued to eschew employment in the sugar beet fields because of the intensity of the labor and the paltry wages. They found better work, for instance, in WPA projects, which would employ some 40,000 Coloradans by the end of 1936. The Colorado Bureau of Labor reported that 1,300 jobs remained unfilled during the closure, even as the National Guard turned away more than 300 migrant workers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Business interests in New Mexico also protested the move by Johnson. The Commercial Club in the state proposed a boycott of goods from Colorado. The Roman Catholic Church and the Communist Party also lent their voices to protest the blockade. New Mexico senators Dennis Chavez and Carl Hatch asserted that the closure was unconstitutional. Chaves and Hatch cited Article IV, Section II of the Constitution, which states, “The Citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens of the several states.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under financial pressure from the federal government, neighboring states, and businesses in Colorado, Johnson was forced to rescind the order after just ten days, so the lawsuit did not move forward. To save face, Johnson stated that the problem of cheap foreign labor would require a federal solution—a statement that directly contradicted both his rationale for closing the border and many of his ideas on state sovereignty.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At various times in the history of the United States, xenophobic and isolationist fears have driven attempts to deny entry or deport those deemed undesirable. Throughout the twentieth century, states tended to ignore or challenge federal authority when they believed white supremacy was threatened by new classes of voters, desegregation, or immigration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The closing of the Colorado border in 1936 followed the same blueprint through its defiance of federal power in order to selectively target people based on race. Modern calls for building a wall along the US-Mexico border also fit this general pattern. Yet, the desire for cheap labor and the unconstitutionality of these laws tend to spell their demise. This was the case in 1936, and the situation reflects the tension in a white supremacist society between disdain for nonwhite people and the need for cheap (often nonwhite) labor. In 1936 the need for that labor—for bodies that could be exploited to grow an economy that disproportionately benefitted white people—prevailed over nativist concern and ended Johnson’s border closure.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, although racism against Mexican immigrants never went away, continued economic recovery through Roosevelt’s New Deal policies reduced the sentiments that fueled support for exclusionist policies like Johnson’s. Migrant labor continued to be a critical part of the sugar beet industry in Colorado for decades, at times bolstered by federal policy, such as the Bracero Program in the 1940s. Without the generations of labor that Governor Johnson attempted to block in 1936, Colorado’s relative economic prosperity in the decades to come would have been impossible. Today’s rhetoric that paints Mexican immigrants as criminals or job-snatchers, as opposed to their actual roles as providers of food and essential services to millions of Americans, echoes Ed Johnson, who was willing to sabotage his own state’s economy so that white residents could feel superior in a time of acute stress.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/driver-beau" hreflang="und">Driver, Beau</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1936-border-closure-colorado" hreflang="en">1936 border closure colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-border-closure-1936" hreflang="en">colorado border closure 1936</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ed-johnson" hreflang="en">ed johnson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/big-ed-johnson" hreflang="en">big ed johnson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/immigration-colorado" hreflang="en">immigration in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-immigration" hreflang="en">Colorado immigration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mexican-history-colorado" hreflang="en">mexican history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/latino-history-colorado" hreflang="en">latino history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/latinos-colorado" hreflang="en">latinos in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-immigration-history" hreflang="en">colorado immigration history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-borders" hreflang="en">colorado borders</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-beet-industry" hreflang="en">sugar beet industry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/labor-history" hreflang="en">labor history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-depression" hreflang="en">great depression</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/racism-colorado" hreflang="en">racism in colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=ADT19350328.2.45&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-ed+johnson+deport-------0------">Assembly to Quit April 6</a>,” <em>Aspen Daily Times</em>, March 28 1935.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Associated Press “<a href="https://access-newspaperarchive-com.ezproxy.ppld.org/us/colorado/greeley/greeley-daily-tribune/1936/04-20/page-10/governor-johnson?&amp;ndt=ex&amp;py=1936&amp;pm=4&amp;search=ym&amp;psi=20&amp;pci=7">100 Militia Will Enforce Martial Law</a>,” <em>Greely Daily Tribune</em>, April 20, 1936.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Associated Press , “<a href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=31140113&amp;fcfToken=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJmcmVlLXZpZXctaWQiOjUzNjAxNDYyNSwiaWF0IjoxNTgyODkzODg4LCJleHAiOjE1ODI5ODAyODh9.LG2K3l7b0TPSQpXe-n6V4-fXxCSK9BHzbu8_bTj3CXg">Shriver Reaches Denver to Direct the New Work Setup in State</a>,” <em>Daily Sentinel</em>, June 24, 1935.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gail M. Beaton, <em>Women in Colorado: A History</em>, University of Colorado Press, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alex Hernandez, “<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/genealogy/when-colorado-closed-door-poor">When Colorado Closed the Door on the Poor</a>,” <em>Denver Public Library</em>, August 19, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erin O’Toole, “<a href="https://www.centerwest.org/archives/17471">When Colorado Wanted to Build a Wall and Make (New) Mexico Pay</a>,” Center for the American West, October 19, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Roper, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/news/20181104/colorado-declared-border-invasion-in-1936">Colorado Declared Border ‘Invasion’ in 1936</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>. November 4, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Monica W. Varsanyi, “Hispanic Racialization, Citizenship, and the Colorado Border Blockade of 1936,” <em>Journal of American Ethnic History </em>40, no. 1 (2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alex Wagner, “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/03/americas-brutal-forgotten-history-of-illegal-deportations/517971/">America’s Forgotten History of Illegal Deportations</a>,” <em>Atlantic</em>, March 6, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CSF19350329-01.2.70&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-ed+johnson+deport-------0------">Would Deport Aliens</a>,” <em>Colorado Springs Farm News</em>, March 29, 1935.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Francisco E. Balderrama, <em>Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katherine Benton Cohen, <em>Borderline Americans: Racial Division and Labor War in the Arizona Borderlands </em>(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cecilia Rasmussen, “<a href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-mar-09-me-then9-story.html">LAPD Blocked Dust Bowl Migrants at State Borders</a>,” <em>Los Angeles Times</em>, March 9, 2003.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas Sheflin, <em>Legacies of Dust: Land Use and Labor on the Colorado Plains</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 08 Feb 2022 00:42:47 +0000 yongli 3658 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Aspen Music Festival and School http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-music-festival-and-school <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Aspen Music Festival and School</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-12-02T13:01:25-07:00" title="Thursday, December 2, 2021 - 13:01" class="datetime">Thu, 12/02/2021 - 13:01</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-music-festival-and-school" data-a2a-title="Aspen Music Festival and School"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Faspen-music-festival-and-school&amp;title=Aspen%20Music%20Festival%20and%20School"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Aspen Music Festival and School are together a prestigious summer music program that trace their roots to the music offerings at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>’s <strong>Goethe Bicentennial</strong> celebration in 1949. The festival puts on a variety of concerts throughout the summer, and the school offers courses in orchestra, brass, chamber music, classical guitar, piano, opera, choral, conducting, and composing. The program’s many distinguished alumni include violinists Joshua Bell and Gil Shaham, conductors <strong>Marin Alsop</strong> and James Levine, composer Philip Glass, and singers Renée Fleming and Tamara Wilson. The organization’s current facilities were all designed by local architect <strong>Harry Teague</strong>: Harris Concert Hall (1993) and Benedict Music Tent (2000) at Aspen Meadows, as well as a residential campus along Castle Creek (2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Aspen Music Festival and School (AMFS) grew out of the Goethe Bicentennial Convocation and Music Festival held in Aspen in 1949. Bicentennial planner and Aspen redeveloper <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walter-paepcke"><strong>Walter Paepcke</strong></a> made sure to include music in the program because he was already thinking about starting a summer music festival in town. For the Goethe Bicentennial, he hired the Minneapolis Symphony as well as individual performers such as violinist Nathan Milstein and pianist Arthur Rubinstein. The festival featured a violin recital on opening night, followed by eight major concerts featuring mostly German composers. The musical portion of the program proved so successful that by the time it ended on July 16, the musicians were already volunteering to return the following year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Musicians flocked back for the summer of 1950, including many from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-symphony"><strong>Denver Symphony Orchestra</strong></a>. At the time, Tanglewood in Massachusetts was the only serious summer music festival in the United States, so musicians embraced Aspen for providing them with another place to perform during the off-season. They started with a week of Richard Wagner concerts before focusing on the music of Johann Sebastian Bach in honor of the 200th anniversary of his death. In addition, Russian composer Igor Stravinsky conducted two concerts, including a performance of his own <em>Firebird</em>. Concerts were held at the Saarinen Tent in Aspen Meadows and cost $1.00 or $1.50 to attend. Nearly three dozen students followed their teachers to Aspen for the summer, and at the end of the regular program they put on a concert of their own.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Years</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The teaching arrangement was formalized in 1951, turning the burgeoning Aspen Music Festival into a school as well. In the school’s first official year, 183 students paid $280 in tuition for an eight-week program. In the early years, when few permanent facilities had been built and accommodations were hard to come by, AMFS had a strikingly informal atmosphere. Students stayed in hotels, dormitories, private houses, and even campgrounds. Lessons took place all over town, including at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wheeler-opera-house"><strong>Wheeler Opera House</strong></a> and outside in local parks. Musicians attending AMFS and executives at <strong>Aspen Institute</strong> seminars often mingled together around the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hotel-jerome"><strong>Hotel Jerome</strong></a> swimming pool.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Initially AMFS fell under the umbrella of Paepcke’s Aspen enterprises. Soon, however, musicians butted heads with Paepcke. Paepcke envisioned an elite chamber-music festival under his tight oversight; he didn’t want to give the musicians much say and didn’t know what to make of their students. After some tension and many meetings, the musicians decided in 1954 to form their own organization, Music Associates of Aspen, which Paepcke wouldn’t fund but would allow to continue using the Saarinen Tent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the musicians in charge of the festival’s character and future, AMFS focused even more on the student experience. Students gave solo concerts and became orchestra members alongside their teachers. Early musicians involved with AMFS included baritone Mac Harrell and violinist Roman Totenberg (father of longtime NPR correspondent Nina Totenberg). The festival and school grew steadily under the administration of Norman Singer.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Maturation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>AMFS came of age in the 1960s, acquiring both new leadership and new facilities, including a permanent campus. In 1962 Gordon Hardy arrived as assistant dean of the music school and was soon promoted to dean when Singer suddenly retired. Hardy stayed in that position until 1990, and after 1977 he was director of the music festival as well. Throughout his long tenure, he emphasized that students were the core of the program. The music festival soon added a chamber symphony made up of players younger than thirty to showcase emerging talent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hardy also oversaw the start of the school’s first campus in 1965. In its early years, the organization had purposefully avoided owning property. By the mid-1960s, however, administrators wanted a permanent place for students—who then numbered about 350—to live and practice. They got it in the form of a piece of land along Castle Creek, about a mile west of Aspen, where they hired local architect <strong>Fritz Benedict</strong> to design a classroom building, music hall, and practice rooms. Over at Aspen Meadows, where the festival conducted its concerts, the Saarinen Tent from the Goethe Bicentennial was replaced in 1965 by a new <strong>Herbert Bayer</strong> design.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With stable leadership and a new campus, AMFS flourished. In 1965 Duke Ellington played a concert at the festival, and in 1975 AMFS invited Aaron Copland to be composer-in-residence to mark his seventy-fifth birthday. By that time the school had grown to 750 students, who could choose from an array of programs and ensembles. Legendary violin teacher Dorothy DeLay was becoming one of the school’s most popular attractions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stability and success curtailed the freewheeling, improvisatory character that marked the program’s early years. The school became a serious step in the career progression of many young musicians. The festival became bigger and more tightly scheduled, with more popular programming to draw in crowds and dollars. As AMFS began to reflect the increasingly glitzy look of Aspen itself, the old days of practicing in a pasture and taking time off to hike around town were starting to fade.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Turmoil</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>AMFS went through a period of organizational and financial turmoil in the early 1980s. Having long prided itself on a family atmosphere where finances and ticket sales didn’t matter, AMFS had to confront the problem of a $700,000 deficit after the chair of its board resigned over the issue in 1982. The board pushed for more polished, professional performances headed by big-name conductors to bring in money, while AMFS president Gordon Hardy and the faculty remained committed to what they saw as the festival’s spirit of communal adventurousness and experimentation. By 1984 the board was starting to take matters into its own hands by removing some of Hardy’s administrative and fundraising responsibilities. But with the backing of the faculty, Hardy reasserted his authority in 1985, causing the board’s leadership to resign.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the same time, AMFS learned that its land at Aspen Meadows was in danger. The Bayer Tent land was on loan from the Aspen Institute, but in 1980 the institute considered a move and sold its Aspen Meadows property to a developer. The property then changed hands several times over the next decade. The Aspen Meadows nonprofits—the Aspen Institute, whose leaders had decided to maintain a presence there, as well as AMFS and the <strong>Aspen Center for Physics</strong>—worried that they might be evicted or that their serene surroundings would become a busy development. But the city council was in an antigrowth mood and the developer was sympathetic to the nonprofits, so eventually he gave the nonprofits clear title to their land in 1992 while getting the right to build a handful of houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Facilities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With its Aspen Meadows land secure, AMFS immediately set out to upgrade its facilities. After the 1992 festival, work began on a new indoor concert hall next to the Bayer Tent. Designed by local architect Harry Teague, the $7 million hall was built mostly underground so that its roofline wouldn’t compete with the iconic tent. The 500-seat Joan and Irving Harris Concert Hall opened in the summer of 1993 to rave reviews from musicians and audiences alike. The new hall was AMFS’s first permanent, year-round performance and rehearsal facility.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the end of the decade, AMFS decided to replace the aging Bayer Tent with a new design by Teague, which had a lower profile to improve acoustics by blocking more sound from outside. Opened in 2000, the Benedict Music Tent used the same Teflon-coated fiberglass material found at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-international-airport"><strong>Denver International Airport</strong></a> and included an underground tunnel to the adjacent Harris Concert Hall. By that time, AMFS had more than 200 faculty members teaching nearly 900 students, and their concerts attracted some 30,000 attendees per year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Turmoil, New Campus</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After some faculty were cut in the wake of the <strong>Great Recession</strong>, tensions between faculty and the board burst into the open in 2009–10 in a reprisal of the organization’s mid-1980s conflict. This time the president and CEO was fired and then rehired before receiving a symbolic vote of no confidence; the music director resigned; and the board chair was voted out. Legal fees mounted, and faculty described uncomfortable walks across campus amid the warring camps. Tensions gradually melted away after new board leadership renewed the president’s contract and promoted peace.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With that turmoil out of the way, AMFS focused on redeveloping its ramshackle campus. Built in the 1960s, the Castle Creek facilities had plenty of nostalgic charm but were hopelessly out of date. As with its new buildings at Aspen Meadows, AMFS hired Harry Teague to plan its updated campus. When it was completed in 2016, the Matthew and Carolyn Bucksbaum Campus boasted 105,000 square feet across a 38-acre site, including three rehearsal halls, administrative offices, a cafeteria, and a variety of teaching studios and practice rooms. AMFS shares the campus with the Aspen Country Day School, which uses it during the academic year and contributed a bit less than half of the $75 million cost.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today AMFS continues to be regarded as one of the top summer music festivals in the United States and a central part of Aspen’s cultural offerings. Running for eight weeks in July and August, the program typically features more than 400 concerts, classes, lectures, and other events, which attract some 100,000 attendees. The school hosts about 650 students of all ages, from children to adults, with an average age of twenty-two.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen-music-festival-and-school" hreflang="en">Aspen Music Festival and School</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/goethe-bicentennial" hreflang="en">Goethe Bicentennial</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/herbert-bayer" hreflang="en">Herbert Bayer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fritz-benedict" hreflang="en">Fritz Benedict</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/harry-teague" hreflang="en">Harry Teague</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/walter-paepcke" hreflang="en">Walter Paepcke</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gordon-hardy" hreflang="en">Gordon Hardy</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.aspenmusicfestival.com/about/about-the-aspen-music-festival-and-school/">About the AMFS</a>,” Aspen Music Festival and School, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bruce Berger, <em>Music in the Mountains: The First Fifty Years of the Aspen Music Festival</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Music Festival Proposed for Summer-Fall, 1950,” <em>Aspen Times</em>, December 29, 1949.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James R. Oestreich, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/arts/music/aspen-music-festival-embarks-on-new-era.html">Aspen Music Festival Embarks on New Era</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, July 29, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James R. Oestreich, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/26/arts/critic-s-notebook-in-aspen-a-metaphor-for-change.html">In Aspen, a Metaphor for Change</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, August 26, 1993.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James R. Oestreich, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/24/arts/review-music-a-tuneful-inauguration-for-a-new-concert-hall.html">A Tuneful Inauguration for a New Concert Hall</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, August 24, 1993.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James R. Oestreich, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/30/arts/music/30aspen.html">Turmoil Builds at Aspen Music Festival and School</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, April 29, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ross Parmenter, “<a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1964/04/26/97333884.html?pageNumber=539">Music World: Last Pitch for Aspen’s Tent</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, April 26, 1964.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Rockwell, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/15/arts/aspen-festival-head-regains-authority-after-6-year-battle.html">Aspen Festival Head Regains Authority After 6-Year Battle</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, August 15, 1985.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel J. Wakin, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/arts/music/15festival.html?">Sweet Sounds of Truce in Aspen</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, August 11, 2010.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James Sloan Allen, <em>The Romance of Commerce and Culture: Capitalism, Modernism, and the Chicago-Aspen Crusade for Cultural Reform</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sidney Hyman, <em>The Aspen Idea</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 02 Dec 2021 20:01:25 +0000 yongli 3652 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Panic of 1893 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Panic of 1893</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-02-16T14:16:07-07:00" title="Tuesday, February 16, 2021 - 14:16" class="datetime">Tue, 02/16/2021 - 14:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893" data-a2a-title="Panic of 1893"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpanic-1893&amp;title=Panic%20of%201893"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Panic of 1893 touched off a nationwide economic depression that lasted for at least three years, threw millions out of work, and caused banks and businesses to fail across the country. In Colorado and other <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>silver-mining</strong></a> states, the panic was tied to the abrupt collapse of the silver industry after two decades of explosive growth. When silver prices dropped, not only did mines close, so did the businesses that supplied them. The farmers who grew food for mining towns also suffered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Panic of 1893 hit Colorado’s mining industry hard, throwing many miners out of work in places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>. The nationwide depression of agricultural prices also hurt Colorado’s farmers. Overall, the Panic of 1893 was a major inflection point in Colorado’s long history of boom-and-bust economic cycles, which began with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the early 1800s and continued through the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>, the Panic of 1893, and sporadic <strong>oil </strong>and <strong>real estate</strong> booms in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Background</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the late nineteenth century, Americans engaged in a national debate over which metal—gold, silver, or both—should back US currency. Support was largely sectional: northerners for gold, southerners and westerners for silver. Most Coloradans, awash in silver booms from Leadville to Aspen and the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juans</strong></a>, wanted silver coinage. After the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 required the federal government to buy a certain amount of silver each month, Colorado’s annual production of the metal remained steadily above 10 million ounces. By contrast, the state’s gold production was only one-third as valuable (or less) throughout the 1880s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>But the West’s silver boom undermined itself. A glut in the silver market sent prices crashing—down 25 percent at the end of the 1880s—and worried mine owners appealed to Congress for help. The result was the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which required the government to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver each month. This increased the government’s silver purchase by 50 percent and was a boon to Colorado and other silver-mining states.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silver also had the strong backing of the People’s Party of the USA, commonly known as the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/populism-colorado"><strong>Populist</strong></a> Party, which emerged during an agricultural depression in the late 1880s. Populists sought to put farmers and working-class people on a more equal political footing with banks and other large businesses. They supported backing the US dollar with silver because it would expand the money supply and result in inflation, yielding farmers higher prices for their crops while reducing the value of debts owed to banks and other creditors. This made the party popular not only in the South and Midwest but also in silver states like Colorado; in 1892 Coloradans elected a Populist governor, <strong>Davis Waite</strong>, the biggest political victory for the new party anywhere in the nation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the support of Colorado and several other silver-mining states, third-party Populists lost the presidential election of 1892. After a four-year absence, Democrat Grover Cleveland returned to office for a second term, and he took over a nation on the brink of economic collapse. Years of agricultural depression, the draining of gold in the US treasury (due in part to increased mandatory silver purchases since 1890), and reduced international trade due to the McKinley Tariff of 1890 all contributed to the Panic of 1893.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Devastation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with most other states, Colorado’s depression began in earnest that spring. By July 1893, some 45,000 Coloradans were out of work, as banks closed and railroad companies teetered on the edge of bankruptcy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While there were multiple causes of the Panic, the reduction of gold reserves in the US treasury got the most attention from lawmakers and the Cleveland Administration. Unlike many in his party, the president was no fan of silver and believed that mandatory silver buying hurt the US economy. Cleveland eventually overcame his own party’s objections, and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was repealed in October 1893, adding to the economic panic in Colorado and across the silver-mining West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the repeal of the Sherman Act, the price of silver dropped by about one-third. Although the repeal was intended to stimulate the national economy, it devastated Colorado’s. Of the silver mining towns, Leadville suffered the most, with ninety mines closed and 2,500 unemployed. Altogether, more than 9,500 jobs dried up in mining towns across the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The free-falling economy affected rich and poor alike. Mining millionaires such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a> lost their fortunes, while real estate tycoon <strong>Henry Brown</strong>, could not pay his debts on the new <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brown-palace-hotel"><strong>Brown Palace Hotel</strong></a> and was eventually forced to sell the building. Twelve banks failed in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> alone. Real estate prices plummeted and the population grew restless, traveling around the state looking for any kind of work. Colorado’s suffering was not unique; by December 1893, some 3 million people had lost jobs nationwide, with some trades losing up to 80 percent of their workforces. National unemployment stood at 12.3 percent by 1894 and did not drop below 10 percent until 1899.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Governor Waite could do little to provide relief, as his policies drew substantial opposition from the main parties and Populists held minorities in both chambers of the state legislature. Local communities did what they could. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/state-soldiers%E2%80%99-and-sailors%E2%80%99-home"><strong>State Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home</strong></a>, built in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> in 1889 to house aging Civil War veterans, took in more veterans who were now unemployed. Out-of-work silver miners flocked to the booming <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> gold district, where mine owners took advantage of the labor shortage; tensions with workers eventually reached a fever pitch during a <strong>strike in 1894</strong>. Leadville built a large and elaborate <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-ice-palace"><strong>Ice Palace</strong></a> in the winter of 1895–96 to attract tourists, even as the local mining industry was beginning to pick back up.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The effects of the economic depression caused by the Panic of 1893 did not fade until 1897, even though mining had somewhat recovered in Leadville and other places. Consolidation helped revive the silver-mining industry. In Colorado, for example, only the largest mining companies were able to make the capital investments necessary to survive the depression, while most smaller outfits went out of business. The large companies then bought up their failing competitors, further solidifying control over the industry. This trend increased corporate power nationwide and eventually led to the famous antimonopoly campaigns of President Theodore Roosevelt in the early 1900s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Panic of 1893 produced the worst economic depression in US history to that point. It was known as the Great Depression until that moniker was earned by the economic rupture of the 1930s. Colorado’s mining industry recovered, but the state became less dependent on it than before, as manufacturing and agriculture emerged as important economic pillars. On the plains, agriculture underwent shifts, as the depression forced more farmers to raise cattle and pushed others off their land entirely and into Denver and other cities (the new <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a> eventually revived Colorado agriculture after 1900). The panic even had an effect on Colorado architecture; buildings built after the crash tended to be simpler than the ornate edifices built during the silver boom, perhaps reflecting a newfound humility among the state population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The memory of the Panic of 1893 eventually faded, as the early 1900s brought the booming sugar beet and manufacturing industries, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a>’s statewide coal empire, and a surge in agricultural demand during <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>. Still, the Panic of 1893 holds lessons for the state that are not always heeded. For instance, by the early 1980s, Colorado’s economy was nearly as dependent on oil shale as it was on silver during the 1890s. When ExxonMobil and other oil companies abruptly abandoned shale production in 1982, Colorado’s economy went into a free fall, suggesting that the state had learned little from past boom-and-bust cycles. Colorado’s economy has since diversified, but the Panic of 1893 still reminds Coloradans that they cannot afford to take any booming industry for granted—whether it is silver in the 1890s, oil in the 1980s, or the current real estate boom along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/panic-1893" hreflang="en">panic of 1893</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/depression" hreflang="en">depression</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boom-and-bust" hreflang="en">boom and bust</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-economy" hreflang="en">colorado economy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oil-and-gas" hreflang="en">oil and gas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/real-estate" hreflang="en">real estate</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-rush" hreflang="en">gold rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver" hreflang="en">silver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-mining" hreflang="en">silver mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cripple-creek" hreflang="en">Cripple Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smelter" hreflang="en">smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining-history" hreflang="en">mining history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/soldiers-and-sailors-home" hreflang="en">soldiers and sailors home</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John M. Cunningham, “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1892/additional-info#history">United States Presidential Election of 1892</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia Britannica</em>, updated November 1, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Brandon R. DuPont, “Panic in the Plains: Agricultural Markets and the Panic of 1893,” <em>Cliometrica</em> 3, no. 1 (2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oscar Handlin, “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States">United States</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia Britannica</em>, updated December 8, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Henderson, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0138/report.pdf"><em>Mining in Colorado: A History of Discovery, Development, and Production</em></a> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=TAV18931230-01.2.5&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=--1893---1895--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22out+of+work%22-------0-----">Millions out of Work</a>,” <em>The Avalanche </em>(Glenwood Springs, CO), December 30, 1893.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom Noel and Duane Smith, <em>Colorado: The Highest State </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold and Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard White, <em>The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David O. Whitten, “<a href="https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-depression-of-1893/">The Depression of 1893</a>,” Economic History Association, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Amy Zimmer, “<a href="https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/resource-sharing/state-pubs-blog/the-crash-of-1893/">The Crash of 1893</a>,” Colorado State Publications Blog, Colorado Virtual Library, </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Stephen J. Leonard and Tom Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 16 Feb 2021 21:16:07 +0000 yongli 3549 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Clara Cressingham http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clara-cressingham <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clara Cressingham</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-10-14T13:33:15-06:00" title="Wednesday, October 14, 2020 - 13:33" class="datetime">Wed, 10/14/2020 - 13:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clara-cressingham" data-a2a-title="Clara Cressingham"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fclara-cressingham&amp;title=Clara%20Cressingham"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Clara Cressingham (1863–1906) served in the <strong>Colorado House of Representatives</strong> in 1895, making her one of the first female legislators in the United States, along with <strong>Frances Klock</strong> and <strong>Carrie Clyde Holly</strong>. In office, she became the first woman to serve in a leadership role (as secretary of the Republican House Caucus) as well as the first woman to get a bill through the legislature, though her proposal to support the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry">sugar beet industry</a></strong> was vetoed. Aside from her brief political career, relatively little is known about the rest of her life.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Howard was born on October 6, 1863, in Brooklyn, New York. She was the oldest daughter of Adelia and Seth Howard. As a child, she showed a talent for singing and public speaking. Any plans she may have had to go into those professions changed when her father suffered financial losses. In 1880 she was working as a dressmaker and her father as a carpenter. Sometime in the early 1880s—most sources say 1883—she married William Harry Cressingham, who had been in the navy. The couple had two sons, Richard and Milburn.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Colorado Politics</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cressinghams moved to Colorado in 1890 because of William’s health. He had acquired unspecified health problems during a previous trip to China and Japan. Once in <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver">Denver</a></strong>, he worked as a newspaper typesetter and wrote articles for journals, while Clara worked diligently to improve schools. Her involvement in school board elections, in which Colorado women could vote, may have led to a greater engagement with politics and the issue of women’s <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement">suffrage</a></strong>, though it is unknown whether she campaigned for the 1893 referendum that gave Colorado women full voting rights.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1894, the first year women in Colorado were eligible to vote, Cressingham helped register women to exercise their new right. She also took charge of a group fighting against factions in a school election, leading a charge for decency and fairness that earned recognition from the other women involved. She gained a reputation as a public speaker and was elected to the Colorado House of Representatives that fall as a Republican from <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county">Arapahoe County</a></strong> (which then still included Denver). When the legislature met in early 1895, she joined fellow Republicans Frances Klock and Carrie Clyde Holly as the first three female legislators in the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <em>Chautauquan</em> described Cressingham, Klock, and Holly as “level-headed, self-possessed . . . and well versed in the business of politics.” They were committed Republicans, nearly always voting with their party. Cressingham, the youngest of the three at thirty-one years old, became the first woman to hold a legislative leadership position when she was elected secretary of the Republican House Caucus. She also proposed four bills dealing with education, labor, and agriculture. Her bill to support the sugar beet industry by paying growers a small bounty per ton became the first act introduced by a woman to pass both houses of the legislature, but it was vetoed by Governor <strong>Albert McIntire</strong> and did not become law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Like Klock and Holly, Cressingham served only one term. She passed away in 1906, at age forty-three, of rheumatic heart disease. Her time in office, including her leadership and her lawmaking, made her an inspiration and example to other politically inclined women in Colorado and across the country.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/hogg-laura" hreflang="und">Hogg, Laura</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clara-cressingham" hreflang="en">Clara Cressingham</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-womens-history" hreflang="en">colorado women&#039;s history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s Suffrage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joseph G. Brown, <em><a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433075974794&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=9">The History of Equal Suffrage in Colorado 1868–1898</a> </em>(Denver: News Job Printing, 1898).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=ADT18951208.2.26&amp;srpos=17&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-clara+cressingham-------0--">The Citizen Women</a>,” <em>Aspen Daily</em> <em>Times</em>, December 8, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CFT18950127-01.2.30&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-+Cressingham+bill-------0--">House at Work</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, January 27, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://lawcollections.colorado.edu/colorado-house-and-senate-journals/islandora/object/journals%3A127913#page/1/mode/2up"><em><u>House Journal of the General Assembly of the State of Colorado, Tenth Session</u></em></a><u> (Denver: Smith-Brooks Printing, 1895).</u></p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=AVE18950509-01.2.19&amp;srpos=27&amp;e=-------en-20--21--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-Cressingham+-------0--">Is McIntire a Democrat?</a>” <em>Avalanche Echo</em> (Glenwood Springs, CO), May 9, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Mrs. Cressingham a Decided Blonde,” <em>St. Paul Daily Globe</em>, January 21, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>MyHeritage Library Edition, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Petticoated Law-Makers: A Novel Phase of Americanism Now Rampant in Colorado.” <em>Washington Times</em>, January 6, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Census Records, 1880–1910.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=TSS19060707.2.3&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=--1900---1910--en-20--1--txt-txIN-Cressingham-------0--">A Useful Life Ended</a>,” <em>Silverton Standard</em>, July 7, 1906.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030272/1895-04-14/ed-1/seq-29/">Women as Lawmakers</a>,” <em>New York Sun</em>, April 14, 1895.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Women in Politics. Experiment to Be Tried in Colorado,” <em>Caldwell Tribune</em>, December 29, 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Women Who Hold Office,” <em>Topeka State Journal</em>, November 28, 1894.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Gail M. Beaton, <em>Colorado Women: A History</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.ncsl.org/womens-legislative-network/first-women-to-serve-in-state-and-territorial-legislatures">First Women to Serve in State and Territorial Legislatures</a>,” National Conference of State Legislatures, March 6, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.womenshistory.org/">National Women’s History Museum</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 14 Oct 2020 19:33:15 +0000 yongli 3429 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Legislative Sessions and Women’s Suffrage (1861–93) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/legislative-sessions-and-womens-suffrage-1861-93 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Legislative Sessions and Women’s Suffrage (1861–93) </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-09-14T14:44:02-06:00" title="Monday, September 14, 2020 - 14:44" class="datetime">Mon, 09/14/2020 - 14:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/legislative-sessions-and-womens-suffrage-1861-93" data-a2a-title="Legislative Sessions and Women’s Suffrage (1861–93) "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flegislative-sessions-and-womens-suffrage-1861-93&amp;title=Legislative%20Sessions%20and%20Women%E2%80%99s%20Suffrage%20%281861%E2%80%9393%29%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In 1893 Colorado became the first state to enact <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> by popular referendum, when a majority of male voters approved an amendment to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-constitution"><strong>Colorado Constitution</strong></a>. The passage of women’s suffrage built on decades of earlier work in the <strong>Colorado Territorial Legislature</strong> (1861–76) and state <strong>General Assembly</strong> (after 1876). The legislative activity provided two conditions that made suffrage possible in 1893: the state constitution explicitly allowed for future referenda on women’s suffrage, and the repeated attempts to pass women’s suffrage in the legislature over more than two decades made its eventual passage possible.</p> <h2>1870: Territorial Legislature</h2> <p>The Colorado Territorial Legislature first considered the question of women’s suffrage in 1870. On January 5, territorial governor <strong>Edward McCook</strong> recommended the territorial legislature take up the issue, a year after Wyoming Territory enacted women’s suffrage. Each chamber of the legislature—the House and the Council—then referred women’s suffrage to a special committee.</p> <p>In the Council, the special committee voted against women’s suffrage, but Amos Steck (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/douglas-county"><strong>Douglas</strong></a> Counties) and J. W. Nesmith (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin County</strong>)</a> presented a minority report in favor of women’s suffrage. An attempt to invite women to hear Steck speak on the issue was voted down. Despite Steck’s support, no bill was proposed in the Council.</p> <p>In the House, Allison H. DeFrance (<a href="/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a><a href="/article/jefferson-county"><strong> County</strong></a>) proposed a suffrage bill, and he also spoke at length in favor of women’s right to vote. People were invited to speak on the subject, including Council president George A. Hinsdale in opposition and Willard Teller and Thomas J. Campbell in support, as well as any members of the public—including women. In its final form, DeFrance’s bill would have put suffrage to a popular referendum with women included among the voters. The bill was indefinitely postponed. Neither chamber held a vote directly on the question of women’s suffrage.</p> <h2>1875–76: Colorado Constitutional Convention</h2> <p>The most important legislative session in Colorado women’s struggle for suffrage was the state constitutional convention in 1875–76. The convention did not put women’s suffrage into the constitution, but it paved the way for the passage of women’s suffrage by referendum in 1893.</p> <p>Women’s suffrage organizations across the state and the country wrote to the convention in support of their cause. Suffragists both watched the proceedings and presented their arguments formally in the chambers.</p> <p>The Committee on Rights and Suffrage in Elections decided against allowing women to vote, and their recommendation was accepted by the convention. However, committee members <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/agapito-vigil"><strong>Agapito Vigil</strong></a> (R-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county"><strong>Las Animas</strong></a> Counties) and <strong>Henry P. Bromwell</strong> (R-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>) presented a lengthy minority report in support of women’s suffrage. Their report proposed that instead of full suffrage, women might be granted the right to vote in school elections, a concession that the convention granted. In a final effort, Abram Young (R-Jefferson County) hoped to advance the cause of women’s suffrage by moving to strike “male” from the phrase giving suffrage to “every male person.” His proposal failed, 42–8.</p> <p>Nevertheless, in addition to school board suffrage, three crucial measures relating to women’s right to vote were included in the constitution. First, the General Assembly was required to submit a referendum on the question of women’s suffrage to the voters in 1877. Second, if that measure failed, the General Assembly might at any time after 1877 extend the right of suffrage to women by resubmitting the question to (male) voters. In either case, the question would be decided by a simple majority.</p> <p>Although it appears innocuous, the simple-majority requirement was vital because it made it far easier to amend the constitution in favor of women’s suffrage than to amend it for anything else. Other amendments required decisions by a two-thirds vote of two different General Assemblies and two different popular votes and the creation of another constitutional convention. Women’s suffrage required only that the assembly send the question to the “qualified electors” and that a bare majority of those voters approve.</p> <h2>1877: The First Popular Referendum</h2> <p>Two women’s suffrage bills were proposed in 1877. Representative Charles Kittredge’s House bill defied the constitution by requiring Colorado voters to approve the referendum by a two-thirds majority. In contrast, Senator Silas Haynes (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld County</strong></a>) wrote a bill in accordance with the constitution: women would be provided the right of suffrage if the referendum received a simple majority. Haynes’s bill became law and the question of women’s suffrage was placed on the ballot. However, the popular vote failed by a margin of more than 2 to 1.</p> <h2>1879: The Second State General Assembly</h2> <p>In 1879 Senator Edward O. Wolcott (R-Gilpin) introduced a women’s suffrage bill. It passed in the senate by a vote of 14–12 and was sent to the House. There Lucas Brandt (R-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>) presented two petitions in favor of women’s suffrage, one from the “citizens of Colorado” and one from the “State grange patrons of husbandry.” After a great deal of discussion on the House floor, that chamber voted 24–17 to table the bill indefinitely, effectively killing it.</p> <h2>1881: A Close Call in the House</h2> <p>In 1881 Representative Jared L. Brush proposed a women’s suffrage bill in the House. Henry Bromwell, still active in the suffrage movement, and Mrs. L. F. Stevens of Wyoming were invited to speak to the General Assembly on suffrage. <strong>Alida C. Avery</strong> presided over their presentation. Many votes were taken on the bill with inconclusive results, but in the decisive final vote, the bill lost 24–23. No action was taken in the senate with regard to women’s suffrage.</p> <h2>1891: Legislative Rules</h2> <p>A decade passed before the General Assembly took its next action on women’s suffrage. In February 1891, suffrage proponents persuaded legislators to support women’s suffrage. Committees were created in both House and Senate in early February. A few weeks later, these committees met jointly to listen to arguments in favor of suffrage, but they told the suffragists that it was too late to submit a bill for that session. No bill was introduced in either chamber.</p> <h2>1893: Equal Suffrage Passes</h2> <p>In 1893 legislators proposed five bills on the subject of women’s suffrage: two in the senate and three in the House. In his address to the General Assembly, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/populism-colorado"><strong>Populist</strong></a> Governor <strong>Davis Waite</strong> had suggested that the assembly consider the subject of municipal suffrage (allowing women to vote in city elections), and Senator David Boyd (P-Weld) proposed such a bill while Senator Hamilton Armstrong (P-Arapahoe) proposed a bill for full suffrage. Of the three bills in the House, Representative Heath’s (P-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montrose-county"><strong>Montrose County</strong></a>) House Bill No. 118 prevailed despite a lengthy legislative process that included substantial amendments, multiple procedural hoops, and a negative recommendation from the committee on elections and appointments. Petitions in favor of women’s suffrage came in from citizens of <strong>Rocky Ford</strong> and the Trade Assembly of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>.</p> <p>In accordance with the state constitution, Heath’s law put the question of women’s suffrage to (male) voters in Colorado. On November 7, 1893, the majority of voters cast their ballots in favor of women’s suffrage. Colorado women finally attained the right to vote on December 2, after the official counting of the ballots was confirmed and the governor proclaimed women’s suffrage in the state.</p> <h2>1919: National Women’s Suffrage</h2> <p>On the first day of the General Assembly in 1919, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/non-partisan-equal-suffrage-association"><strong>Colorado Equal Suffrage Association</strong></a> invited all legislators and their families to attend a reception. In the House, Representative <strong>Mabel Ruth Baker</strong> (R-Denver) proposed House Joint Resolution No. 2, which encouraged the US Senate to pass the constitutional amendment on women’s suffrage. In the State Senate, <strong>Agnes L. Riddle</strong> (R-Denver), the second female senator in Colorado, served as a coauthor. By this time, sixteen women had served or were serving in the Colorado House of Representatives.</p> <p>On June 4, 1919, the US Senate followed the US House of Representatives in voting to amend the US Constitution to ensure that the right to vote would “not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.”</p> <p>The amendment required ratification by thirty-six states to take effect. In December 1919, Colorado governor <strong>Oliver Shoup</strong> called an extraordinary session of the General Assembly to ratify the amendment (among other business). Representatives <strong>May T. Bigelow</strong> (R-Denver) and Mabel Ruth Baker proposed the resolution in the House, while Senator Riddle proposed one in the Senate. (At the time, Colorado was one of only two states that had women serving in both chambers of the legislature.) Both houses voted unanimously in favor of the amendment, making Colorado the twenty-second state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment. On August 26, 1920, the nation caught up to Colorado and the Nineteenth Amendment became the law of the land.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/gaughan-judy-e" hreflang="und">Gaughan, Judy E. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/first-general-assembly" hreflang="en">First General Assembly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-general-assembly" hreflang="en">Colorado General Assembly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-legislature" hreflang="en">Colorado Legislature</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-womens-history" hreflang="en">colorado women&#039;s history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage" hreflang="en">Women&#039;s Suffrage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-suffrage-colorado" hreflang="en">women&#039;s suffrage colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Joseph G. Brown, <a href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbnawsa.n1331/?st=gallery"><em>The History of Equal Suffrage in Colorado, 1868–1898</em></a> (Denver: News Job Printing, 1898).</p> <p><em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, February 2 and March 8, 1893.</p> <p><em>Colorado Daily Chieftain</em>, January 5, 1893.</p> <p><em>Colorado Springs Gazette</em>, February 17 and September 15, 1877.</p> <p><em>Colorado Weekly Chieftain</em>, October 7, 1869; January 2, 1879.</p> <p><a href="https://lawcollections.colorado.edu/colorado-house-and-senate-journals/">Colorado Territorial Council and State House and Senate Journals</a>, 1861–1893, 1919.</p> <p><em>Denver Daily Times</em>, January 17, 1877.</p> <p><em>Denver Daily Tribune</em>, January 7 and 17, 1877.</p> <p><em>Leadville Herald Democrat</em>, March 11, 1919.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/womenshistory/womens-suffrage-timeline.htm">State-by-State Race to Ratification of the 19th Amendment</a>,” National Park Service, updated June 2, 2020.</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.strongsisters.org/women-who-served-in-the-colorado-house-of-representatives/">Women Who Served in the Colorado House of Representatives</a>,” Strong Sisters: Elected Women in Colorado, n.d.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/womenshistory/19th-amendment-by-state.htm">19th Amendment by State</a>,” National Park Service, updated July 8, 2019.</p> <p>Jerry Kopel, “<a href="http://www.jerrykopel.com/d/women.htm">Suffrage for Women in Colorado: 1870 Attempt</a>,” <em>Colorado Statesman</em>, October 6, 1995.</p> <p>Rebecca J. Mead, <em>How the Vote Was Won: Woman Suffrage in the Western United States, 1868–1914</em> (New York: NYU Press, 2004).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 14 Sep 2020 20:44:02 +0000 yongli 3412 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org William Jackson Palmer’s Environmental Legacy http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-jackson-palmers-environmental-legacy <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">William Jackson Palmer’s Environmental Legacy</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-07-31T15:31:51-06:00" title="Friday, July 31, 2020 - 15:31" class="datetime">Fri, 07/31/2020 - 15:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-jackson-palmers-environmental-legacy" data-a2a-title="William Jackson Palmer’s Environmental Legacy"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwilliam-jackson-palmers-environmental-legacy&amp;title=William%20Jackson%20Palmer%E2%80%99s%20Environmental%20Legacy"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>General William Jackson Palmer (1836–1909) had a lasting impact on the environment of southern Colorado. Palmer’s initial impact on the Colorado environment resulted from his network of railroads through his <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> Company. This, combined with the removal of indigenous people in the 1860s, allowed Coloradans to exploit the resources of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and enabled them to develop the booming industries of coal and steel. Palmer's businesses attracted new workers and spurred sprawling cityscapes such as <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs">Colorado Springs</a></strong>, but they came at a heavy environmental cost. Today, the legacy of Palmer's industrial entrepreneurship is found not only in cities but also in abandoned smokestacks, slag piles, and the accumulation of methane and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Railroad Entrepreneurship</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1860s, Palmer led an expedition to Colorado on behalf of the Union Pacific Railroad’s Eastern Division. After reaching <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver">Denver</a> </strong>in the fall of 1867, Palmer traveled up and down the Front Range from Denver to <strong>Colorado City</strong>. He envisioned a railroad line that traveled perpendicular to the traditional east-west design championed by the transcontinental railroads of the time. This line, Palmer believed, would allow a new generation of exploration in southern Colorado. In the summer of 1870 Palmer founded the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad (D&amp;RG). This north-south line not only revolutionized travel in Colorado but also popularized narrow-gauge tracks, a smaller version of traditional tracks that allowed trains to travel through difficult mountain terrain.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Palmer’s new railroad network connected southern Colorado to the larger cities of Denver and Santa Fe, thus opening the southern Colorado environment to new economic opportunities. It also spawned new urban landscapes in <a href="/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, Colorado Springs, and elsewhere.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Coal and Iron</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Coal deposits south of Denver were rich and plentiful, if remote. With his expanding network of railroads, however, Palmer seized on the resource potential by connecting southern Colorado to supply centers and markets. In the 1880s, he opened <strong>coal mines</strong> across southern Colorado. The new mines fueled the state's industrial mining era, but they were also sites of environmental hazard, as workers inhaled coal dust all day long, as well as localized water and air pollution from the collection and transportation of coal.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver &amp; Rio Grande pushed south to Pueblo in 1872. Palmer saw potential in the city for launching a new steel industry. Under Palmer’s guidance and partial ownership, the Colorado Coal and Iron Company (later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a>) was founded. As Pueblo grew, coal and steel traveled far from Colorado via the chugging engines they helped to power and the iron rails they helped to construct. The fruits of Palmer’s industry, then, not only developed southern Colorado but also spurred urban development across the American West.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Palmer’s phenomenal success in transforming environments near and far came with consequences, however. His steel and coal companies defined southern Colorado’s early economy, but they also fouled the air and began a legacy of air pollution across the Front Range. Mines permanently scarred landscapes of the southern <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. Manufacturing steel multiplied the number of mines and the mileage of tracks needed across the Rockies, connecting Pueblo to cities such as <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>City Building</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Palmer encouraged his partner, William A. Bell, to found a new town to disperse growing populations. Homing in on Pikes Peak as a potential tourist destination, Bell founded <strong>Manitou Springs </strong>in 1872. Multiple Native American groups believed that the natural hot springs at the foot of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, or Tava, as the Utes called it, held remedies for ailments ranging from indigestion to alcoholism. Bell saw these springs as a great revenue source, borrowing from Palmer’s strategy of turning the natural environment into profit. Although Palmer’s direct involvement in Pueblo was minimal, the city expanded as steel workers and their families flooded in.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Springs grew from the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad’s initial company town to Colorado’s second-largest city. Palmer took great interest in the city’s growth, funding many parks and public institutions, such as the University of Colorado–Colorado Springs. But ironically, thanks to his incessant regional development efforts, the attractive, healthful environment that was at the heart of Palmer’s initial vision for Colorado Springs was now giving way to polluting industries and urban centers. Today, Pueblo is still dealing with pollution from its era of heavy industry, as piles of slag outside its now-shuttered smelter are part of a <strong>Superfund</strong> cleanup site run by the<strong> US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Lasting Imprint</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Southern Colorado changed from arid foothills to mining centers and industrial hubs in no small part because of Palmer’s vision. His contributions to the southern Front Range created lasting economic and social legacies, largely at the expense of the environment. Nonetheless, he is a beloved figure in Colorado history. In 1929 the city of Colorado Springs unveiled a large, bronze statue of the general on a horse. The statue was placed in the middle of an intersection in downtown Colorado Springs, where it stands today. The statue’s location is incredibly inconvenient, jamming traffic daily. Nevertheless, it is fitting: a traffic-snarling statue is only a small example of the checkered legacy Palmer has left on the southern Colorado landscape.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/robinson-trenten" hreflang="und">Robinson, Trenten</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-jackson-palmer" hreflang="en">william jackson palmer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/environmental-legacy" hreflang="en">environmental legacy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/environmental-effects" hreflang="en">environmental effects</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coal" hreflang="en">coal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/iron" hreflang="en">iron</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War </em>(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert G. Athearn, <em>Rebel of the Rockies: A History of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Babbitt, “From Albuquerque to Tucson in 1867: The Kansas Pacific Railway Survey Photographs of William A. Bell,” <em>Journal of Arizona History</em> 39, no. 3 (Autumn 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William A. Bell, <em>New Tracks in North American: A Journal of Travel and Adventure Whilst Engaged in the Survey for a Southern Railroad to the Pacific Ocean During 1867–1868 </em>(Portland, OR: Horn and Wallace, 1965).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kathleen A. Brosnan, <em>Uniting Mountain and Plain: Cities, Law, and Environmental Change Along the Front Range</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeanne Davant, <em>Wellsprings: A History of the Pikes Peak Region </em>, ed. Jan Mowle (Colorado Springs: Gazette Enterprises, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Sterling Fisher and Chase Mellen, <em>A Builder of the West: The Life of General William Jackson Palmer.</em> (New York: Arno Press, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>H. Lee Scamehorn, <em>Pioneer Steelmaker in the West: The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 1872–1903. </em>(Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>Drifting West: The Calamities of James White and Charles Baker</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Brit Allan Storey, “An Army Officer in Texas, 1866­–1867,” <em>Southwestern Historical Quarterly</em> 72 (July 1968–April 1969).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, "<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0802700">Superfund site: Colorado Smelter, Pueblo, CO</a>," n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Tim Blevins et al., <em>Legends, Labors, and Loves: The Life and Times of William Jackson Palmer </em>(Colorado Springs: Pikes Peak Library District, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.cspm.org/">Colorado Springs Pioneers Museum</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joyce B. Lohse, <em>General William Palmer: Railroad Pioneer</em> (Palmer Lake, CO: Filter Press, 2009).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 31 Jul 2020 21:31:51 +0000 yongli 3402 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prohibition http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prohibition</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3296--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3296.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prohibition-still-near-greeley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prohibition-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=nrzmLm-W" width="1000" height="592" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prohibition-still-near-greeley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prohibition, still near Greeley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A group of men wearing suits and hats stand near a large still and barrels of liquor near Greeley (Weld County), Colorado. One man leans his arm on a pile of sacks with labels reading: "100 lbs, Cerelose, Product Refining Co., New York, U.S.A."</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T14:51:18-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 14:51" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 14:51</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition" data-a2a-title="Prohibition"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprohibition&amp;title=Prohibition"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Alcohol prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) was a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a> experiment, based on reform-minded and religious sentiments, to completely ban the sale and transport of alcohol. While the intention of reformers was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime, outlawing alcohol instead created more issues than had been anticipated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prohibition in Colorado predated national prohibition by four years, and ended only months before national prohibition was also repealed. As it was elsewhere, the prohibition era in Colorado was marked by a sharp increase in organized crime, public flouting of laws, black markets, law enforcement and government corruption, and a growing distrust of Progressive politics. Despite the failure of prohibition as a movement, it introduced the state to new social and economic opportunities for women and fundamentally changed the way the public drank alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government, suppliers, grocers, and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings, money caches, and places where immigrant miners could buy foreign-language newspapers. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene was a feature of its early communities, Colorado soon saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s, when Colorado was still a territory. Conscious of the region’s saloon culture, some towns were established as totally dry from the get-go, including the agrarian communities of <a href="/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> (<strong>Union Colony</strong>) and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a> (<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chicago-colorado-colony"><strong>Chicago-Colorado Colony</strong></a>) in the early 1870s. However, the idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed this precedent and often corresponded with antiurban, anti-immigrant sentiments.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives often saw alcohol as the source of many problems. There was a popular belief among prohibitionists that alcohol was a slippery slope: one sip could lead to a lifetime of physical and financial ruin. They believed that alcohol consumption led to labor unrest and moral degeneracy. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of urbanization and immigration, and hoped to keep Colorado free from what they called “un-American” activities. Several leaders of the <strong>Women’s Christian Temperance Union</strong> (WCTU) were also prominent members of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> (KKK), and their stance on banning alcohol was based in strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments. They felt as if their frontier state were being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous and unsettled.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights, and they were especially concerned with drinkers and gamblers who left their families impoverished. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> out of fear that women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance and had taken up the cause of prohibition as a quick fix for society’s ills. It was no longer a gendered issue but, rather, a unifying Progressive issue.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As a step toward full prohibition, antialcohol Progressive voters first worked to make drinking a male-only activity, reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. These sentiments led to a 1901 law that prohibited women from entering saloons, working in areas that served alcohol, or purchasing alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, arguing that it was at odds with women’s suffrage, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907 the antiliquor campaigns of the WCTU and the <strong>Anti-Saloon League</strong> led to a state local-option law for prohibition, allowing cities to vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, <strong>Aurora</strong>, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over the legality of alcohol was between rural towns and urban areas (including mining camps). Besides <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, the strongest antiprohibition counties included <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teller-county"><strong>Teller</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray-county"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, <a href="/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>Alamosa</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/garfield-county"><strong>Garfield</strong></a>. All of these counties were home to major industrial centers, especially mining and <strong>smelting</strong> operations. They were also home to larger numbers of non-Protestants as well as higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League held several public demonstrations, toured the state with their campaign, spoke directly with lawmakers, campaigned door to door, and maintained a strong public presence to demand the banning of any and all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who gave large contributions to the WCTU and the Anti-Saloon League, aided the prohibitionist campaign, while a rise in anti-immigrant sentiment at the start of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> stoked suspicions that German American brewers were leading an anti-American conspiracy. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado, but there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal, and it was instead overpowered by the famous Progressive drive to “organize and agitate.” Called Measure 2, the prohibition referendum passed on November 3 with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect, four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the earlier Colorado prohibition referendum. For example, both defined “intoxicating liquor” as any beverage containing more than 0.5 percent alcohol. Both laws also banned the sale and transport of all alcohol, even for religious purposes. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado, and many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As in most states during prohibition, the problems of enforcing an alcohol ban became obvious within the first year of the law. Aside from closing cultural hot spots and other businesses that served and sold alcohol, dry laws quickly proved difficult to enforce, especially on individual citizens. Early on, Governor <strong>William Ellery Sweet</strong> appointed “dry agents” who routinely broke civil liberty laws in order to enforce prohibition. Colorado also became home to corrupt law enforcement practices. For example, many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol and simply gave free liquor to officers to stay in business. In addition, caches of liquor taken in raids on speakeasies and stills would often disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an ambiguous legal status. These squads were often made up of men not formally trained as police officers. According to various newspaper reports, they viewed themselves as “crusaders” seeking to destroy the “demon drink.” These moral enforcers were known to frequently bust down the doors of people’s houses without warrants and arrest anyone on the premises, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten, or otherwise publicly humiliated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, <strong>John R. Smith</strong>, and his vigilante groups (often composed of members of the KKK). Smith was frequently sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force, specifically against the Italian American and Mexican American communities. Progressive judge <strong>Benjamin Lindsey</strong>, who originally supported prohibition, openly expressed his disdain for how marginalized communities were targeted with brutal enforcement and given unfair trials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lindsey also lamented that wealthy Coloradans seemed immune to the dry laws. Indeed, the wealthy drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to ensure that they always had as much liquor as they wanted. Newspapers gawked at various instances of police eagerly partying with rich people, often sipping on liquor seized from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of alcohol prohibition, Colorado saw the rapid growth of organized <strong>crime families</strong> in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters appeared all around Colorado—including Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and <strong>Pete Carlino</strong>—each of whom made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of prohibition sweeps in the Italian American community of <strong>Globeville</strong>, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested over the course of a week, and more than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having previously been barred from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of new opportunities in black-market booze. They participated in both the consumption and creation of alcohol at unprecedented rates. During prohibition, Coloradans experienced a new diversity within spaces where people drank alcohol. Women and men of all ages now enjoyed an activity that had been primarily male.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job pertaining to booze during prohibition, from running kitchen stills to peddling booze, tallying sales records, and smuggling alcohol within and beyond borders. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens, a traditionally acceptable realm for women that served as a convenient cover.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also benefited from new opportunities in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments throughout the state benefited from hiring their first female officers. <strong>Edith Barker</strong>, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first accredited female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed as eager to end prohibition as they had been to start it. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a referendum calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The referendum failed. <strong><em>The Denver Post</em></strong> hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition,” in which the newspaper printed its own ballots asking readers whether they were for or against the continuation of prohibition. The consensus from 110,000 newspaper ballots was that Coloradans favored repeal. Because anyone could send in a newspaper ballot, <em>The</em> <em>Post </em>did not account for people who could not vote. This factor suggests that there was a strong sentiment to repeal prohibition in the state but that eligible voters still supported temperance after rejecting the official referendum.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Colorado’s referendum, several other states, mainly in New England, began to agitate for repeal of prohibition. Soon several western states—including Arizona, New Mexico, and California—joined the call for repeal. Raymond Humphreys, chief investigator for the state district attorney’s office in Colorado, opined that “prohibition spawned corruption in law enforcement that undermined public confidence in the law as a whole.” By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts, but only half of them had been heard. Clearly, the law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted once more on the repeal of prohibition, and this time repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state, though federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This loophole meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado, but it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved a constitutional amendment to repeal prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing national prohibition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>, beer sales alone made the newly revived alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment manufacturers, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The <em>News </em>anticipated that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the industry revived, alcohol quickly became a part of the public lives of Coloradans again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production, including the <strong>Tivoli Brewing Company</strong> in Denver and <strong>Coors</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, which had relied on producing other products (such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages) until prohibition was repealed. Meanwhile, mobsters who had profited from the illegal status of alcohol had the rug ripped out from under them. They were eliminated by legal and regulated competition within a few months. No longer did the law prevent women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol, as the Twenty-first Amendment also removed prohibitive laws that targeted individual groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition took legal hold on the state between 1916 and 1933, Colorado has thoroughly reclaimed its saloon roots through the tradition of crafting and imbibing alcoholic beverages. As a state, Colorado currently hosts more than 400 established breweries, including famous national brands such as Coors, <strong>New Belgium</strong>, <strong>Left Hand</strong>, <strong>O’Dell</strong>, and <strong>Breckenridge</strong>. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita, and in 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry (including Stranahan’s, Montoya, Woody Creek, and Laws), as well as a celebrated wine industry based largely in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Valley</strong></a>.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/richthofen-ted" hreflang="und">Richthofen, Ted</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prohibition" hreflang="en">prohibition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prohibition-colorado" hreflang="en">prohibition in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alcohol" hreflang="en">alcohol</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/saloons" hreflang="en">saloons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/womens-christian-temperance-union" hreflang="en">womens christian temperance union</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/temperance" hreflang="en">temperance</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cannabis" hreflang="en">cannabis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/edith-barker" hreflang="en">edith barker</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-police" hreflang="en">denver police</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ku-klux-klan" hreflang="en">Ku Klux Klan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/crime-families" hreflang="en">crime families</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/carlino" hreflang="en">carlino</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bootlegging" hreflang="en">bootlegging</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bootleggers" hreflang="en">bootleggers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/speakeasies" hreflang="en">speakeasies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1920s" hreflang="en">1920s</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beer" hreflang="en">beer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/wine" hreflang="en">wine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spirits" hreflang="en">spirits</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/craft-beer" hreflang="en">craft beer</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Annand, <em>A Study of the Prohibition Situation in Denver</em> (MA thesis, University of Denver, 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CF&amp;I Industrial Bulletin, “The End of the Saloon at CF&amp;I Properties”, vol. 1, no. 2 (December 22, 1915).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Whiteclay Chambers II, <em>The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920</em> (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ernest Hurst Cherrington, <em>Standard Encyclopedia of the Alcohol Problem</em> (Westerville, OH: American Issue Publishing Company, 1925).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rick Clyne, <em>Coal People: Life in Southern Colorado’s Company Towns, 1890–1930</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stanley Coben, <em>Rebellion Against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 1920s America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado General Assembly, “<a href="http://www.leg.state.co.us/lcs/ballothistory.nsf/">Ballot Issue History</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Colorado National Guard, <em>The Military Occupation of the Coal Strike Zone of Colorado, 1913–1914</em> (Denver: Smith-Brooks Printing Company, 1914).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Colorado Springs Gazette</em>, “Rum Runners, in Jail Here, Profess Innocence of Crime,” October 13, 1924; “Olsen Sent to Prison on Rum Conviction,” January 22, 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-breweries-defining-craft">Colorado Breweries: Defining the Craft</a>,” updated June 17, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cornell University Law Library, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/192/108"><em>DANIEL CRONIN v. FRANK ADAMS</em></a>, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Cripple Creek Times-Record</em>, “Four Stills and Hundred Gallons of Whiskey Seized by State Prohibition Men,” September 22, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Daily Times (Longmont)</em>, “Woman Arrested in Booze Raid at Boulder Will Be Tried, Says J. E. Kirkbride,” vol. 33, no. 217, August 26, 1927.<br />&#13; <em>Denver Express,</em> “Job in Question: Status of Dry Agent in Dispute,” December 27, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Denver News,</em> “Three Are Arrested in State Dry Raid: Prohibition Charge Faces Owner of Italian Gardens Following Liquor Seizure,” December 10, 1923; “State Dry Agent Rapped by Judge for Alleged Raid Without Warrant,” January 9, 1924; “State Officers Jail Seven in Rum Raids: Hotel Proprietress and Clerk Arrested After Alleged Wild Party in Room,” January 10, 1924; “Anti-Rum Societies Aid State Officers Destroying Liquor,” March 19, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>The Denver Post</em>, “Liquor Sales Under New Law,” March 3, 1915; “Denver Policewoman Uses Jiu Jitsu to Rout Mashers,” March 6, 1921; “Woman Arrested as Bootlegger,” January 22, 1923; “Booze Raid Disturbs Revel of 200 Youths and Girls,” August 6, 1923; “Pocket Still Discovered by Agents in Raid on Home of Denver Woman,” July 10, 1924; “Wild Parties of Police With Women and Liquor Are Learned of by May,” April 21, 1925; “Wets Are Victorious In Posts Referendum,” February 23, 1926; “Pete Carlino Is Found Murdered on Lonely Road Near Pueblo,” September 14, 1931; “Denver Beer Drinkers on 3.2 Spree With Old-Time Saloons Open Again,” April 7, 1933; “National Prohibition Repealed,” November 8, 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Denver Times</em>, “Women Barred From Saloons”, July 27, 1901.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Durango Herald</em>, “Hardboiled Methods at Law Enforcement at Silverton Breeds No One Any Good,” July 24, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Fort Collins Courier</em>, “Judge Lindsey Urges Prosecution of Rich Booze Law Violators,” October 8, 1921; “Five Seeking Smith’s Post as Dry Agent,” July 6, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phil Goodstein, <em>Robert Speer’s Denver, 1904–1920</em> (Denver: New Social Publications, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Hansen, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2018/ColoradoMagazine_v50n1_Winter1973.pdf">Moonshine and Murder</a>,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> (Winter 1973).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hangovercure.org, “<a href="https://hangovercure.org/guides/most-popular-drink-by-state/">America’s Favorite Iconic State Drink</a>,” December 17, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katherine Harris, “Feminism and Temperance Reform in the Boulder WCTU”, <em>Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies</em> 4, no. 2 (Summer 1979).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Herald Democrat (Leadville)</em>, “Women’s Rights: To Drink in Saloon to Be Heard Before U.S. Supreme Court,” July 31, 1902; “Their Life Belts Loaded With Booze,” August 1, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Todd Laugen, <em>The Gospel of Progressivism: Moral Reform and Labor War in Colorado, 1900–1930</em>, (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, “From Prohibition to Regulation: Lessons From Alcohol Policy for Drug Policy,” <em>Milbank Quarterly</em> 69, no. 3 (1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Mattingly, <em>Well-Tempered Women: Nineteenth-Century Temperance Rhetoric</em> (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Montrose Daily Press</em>, “Sheriff Ducray Arrests Bootlegger Who Sought Protection by Bribery,” vol. 12, no. 206, March 4, 1921.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Noel, <em>The City and the Saloon: Denver 1858–191</em>6, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Pueblo Star Journal</em>, “They All Love Publicity; Even State Dry Law Director Will Stage a Raid For the Movies,” July 25, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Richthofen, “<a href="http://digital.auraria.edu/IR00000098/00001">A People’s History of Alcohol Prohibition in Colorado: Labor, Class, Gender, and Moral Reform, 1916–1933</a>” (BA honors thesis, Metropolitan State University of Denver, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, April 7, 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>San Juan Prospector</em>, “Women Whiskey Merchants,” March 15, 1918.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Clark Secrest, <em>Hell’s Belles: Prostitution, Vice, and Crime in Early Denver: With a Biography of Sam Howe, Frontier Lawman</em>, rev. ed. (Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Trinidad Chronicle, </em>“State Dry Officers May Be Charged with Violence by Two Local Attorneys,” September 10, 1923.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>United Labor Bulletin, October 10, 1914, CSFL Collection, Colorado Historical Society, Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Up-to-the-Minute Bulletin of the International Reform Bureau,” July 9, 1918, Shafroth Family Papers, Western History Collection, Denver Public Library.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Dinan Wake and Jac C. Heckelman, “Support for Repealing Prohibition: An Analysis of Statewide Referenda on Ratifying the 21st Amendment,” <em>Social Science Quarterly </em>95, no. 3 (September 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliot West, “Cleansing the Queen City: Prohibition and Urban Reform in Denver,” <em>Journal of the Southwest</em> 14, no. 4 (Winter, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Women Named Deputy Sheriffs,” <em>Brush Tribune</em>, June 8, 1923.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Betty L. Alt and Sandra K. Wells, <em>Ban the Booze: Prohibition in the Rockies </em>(N.p.: Dog Ear Publishing, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lisa McGirr, <em>The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State</em> (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel Okrent, <em>Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition</em> (New York: Scribner, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Richthofen, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/story/womens-history/2020/03/12/openly-and-gusto-how-women-moonshiners-led-denvers-first-female-cop">Openly and With Gusto: How Women Moonshiners Led to Denver’s First Female Cop</a>” (History Colorado, March 12, 2020).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbJtXMa0ZAQ">Colorado Experience: The Smaldones, Family of Crime</a>” (YouTube).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erin Turner, <em>Rotgut Rustlers: Whiskey, Women, and Wild Times in the West </em>(Kearney, NE: Morris, 2009).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) banned the sale of alcohol. The goal was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. The prohibition era in Colorado saw an increase in organized crime and corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling and boxing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s. Some towns were founded as dry. These included Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. The idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of immigration. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly gained voting rights. The women were concerned about drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue. It was a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. They passed a law that kept women from entering saloons or buying alcohol. The law was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural and urban areas. Denver, Teller, and Alamosa counties were against prohibition. All were home to major industrial centers. They were also home to higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke with lawmakers. The groups demanded a ban on all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. helped their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado. However, there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. The prohibition referendum passed with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. Both laws banned the sale and transport of all alcohol. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Others changed to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing the alcohol ban started within the first year. The governor appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws to enforce prohibition. Many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to police officers to stay in business. Liquor from speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were made up of men not formally trained as police officers. They would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. Anyone at the home would be arrested, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith. Smith was sued for violating civil liberties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how certain communities were targeted. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't obey dry laws. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people while drinking liquor taken from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of prohibition, Colorado saw the growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Gangsters emerged all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, and Joe Varra made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. During a 1924 sweep in Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been banned from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of black-market booze. They drank and made alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job related to booze. They ran kitchen stills, sold liquor, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off, they found women operating moonshine stills from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also got new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were made deputy sheriffs as part of the crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed eager to end prohibition. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a vote calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The vote failed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on repeal again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. However, federal prohibition was still in effect. This meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado.  However, it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment. National prohibition was repealed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alcohol became a part of Coloradan's lives again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production. This included the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. Mobsters who had profited from prohibition were gone within a few months.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. There is also a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) banned the sale and transport of alcohol. The goal was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. The prohibition era in Colorado saw a sharp increase in organized crime and corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s. Some towns were founded as dry. These included Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. The idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of immigration. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings. They felt the state was being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights. The women were concerned about drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue. It was a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. The idea was reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. Progressives passed a law that kept women from entering saloons or buying alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural and urban areas. Denver, Teller, and Alamosa counties were against prohibition. All were home to major industrial centers. They were also home to higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke with lawmakers. The groups demanded a ban on all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. helped their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado. However, there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. The prohibition referendum passed with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. Both laws banned the sale and transport of all alcohol. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing the alcohol ban started within the first year. The governor appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws to enforce prohibition. Many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to police officers to stay in business. Liquor from speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were made up of men not formally trained as police officers. They would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. Anyone at the home would be arrested, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith. Smith was sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressive judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how certain communities were targeted. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't obey dry laws. The well-off drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to make sure they had liquor. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people while drinking liquor taken from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Because of prohibition, Colorado saw the growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters emerged all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and Pete Carlino made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of sweeps in the Italian American community of Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been banned from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of black-market booze. They drank and made alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job related to booze during prohibition. They ran kitchen stills, sold liquor, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also got new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed eager to end prohibition. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a vote calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The vote failed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Denver Post hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition.” The newspaper printed ballots asking readers whether they were for or against prohibition. Based on the 110,000 newspaper ballots, Coloradans favored repeal. However, eligible voters still supported temperance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on repeal again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state. However, federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado.  However, it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment. National prohibition was repealed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the Rocky Mountain News, beer sales alone made the alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment builders, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The News guessed that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alcohol quickly became a part of Coloradan's lives again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production. This included the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. They had produced products such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages during prohibition. Mobsters who had profited from prohibition were gone within a few months. The law no longer prevented women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment removed alcohol laws that targeted groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita. In 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry. There is also a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Alcohol prohibition in Colorado (1916–33) was a Progressive Era experiment. It was based on reform-minded and religious ideas. Prohibition banned the sale and transport of alcohol. The goal of reformers was to reduce violence, drunkenness, and crime. However, outlawing alcohol created more issues than first thought.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prohibition in Colorado predated national prohibition by four years. It ended only months before national prohibition was also repealed. The prohibition era in Colorado was marked by a sharp increase in organized crime, black markets, and government corruption.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59, most mining camps and early towns used saloons as places for government and other official functions. Later, saloons served as locations for labor union meetings. They were also hot spots for gambling, boxing, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Because the rough-and-tumble saloon scene, Colorado soon saw a push for alcohol prohibition. Legal and moral arguments for the control of liquor existed as early as the mid-1860s, when Colorado was still a territory. Conscious of the region’s saloon culture, some towns were founded as dry. These included the communities of Greeley (Union Colony) and Longmont (Chicago-Colorado Colony) in the early 1870s. However, the idea of turning the entire state dry did not gain traction until the end of the century. A state law passed in 1889 outlawed the sale or delivery of alcohol to American Indians. Further efforts to ban alcohol in the state followed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building Support</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reform-minded Progressives saw alcohol as the source of many problems. They believed that alcohol consumption led to labor unrest and moral failings. Reformers saw saloon culture as a product of urbanization and immigration. They hoped to keep Colorado free from what they called “un-American” activities. Several leaders of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were also members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Their stance on banning alcohol was based on strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feelings. They felt as if the state was being overrun by unskilled foreign laborers whose taste for drink made them dangerous.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the antialcohol Progressives were also women with newly acquired voting rights. They were concerned with drinkers and gamblers who left their families poor. Colorado men opposed the 1877 referendum on women’s suffrage. Men were afraid women would vote for prohibition. By the time women gained the right to vote in 1893, many men had changed their stance. They had taken up the cause of prohibition. Prohibition was no longer a gendered issue but, rather, a unifying Progressive idea.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As a step toward full prohibition, antialcohol Progressives worked to make drinking a male-only activity staring in 1901. The idea was reinforced by strict Victorian ideas of womanhood. Progressives passed a law that kept women from entering saloons, working in areas that served alcohol, or buying alcohol. When saloon owners challenged the law, it was upheld by the state and federal Supreme Courts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907, cities could vote on whether to go dry. By 1909 Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, Aurora, and Greeley used this law to ban alcohol within a mile of their borders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest divide over alcohol was between rural towns and urban areas. The strongest antiprohibition counties included Denver, Teller, Mineral, La Plata, Ouray, Chaffee, Alamosa, and Garfield. All of these counties were home to major industrial centers, especially mining and smelting operations. They were also home to larger numbers of non-Protestants and higher numbers of immigrants than lived in the counties voting to go dry.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition Takes Effect</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the years leading up to prohibition, the WCTU, KKK, and Anti-Saloon League toured the state with their campaign. They spoke directly with lawmakers. The groups also publicly demanded the banning of any and all alcohol. By 1914 the WCTU gathered enough signatures to get a prohibition referendum on the ballot. Donations from industrial leaders such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. aided their campaign. The culture of alcohol remained strong in Colorado, but there was not an organized campaign to keep it legal. Called Measure 2, the prohibition referendum passed on November 3 with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 1, 1916, statewide prohibition of alcohol went into effect. That was four years before the federal Volstead Act brought prohibition to the entire country. The Volstead Act used language similar to the Colorado prohibition referendum. For example, both defined “intoxicating liquor” as any beverage containing more than 0.5 percent alcohol. Both laws also banned the sale and transport of all alcohol, even for religious purposes. Thousands of breweries and saloons went out of business in Colorado. Many others scrambled to convert to soft drink parlors. By 1917 statewide prohibition had closed as many as 1,615 saloons and 17 breweries in the Denver area alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Enforcement and Corruption</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Problems enforcing an alcohol ban became obvious within the first year of the law. Governor William Ellery Sweet appointed “dry agents” who broke civil liberty laws in order to enforce prohibition. Colorado also became home to corrupt law enforcement practices. For example, many soft drink parlors still sold alcohol. They gave free liquor to officers to stay in business. In addition, liquor taken in raids on speakeasies would disappear from police evidence rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the governor’s “purity squads,” as newspapers called them, had an uncertain legal status. These squads were often made up of men not formally trained as police officers. According to newspaper reports, they viewed themselves as “crusaders” seeking to destroy the “demon drink.” These moral enforcers would break down the doors of people’s houses without warrants. They would arrest anyone on the premises, with or without evidence that they had been drinking. Suspected drinkers or bootleggers were sometimes tied to chairs and beaten.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This activity prompted many complaints against the state’s Chief Prohibition Officer, John R. Smith, and his vigilante groups (often composed of members of the KKK). Smith was sued for violating civil liberties and using extreme force against the Italian American and Mexican American communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressive judge Benjamin Lindsey supported prohibition at first. However, he expressed frustration with how marginalized communities were targeted and given unfair trials. Lindsey was also upset that wealthy Coloradans didn't comply with dry laws. The well-off drinkers of Colorado worked with corrupt cops to ensure that they had as much liquor as they wanted. Newspapers reported police partying with rich people, often sipping on liquor seized from poorer communities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Organized Crime</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As a result of prohibition, Colorado saw the rapid growth of organized crime families in the 1920s and early 1930s. Notorious gangsters appeared all around Colorado. Joe Berry, Joe Roma, Joe Varra, and Sam and Pete Carlino made names for themselves through the bootleg liquor trade. Prohibition laws did not decrease the demand for alcohol, so the market for illegal booze skyrocketed. In 1924, during a series of prohibition sweeps in the Italian American community of Globeville, at least eighteen bootleggers were arrested in a week. More than half of them were women.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Opportunities for Women</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Having been barred from the legal alcohol trade, women in Colorado took full advantage of new opportunities in black-market booze. They took part in drinking and creating alcohol.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women held every sort of illegal job pertaining to booze during prohibition. They ran kitchen stills, sold booze, tallied sales records, and smuggled alcohol. When police were tipped off to moonshine stills, they often found women operating them from their kitchens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Women also benefited from new chances in law enforcement. In the early 1920s, four women in Denver were appointed as deputy sheriffs to crack down on the alcohol trade. Throughout prohibition, several other police departments hired their first female officers. Edith Barker, a member of the WCTU, became Denver’s first accredited female police officer on May 2, 1920.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Repeal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late 1920s, Coloradans seemed as eager to end prohibition as they had been to start it. In 1926 Colorado became the first state to hold a referendum calling for the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment. The referendum failed. The Denver Post hosted its own “Rocky Mountain Referendum on Prohibition.” The newspaper printed ballots asking readers whether they were for or against prohibition. The consensus from 110,000 newspaper ballots was that Coloradans favored repeal. However, eligible voters still supported temperance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Colorado’s referendum, several states in New England began to call for repeal of prohibition. Soon several western states—including Arizona, New Mexico, and California—joined the call.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1928 more than 12,000 liquor-violation cases were filed in the Denver courts. Only half of them had been heard. The law had become a burden on the state’s executive and judicial branches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In November 1932, Colorado voted on the repeal of prohibition again. This time, repeal received 67 percent of the vote. Starting April 7, 1933, beer with a maximum alcohol content of 3.2 percent by volume could be legally sold in the state. However, federal prohibition was still in effect nationwide. This loophole meant that beer could be bought and sold in Colorado, but it was illegal to travel with or ship it across state lines. Later that same year, the US Congress approved an amendment to end prohibition. By December 5, 1933, thirty-six states, including Colorado, had ratified the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing national prohibition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to the Rocky Mountain News, beer sales alone made the newly revived alcohol industry more than $200,000 (roughly $4 million today) on the first day of statewide repeal. Equipment builders, laborers, and railroads all benefited from the end of prohibition. The News guessed that in Denver alone, more than 1,000 retailers would be issued liquor licenses during April 1933.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the industry revived, alcohol quickly became a part of the public lives of Coloradans again. Former Colorado breweries returned to beer production, including the Tivoli Brewing Company in Denver and Coors in Golden. They had relied on producing other products such as porcelain and nonalcoholic beverages until repeal. Meanwhile, mobsters who had profited from prohibition had the rug ripped out from under them. They were gone within a few months. The law no longer prevented women and American Indians from entering places that sold alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment removed prohibitive laws that targeted groups of people.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since prohibition took legal hold on the state between 1916 and 1933, Colorado has reclaimed its saloon roots. As a state, Colorado currently has more than 400 established breweries. It is the top US state in microbreweries per capita. In 2019 Coloradans voted craft beer as their state’s most iconic drink. Colorado is also home to vibrant spirit industry, as well as a celebrated wine industry based in the Grand Valley.   </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 20:51:18 +0000 yongli 3274 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Fuel and Iron Strike of 1997 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-and-iron-strike-1997 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Fuel and Iron Strike of 1997</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-05-28T14:13:12-06:00" title="Thursday, May 28, 2020 - 14:13" class="datetime">Thu, 05/28/2020 - 14:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-and-iron-strike-1997" data-a2a-title="Colorado Fuel and Iron Strike of 1997"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-fuel-and-iron-strike-1997&amp;title=Colorado%20Fuel%20and%20Iron%20Strike%20of%201997"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Colorado Fuel and Iron strike of 1997 was a labor dispute between <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel and Iron Company</strong></a><strong> (CF&amp;I) </strong>and the <strong>United Steel Workers of America (USWA)</strong>. Oregon Steel Mills had purchased Colorado Fuel and Iron in 1993 and maintained the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> mill’s unionized workforce. When the union contract expired in 1997, negotiations stalled over pension plans, leading to a walkout. The union capitulated after three months, but Oregon Steel refused to rehire the striking workers, leading to years of negotiations and lawsuits until a settlement was reached in 2004.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The 1997 strike was one of many in CF&amp;I’s history, but it was the first in nearly forty years. The second half of the twentieth century was a tumultuous time for CF&amp;I and the American steel industry as a whole. Starting in the 1960s, CF&amp;I and other American steelmakers faced increased competition from foreign steelmakers that were able to produce a large amount of steel with low-cost labor. To combat cheaper foreign steel, CF&amp;I invested in maintaining high-quality steel products in the hope that its steel quality would entice buyers. The company had to modernize its facilities continually in order to maintain a competitive edge. It also had to abide by increasingly strict environmental and safety regulations.</p> <p>CF&amp;I’s modernization efforts enhanced its production quality, environmental cleanliness, and reputation. Yet they also imposed a substantial financial burden. To stay in business, CF&amp;I had to increase prices on its products. The company also started to expand and contract its workforce depending on demand, laying off and rehiring workers as needed based on union seniority.</p> <p>CF&amp;I’s workers were members of the USWA. The union protected workers but also imposed a financial burden on CF&amp;I relative to its competitors in places such as China. Recognizing instability in the American steel industry, the USWA agreed to reduce wages and cut the cost of pension plans in the hope that CF&amp;I could recover its financial footing. The union reasoned that if the cuts allowed CF&amp;I to find a path to prosperity, then workers would ultimately benefit from the company’s renewed success.</p> <p>Yet the company continued its downward spiral. CF&amp;I started to sell off real estate and became a specialty mill, restricting its operations to Pueblo. The company’s fortunes took another blow in 1985, when tubular products, CF&amp;I’s most profitable item, plummeted in demand. More employees were laid off, and the company pressured the union to forgo further benefits and wages. The USWA agreed. These efforts relieved some of the company’s financial stress but were not enough to keep it profitable. In 1990 CF&amp;I filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Oregon Steel Mills bought the company three years later.</p> <h2>Oregon Steel and the 1997 Strike</h2> <p>Facing a steel industry still plagued by fierce competition, Oregon Steel was committed to cutting costs wherever it could, even at the expense of its workers. It had deunionized its own workforce in the 1980s, though it continued to offer competitive pay and benefits. When Oregon Steel purchased CF&amp;I in 1993, the Pueblo workforce remained unionized and still enjoyed the benefits of the USWA, but Oregon Steel was not a supporter of the union. Unionized employees began to notice changes in the work environment, with forced overtime soon becoming a point of contention.</p> <p>In 1997 the USWA entered negotiations for a new union contract for workers at the Pueblo CF&amp;I mill. Soon Oregon Steel and the USWA reached an impasse over pension plans, forced overtime, and wages. Perhaps most galling to the union was Oregon Steel’s claim that it was not responsible for any of CF&amp;I’s pension liabilities. In response to the stalemate, employees began walking off the job and picketing outside the mill. This was the first CF&amp;I strike since 1959.</p> <p>The USWA formally called the strike on October 3, 1997. Oregon Steel responded by hiring new workers to replace those out on strike. Tensions between the strikers and Oregon Steel increased, and verbal altercations between strikers and replacement workers were frequent. Oregon Steel alleged that strikers were causing property damage and harassing nonunionized workers, leading District Judge David Cole to issue a restraining order prohibiting such behavior.</p> <p>After thirteen weeks, the union voted to end the strike unconditionally and return to work without a union contract. However, Oregon Steel refused to reinstate the workers who had gone on strike, forcing many former employees to find new jobs. In response, the USWA filed charges of unfair labor practices and environmental lawsuits against the company. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) ordered the company to reinstate the strikers because it was illegal to hire replacement workers as permanent employees in the event of a strike. Eventually, Oregon Steel slowly began offering strikers their jobs back without a union contract, but some former employees had already moved on to other professions. Others chose to hold out in the hope that an agreement between the company and the union would be reached.</p> <p>In the meantime, the USWA existed in a state of suspended animation at the Pueblo mill. The workers did not have a union contract, but at the same time, the USWA could not be decertified until the NLRB’s unfair labor practice case was settled. Many steelworkers attempted to sustain and rebuild the union by continuing to pay union dues. Even though there was no contract between Oregon Steel and the USWA, the union still advocated for worker safety and pursued worker grievances.</p> <p>The USWA continued negotiations with Oregon Steel for the next several years, eventually reaching an agreement in 2004. The new five-year contract allowed for the reinstatement of strikers who wished to return to their old jobs, a new early retirement incentive package, and back pay. In return, the USWA dropped all lawsuits against Oregon Steel.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The CF&amp;I mill in Pueblo is still in operation today but is owned by a different company. In 1998 Oregon Steel changed CF&amp;I’s name to Rocky Mountain Steel Mills, and in 2006 it sold the company to Evraz Corporation. The mill remains a significant employer in the Pueblo area but does not operate at the same capacity it once did nor does it have the same economic impact on the city.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/martinez-daniel-victor" hreflang="und">Martinez, Daniel Victor </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fuel-and-iron" hreflang="en">Colorado Fuel and Iron</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fuel-iron-history" hreflang="en">colorado fuel &amp; iron history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/united-steel-workers-america" hreflang="en">United Steel Workers of America</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oregon-steel-mills" hreflang="en">Oregon Steel Mills</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-steel" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountain Steel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-labor-history" hreflang="en">colorado labor history</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Don McIntosh, “<a href="https://nwlaborpress.org/2001/11-2-01USWA.html">Steelworkers’ Lockout at Rocky Mountain Steel Enters Fifth Year</a>,” <em>Northwest Labor Press</em>, November 2, 2001.</p> <p>John Norton, “Oregon Steel Plans Stock Offering to Fund Back-Pay Trusts,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, September 15, 2004.</p> <p>John Norton, “Union Rejects CF&amp;I Offer,” Pueblo Chieftain, October 4, 1997.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.evrazna.com/LocationsFacilities/RockyMountainSteelMills/tabid/71/Default.asp">EVRAZ Rocky Mountain Steel</a>.</p> <p><a href="https://www.steelworks.us/">Steelworks Center of the West</a>.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 May 2020 20:13:12 +0000 yongli 3251 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Leadville Strike of 1896–97 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896-97 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Leadville Strike of 1896–97</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3214--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3214.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/camp-mcintire"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Leadville%20Strike%20of%201896%E2%80%9397%20Media%204_1.png?itok=W54e5FMt" width="480" height="406" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/camp-mcintire" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Camp McIntire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Encampment of the Colorado National Guard at "Camp McIntire," during the Leadville miners' strike of 1896-1897.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-04-10T11:41:33-06:00" title="Friday, April 10, 2020 - 11:41" class="datetime">Fri, 04/10/2020 - 11:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896-97" data-a2a-title="Leadville Strike of 1896–97"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fleadville-strike-1896-97&amp;title=Leadville%20Strike%20of%201896%E2%80%9397"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> strike of 1896–97 was a nine-month labor conflict pitting the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners (WFM)</strong></a> against the owners of the district’s <a href="/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mines</strong></a>. The strike began in June 1896, when miners requested higher wages and were rejected, and reached a violent climax in September, when strikers attacked two mines that had reopened with low-wage strikebreakers. <strong>Governor Albert W. McIntire</strong> promptly sent in the state militia to protect the mines, allowing owners to resume production. With no leverage remaining, the strikers limped along for several months before capitulating in March 1897. The strike marked the start of a new, more militant phase of conflict between western US miners and management.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>After the Panic</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Leadville strike of 1896–97 had its origins with the <a href="/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a>, an economic depression<strong>,</strong> and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which sent the mining industry into a tailspin across Colorado. In Leadville, five smelters and every large silver mine closed. The Knights of Labor, which had organized some local miners before the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1880"><strong>strike of 1880</strong></a> and again after 1884, agreed to a districtwide wage cut as a way of reopening some of the mines that had shuttered and getting men back to work.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1895, however, the mining district had recovered from the effects of the panic. Thanks to diversified production in gold, lead, copper, and zinc, Leadville returned to its position as Colorado’s top mining town, with a level of production not seen since 1889. Many mines returned to the $3.00 daily wage that had prevailed before 1893, yet roughly one-third of local miners remained tied to the $2.50 daily wage that was originally intended as a stopgap measure. Owners claimed that a lower cost of living made the wage comparable to earlier rates, but workers increasingly struggled to support their families.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Strike</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cloud City Miners’ Union believed the revival of Leadville mining meant it was time to fully retire the emergency wage scale from 1893. Formed in May 1895, the union was Local No. 33 of the Western Federation of Miners (WFM), a new organization that was both more powerful and more aggressive than the old Knights of Labor. Within a year, it counted more than 800 local miners as members. On May 25, 1896, union representatives requested that mine owners set a base rate of at least $3.00 per day for all miners in the district. The owners rejected the request. Three weeks later, on June 19, union representatives asked again. By this time, union membership had tripled to more than 90 percent of the mining camp. The owners still said no.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the evening of June 19, about 1,200 union members met to discuss the repeated rejections of what seemed to them a reasonable request. They voted almost unanimously to go on strike in all mines that paid workers $2.50 per day. The next day, they followed through, with 968 miners walking off the job at thirteen mines. In response, mine owners decided to shut down all mines in the district and lock their employees out, tossing another 1,332 men out of work. Mining in Leadville—and, as a result, much of the town’s economic activity—ground to a halt.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Both sides felt themselves to be in a position of strength, and neither proved willing to compromise. The union represented nearly all of Leadville’s miners and had the backing of the WFM, which had just seen a notable success in the <strong>Cripple Creek strike of 1894</strong>. Meanwhile, Leadville mine owners, fearful of the growing strength of the WFM, had formed a secret agreement not to negotiate with or even to recognize the union; their responses were invariably addressed to “the miners of Leadville" instead of the union.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the stalemate, tensions never boiled over during the early months of the strike. In July, Governor Albert W. McIntire checked in with the sheriff and heard that all was well. That began to change on August 13, when owners offered the $3.00 wage during any month when the price of silver exceeded 75 cents an ounce as long as striking miners went back to work immediately. When the union rejected the offer, owners retracted it on August 18 and declared that if strikers did not return to their jobs by August 22, the mines would be reopened using strikebreakers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Now both sides were on edge. The union, which had recently received a shipment of 100 rifles, dispatched guards to all routes into <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county"><strong>Lake County</strong></a> to repel any incoming strikebreakers. News of armed workers policing the county’s borders predictably alarmed Leadville’s property-owning class, who started to whisper worriedly about possible attacks on area mines. Some mines used local strikebreakers to reopen (paying $2.50 a day), but others simply shut down their pumps and allowed their tunnels to flood, a clear indication that they did not plan to resume production anytime soon.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Turning Point</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Long-feared violence finally broke out at one in the morning on September 21, when a group of a few hundred strikers marched to the reopened Coronado Mine, just a short walk from downtown. Angered by the use of strikebreakers, the armed strikers opened fire on the mine and tossed three dynamite bombs at its surface structures. As an oil tank broke open, strikers and strikebreakers engaged in a half-hour shootout. When the oil tank eventually caught fire, the strikebreakers fled the mine, having suffered no losses. On the union side, three men were fatally wounded. The confrontation caused another casualty when one of the firefighters working to douse the oil fire was shot and killed. Despite the late hour and their reduced numbers, the strikers left the Coronado and walked a mile outside of town to the Robert Emmet, another reopened mine, to take on strikebreakers there. Again, they tossed bombs and attempted to damage the mine’s surface structures, but this time shots from the strikebreakers turned them away after fatally wounding one union worker. By dawn on September 21, the early morning riot had resulted in five deaths and roughly $50,000 in property damage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In a reprise of the Leadville strike of 1880, local businessmen and mine owners quickly formed their own militia and appealed to the governor for support from the state. Governor McIntire agreed, and the first state militia troops arrived on the evening of September 21, with more following over the next two days. They were housed in barracks made from the wooden structure of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-ice-palace"><strong>Leadville Ice Palace</strong></a>, built the previous winter in an attempt to stimulate the local economy. Protected by hundreds of troops posted at the mines, owners imported trainloads of strikebreakers from Missouri to resume production.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Back to Work</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As in 1880, the strikers had little chance once the state decided to back the owners. Unlike 1880, however, when the strike had collapsed as soon as the militia arrived, this time the WFM provided the moral, economic, and organizational support for the strikers to hold the line for months. But their only real leverage—their ability to stop production by withholding labor—was gone. As the strike continued, union ranks gradually decreased as miners either left Leadville or went back to work. Meanwhile, tensions remained high between strikebreakers and the remaining strikers; local newspapers carried reports of harassment and violence, sometimes even shootings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite its besieged position, the union held on through the fall and into the new year. As late as January 1897, strikers rejected a deal from owners, signaling that they believed they could hold out for something better. As winter dragged on, that optimism faded. On March 9, the union voted to end the strike and return to work at the old wage scale. The state militia left Leadville the next day.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The strike of 1896–97 significantly reduced production in the Leadville mining district, which declined by more than 20 percent in those years because of closed and flooded mines. After the strike, however, Leadville’s mines boomed for a decade, consistently hitting production levels not seen since the 1880s. The Cloud City Miners’ Union survived and continued to recruit workers, but it never regained the strength it had before the strike. The owners had won a decisive victory. Leadville miners did not go on strike again for more than twenty years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Leadville miners may have lost, but their strike reverberated far beyond Lake County. Historian William Philpott has called it “a pivotal point for the WFM” because “it was in 1896 and 1897—when the miners’ struggle in Leadville was fought and lost—that the unrelenting hostility of management became unmistakably clear to western union miners.” In Leadville, the WFM witnessed owners’ new strength and organization. Faced with such an entrenched opposition, the WFM was forced to revise its tactics.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Leadville, Philpott argues that the WFM “turned left.” It split from eastern counterparts such as the American Federation of Labor, which had notably failed to provide support to strikers at Leadville, and started to see itself not only as protecting workers’ rights but as representing workers as a class against the antagonistic class of owners and managers. It rejected conservative goals and conciliatory positions in favor of building a militant labor union that could effectively take on an organized and hostile opposition. This position only reinforced owners’ conviction that the WFM was dangerously radical and must be destroyed. The next major battle between the two sides would come in the violent <strong>1903–4 Colorado labor wars</strong>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville-strike-1896-97" hreflang="en">Leadville Strike of 1896–97</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-labor-history" hreflang="en">colorado labor history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/labor" hreflang="en">labor</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/western-federation-miners" hreflang="en">Western Federation of Miners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/albert-w-mcintire" hreflang="en">Albert W. McIntire</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cloud-city-miners-union" hreflang="en">Cloud City Miners&#039; Union</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>K. Jean Harvey, “The History of Leadville, Colorado, to 1900” (MA thesis, University of Southern California, 1933).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Merrill Hough, “Leadville and the Western Federation of Miners,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 49, no. 1 (Winter 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Philpott, <em>The Lessons of Leadville: Or, Why the Western Federation of Miners Turned Left</em>, Essays and Monographs in Colorado History 10 (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1995).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Christian G. Buys, <em>A Quick History of Leadville</em> (Montrose, CO: Western Reflections, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Don L. Griswold and Jean Harvey Griswold, <em>History of Leadville and Lake County, Colorado: From Mountain Solitude to Metropolis</em>, 2 vols. (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Wyman, <em>Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860–1910</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 10 Apr 2020 17:41:33 +0000 yongli 3212 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Leadville Strike of 1880 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1880 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Leadville Strike of 1880</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3314--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3314.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/camp-mcintire-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Leadville-Strike-of-1880-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=EZE3AjdN" width="900" height="564" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/camp-mcintire-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Camp McIntire</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>When troops arrived in Leadville in fall 1896, they repurposed parts of the Leadville Ice Palace to build their camp. The troops remained in town until March 1897, when the union voted to end the strike and return to work.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-04-10T10:49:27-06:00" title="Friday, April 10, 2020 - 10:49" class="datetime">Fri, 04/10/2020 - 10:49</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1880" data-a2a-title="Leadville Strike of 1880"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fleadville-strike-1880&amp;title=Leadville%20Strike%20of%201880"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> strike of 1880 was the first major labor conflict in the central Colorado silver boomtown, shutting down most of the area’s mining district from May 26 to mid-June as miners pressed owners and managers for higher wages, an eight-hour workday, and more control over their working conditions. Owners and managers successfully resisted workers’ demands until a local citizens’ committee convinced <strong>Governor Frederick Pitkin</strong> to send in military support to get the mines reopened. The unsuccessful strike helped mark Leadville’s shift from boomtown to stable city as miners accepted existing power relations after their failure. The city went more than fifteen years before its next major labor conflict.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of the Boom</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Leadville’s silver boom started after the town’s first smelter, the Harrison Reduction Works, was built in 1877. Tens of thousands of miners, speculators, merchants, and others flocked to the town, turning it quickly into the state’s second largest city. A few people found their fortunes in mines such as the <strong>Little Pittsburg</strong>, Chrysolite, Little Chief, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/matchless-mine"><strong>Matchless</strong></a>, while many others found that a day’s labor in those mines paid anywhere from $2 for surface work up to $3.50 for underground mining. As it grew, Leadville still had many of the characteristics of a rough mining camp, with murders, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lynching-colorado"><strong>lynchings</strong></a>, disease, and more brothels than restaurants, but it also retained its buoyant boomtown atmosphere while the mines poured forth what seemed like an endless stream of silver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>That boom ended in 1880. One sign that the boom was over came in the consolidation of local mines under a small group of companies controlled by an even smaller handful of friendly owners. By 1880 only eleven companies were responsible for more than 80 percent of Leadville’s silver production. Around that time, it also became apparent that the dreams launched by Leadville may have outpaced the reality of what was available in the hills. In February there were whispers that the famous Little Pittsburg mine, the source of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a>’s fortune, was exhausted; soon the stock price declined, and dividend payments stopped. Similar fates awaited the Chrysolite and the Little Chief, which had been mismanaged and underdeveloped such that production had to stop until new ore bodies could be opened. These mines were not played out—they still had plenty of silver in them—but their public stumbles led to the collapse of many Leadville mining stocks as confidence in the region plummeted.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Strike of 1880</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Some historians believe the Leadville miners’ strike of 1880, which started in May, might have been intentionally provoked by the Chrysolite Company as a way of hiding the company’s other problems. Whether true or not, the claim reflects the fact that changes at the struggling Chrysolite provided the immediate source of miners’ grievances. First, the company attempted to take $1 per month from employees to fund a kind of compulsory medical insurance before backing off the plan in the face of opposition. Next, the company banned talking and smoking during working hours, presumably in the name of safety. Finally, the company replaced several underground foremen, claiming that the foremen had been allowing miners to slack off. This action was the last straw. On the morning of Wednesday, May 26, night shift workers at the Chrysolite prevented their day shift replacements from going into the mine. Leadville’s first strike had begun.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It remains unclear whether the strike was spontaneous or planned. More than a year earlier, in January 1879, Leadville miners had banded together in the Miners’ Cooperative Union, which joined the <strong>Knights of Labor</strong> as Local No. 1005. There is no evidence that the union planned the strike ahead of time, but local president <strong>Michael Mooney</strong> did lead the strikers as they marched from the Chrysolite to the Little Chief, which shared the same management. At the Little Chief, strikers presented manager George Daly with their demands: a raise to $4 for an eight-hour workday. Daly said he would have to consult the mining company’s owners back east. The strikers promptly fanned out across the mining district spreading word of their labor stoppage and gaining followers. By the end of the day, more than 2,000 miners had walked off the job, bringing mining activity (and most other business activity) in Leadville to a halt.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Collective bargaining between the striking miners and the mine managers and owners began on the second day of the strike. After a morning parade through town, the miners agreed on their official demands: $4 per day, an eight-hour day, the right to choose their own shift bosses, and formal recognition of their organization, which they now named the Miners, Mechanics and Laborers’ Protective Union. The managers rejected those demands that afternoon and appealed to the county to help guard the mines even though the strikers had remained peaceful. Further negotiations over the next few days led nowhere.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As mine owners and managers maintained their resolve during the second week of the strike, it became increasingly difficult for Mooney and other local labor leaders to sustain the strict discipline that had characterized the strike’s early days. Provocations started piling up: first, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county"><strong>Lake County</strong></a> commissioners declared that citizens could potentially be called on to serve as mine guards; then, Daly and fellow manager W. S. Keyes reopened the Chrysolite, Little Chief, and Iron Silver mines, offering room and board to anyone willing to work; finally, on June 1, a deputy sheriff shot at a group of strikers, injuring three. Rumors spread of drunk strikers marauding through town and harassing anyone trying to work at a mine.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the strike went on, tensions mounted. Anonymous letters threatened violence to property and people. Meanwhile, the rest of the community grew increasingly frustrated, feeling as if they were living through a siege. Finally, on June 8, Mayor John Humphreys implored both sides to make one final effort to compromise. In the bargaining that followed, both sides did move slightly from their opening positions, but wage increases remained a sticking point.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With negotiations stalled again, local businessmen and other residents suffering from the city’s stalled economy decided to take matters into their own hands. They formed a citizens’ committee and on Friday June 11, declared that they would organize an armed militia to protect any miners willing to go back to work on the old wage scale. They also sent a request to Governor Frederick Pitkin to send arms and ammunition. This activity got the union’s attention. The next day saw marches and countermarches by the strikers and the citizens’ committee, with each side leading hundreds of men through the streets of Leadville. Local law enforcement declined to intervene (perhaps because it was wildly outnumbered), prompting the citizens’ committee to complain to Governor Pitkin that the sheriff had sided with the strikers and could no longer be trusted “to protect life and property.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After a brief moment of hesitation, Pitkin yielded to the property owners and declared martial law in Leadville on Sunday June 13. Major General David Cook arrived the next day and organized sixteen companies of volunteers. With the state firmly on the side of mine owners and managers, the strike’s final act came quickly. Most mines resumed work on June 15. At a mass meeting on June 17 featuring mine managers, labor leaders, citizens, and the military, the union consented to return to the prestrike status quo. In addition, although it was not formally part of the agreement, influential mine managers Daly and Keyes agreed to implement an eight-hour day at their mines and to try to convince others to do the same. After the miners went back to work, their union soon dissolved, with many of its leaders leaving town voluntarily or by force.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Leadville strike of 1880 hurt many businesses in town, several folding as a result of nearly three weeks of little economic activity. The mines themselves did not suffer much; despite the stoppage, annual production in 1880 improved on the previous year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The strike can be seen as just one more in the series of events that helped Leadville shift from a boomtown to a stable city. Coming on the heels of consolidation and the stock crash, the strike raised the important question of who would control Leadville’s mining economy. The answer came loud and clear: mine owners and managers, with the backing of the state if necessary. Mine workers accepted their failure, perhaps in part because the arrival of the first railroad to Leadville in July led to a surge in productivity and profits, which mostly benefited owners but also buoyed the city as a whole. The combination of that prosperity and the consolidation of power among mine owners and managers meant that Leadville would not see another major labor disturbance until the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896%E2%80%9397"><strong>Western Federation of Miners’</strong> <strong>strike in 1896–97</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville-strike-1880" hreflang="en">Leadville Strike of 1880</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-labor-history" hreflang="en">colorado labor history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/labor" hreflang="en">labor</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/frederick-pitkin" hreflang="en">frederick pitkin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/michael-mooney" hreflang="en">Michael Mooney</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/knights-labor" hreflang="en">Knights of Labor</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul T. Bechtol Jr., “The 1880 Labor Dispute in Leadville,” <em>Colorado Magazine</em> 47, no. 4 (Fall 1970).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Don L. Griswold and Jean Harvey Griswold, <em>The Carbonate Camp Called Leadville</em> (Denver: University of Denver Press, 1951).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>K. Jean Harvey, “The History of Leadville, Colorado, to 1900” (MA thesis, University of Southern California, 1933).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Don L. Griswold and Jean Harvey Griswold, <em>History of Leadville and Lake County, Colorado: From Mountain Solitude to Metropolis</em>, 2 vols. (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard E. Lingenfelter, <em>The Hardrock Miners: A History of the Mining Labor Movement in the American West, 1863–1893</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Philpott, <em>The Lessons of Leadville: Or, Why the Western Federation of Miners Turned Left</em>, Essays and Monographs in Colorado History 10 (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Wyman, <em>Hard Rock Epic: Western Miners and the Industrial Revolution, 1860–1910</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 10 Apr 2020 16:49:27 +0000 yongli 3211 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3347--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3347.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/john-collier"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Reorganization-Act-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=s_ylM5oL" width="577" height="384" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/john-collier" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">John Collier</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>After advocating for Indigenous&nbsp;rights in New Mexico, John Collier was appointed commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1933. He conceived of the Indian Reorganization Act as a way to restore health and self-determination to the nation's Indigenous people.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3348--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3348.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Reorganization-Act-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=qgwHyR6G" width="900" height="1498" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Southern Ute leader Buckskin Charley encouraged his fellow tribal members to accept the Indian Reorganization Act, under which the tribe would create a new constitution.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T13:19:05-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 13:19" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 13:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal" data-a2a-title="Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal&amp;title=Indian%20Reorganization%20Act%20%28Indian%20New%20Deal%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Passed by Congress in 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) was a wide-reaching set of reforms designed to improve conditions for Indigenous people, especially those living on federal reservations. As the centerpiece of the “Indian New Deal,” the IRA focused on protecting tribal land, reestablishing tribal governments, and spurring economic development among Indigenous nations.</p> <p>Spearheaded by John Collier, commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the IRA was designed to address the failures of previous federal Indian policy, which was based on the destruction of Indigenous sovereignty and culture. Despite this, many federally recognized tribes, including the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> Tribes of Colorado, were skeptical of the act and accepted it reluctantly. While the IRA provided modest improvements in the lives of the Utes and other Indigenous people, it fell far short of its goal of achieving full tribal self-determination and economic independence.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>By the late nineteenth century, most Indigenous people lived on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>federally managed</strong></a> reservations. Despite their&nbsp;ongoing adaptations to American rule, the federal government generally viewed Indigenous people as backward people who were obstacles to national progress.</p> <p>To solve this so-called Indian problem, the government enacted policies designed to force Indigenous people to assimilate into Euro-American society. A succession of laws <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>ended treaty making</strong></a> with American Indian nations (1871), banned <strong>traditional customs</strong> and ceremonies (1883), <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>privatized reservation land</strong></a> (1887), and abolished tribal governments (1898).</p> <p>In addition, Indigenous children were forced into <strong>boarding schools</strong> where they were forbidden to speak their own languages, dress in traditional clothes, or practice any Indigenous religion. These children were often overworked, underfed, and malnourished, all of which contributed to outbreaks of disease at the schools. By the turn of the century, these policies had disastrous effects on the Indigenous population, leaving it fragmented, impoverished, and unhealthy.</p> <h2>A New Class of Reformers</h2> <p>After being generally ignored during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado"><strong>Progressive Era</strong></a> (1900–20), the plight of Indigenous people received greater attention in the 1920s. Anthropologists and writers began to move away from racist ideas about Indigenous inferiority and instead to recognize the value and beauty of Indigenous culture. Convinced that Native American&nbsp;culture should be restored and celebrated instead of punished and stamped out, a growing community of artists and intellectuals began to criticize the existing federal&nbsp;policy.</p> <p>Among this new group of reformers was a young sociologist and writer from New York named John Collier. In the early 1920s, Collier allied himself with other reformers and artists in Taos, New Mexico, to vigorously defend the Pueblo people from a bill that would have taken vast amounts of their land. While engaged in the extended (and ultimately successful) fight to protect Pueblo land, Collier and fellow activist Robert Ely founded the American Indian Defense Association (AIDA) on May 7, 1923.</p> <p>Unlike earlier white advocacy groups, such as the Indian Rights Association, the AIDA entirely rejected the doctrine of assimilation and instead called for sweeping reform that would restore Indigenous identity and self-determination. Over the next several years, Collier and the AIDA worked with and on behalf of Indigenous nations to improve conditions for Native Americans in New Mexico and California.</p> <h2>A New Deal for Indigenous Nations</h2> <p>In 1933, as the nation faced the unprecedented hardship of the <strong>Great Depression</strong>, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed John Collier as BIA commissioner. Collier was recommended by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a fellow Indigenous advocate. While Roosevelt and Congress launched a series of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> reforms to relieve poverty and unemployment during the Depression, Collier was determined to bring similar reforms to the nation’s Indigenous population.</p> <p>Among Collier’s first acts as BIA commissioner was to decriminalize expressions of Indigenous culture and religion, which had been prohibited since the 1880s. He also hired more Indigenous people to the BIA and began closing boarding schools, cutting enrollment nearly in half by 1935.</p> <h2>The Wheeler-Howard Act</h2> <p>John Collier envisioned the linchpin of the Indian New Deal as the IRA, an ambitious reversal of federal Indigenous policy. His initial draft of the bill sought to completely remove the federal government from Indigenous affairs except for providing funds to establish tribal governments and corporations. Among other radical changes, Collier’s draft would have forced all Indigenous landowners to return their land to collective tribal ownership. It even called for the gradual dismantling of the BIA.</p> <p>The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) that eventually passed Congress as the Wheeler-Howard Act was a substantially revised version of Collier’s bill. While it reversed allotment, it did address some of the tribal criticism by giving Indigenous people who owned allotments the option to keep their land instead of forcing them to transfer it to a tribe. The IRA also included provisions to protect existing Indigenous lands and allow tribes to buy back land that had been deemed “surplus” and sold off under previous law.</p> <p>The final draft of the IRA still allowed for the creation of tribal governments, but it kept Indigenous people squarely under federal authority. Not only were tribal constitutions subject to federal approval, but they had to be ratified by “a majority vote of the adult members of the tribe . . . at a special election authorized and called by the Secretary of the Interior.”</p> <p>The IRA also included provisions to help Indigenous economies. It allowed tribes to incorporate as businesses, established sustainable forestry and grazing programs on reservations, called for a $10 million “revolving fund” that could provide startup loans for Indigenous businesses, and reserved $250,000 for “the payment of tuition and other expenses in recognized vocational and trade schools.”</p> <h2>Indigenous Opposition</h2> <p>After the IRA’s passage, each tribe had to hold a referendum to decide whether it wanted to accept the new law. Collier had assumed that most, if not all, tribes would welcome self-government under the IRA, but the referenda results reflected a dearth of tribal support. Nearly a third of the more than 250 tribes who voted on the IRA rejected the act. In addition, election turnout was poor; across all Indigenous nations, only 38,000 of the 97,000 eligible tribal members voted in the referenda. This meant that the IRA was applied to some tribes, including Colorado’s Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, without significant support from their members.</p> <p>Reasons for rejecting the IRA varied among Indigenous nations. The <strong>Navajo</strong>, for instance, resented the IRA’s mandatory reduction of their sheep herd to conserve grazing lands. Other nations, including the Southern Ute Tribe of Colorado, were already used to the status quo and were uncomfortable with the IRA’s massive changes. In February 1934, Southern Ute tribal leaders wrote a letter to Collier in which they politely declined to vote on the IRA. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in Colorado also opposed the act; leader <strong>John Miller </strong>stated that he rejected any federal involvement in tribal affairs beyond fulfillment of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>.</p> <h2>The IRA in Colorado</h2> <p>Convinced that Indigenous people would benefit from the IRA, Collier and his team tried to convince skeptical nations, including the Utes, to accept the act. Eventually, with the help of leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Buckskin Charley</strong></a>, the Southern Ute Tribe voted to accept the IRA on June 10, 1935, by a vote of 85–10. Almost half of eligible Southern Ute members chose not to vote.</p> <p>When the Ute Mountain Utes finally held their referendum, only twelve Utes voted, and the IRA won 9–3. Despite the extraordinarily low turnout, the election satisfied the IRA requirement of having “a majority vote of the adult members,” and the IRA was applied to the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe.</p> <p>Later, in the fall of 1936, the Southern Ute Tribe voted to <strong>adopt a constitution</strong>, though support remained far from unanimous. In May 1940, the Ute Mountain Utes approved their <strong>own Constitution</strong> by a vote of 91–12. The implementation of the IRA changed little in the day-to-day life of Colorado’s Ute people, though the Southern Ute Tribe did use its new autonomy to buy back some 220,000 acres of land that had been sold to non–Natives under earlier laws.</p> <h2>Flaws</h2> <p>Despite its various successes, the act’s highly touted material benefits largely failed to materialize, and when they did, they were unevenly distributed across Indigenous nations. In Colorado, for example, the Southern Utes and Ute Mountain Utes had fewer sheep and more cattle as a result of IRA grazing policies, but the law scarcely improved Ute incomes or education on either reservation. Rather, most of the tribes’ financial gains in the ensuing years came through their own actions—such as leasing rights to oil and gas deposits on tribal land—most of which occurred outside the specific parameters of the IRA.</p> <p>There were several reasons why the act failed to realize reformers’ hopes. First, the IRA was a blanket solution that did not address the disparate needs of the hundreds of federally recognized tribes. Second, the IRA underestimated the degree to which many Indigenous people had already begun adapting to existing policy, including private land ownership, and the modern American economy. Many other tribal members were moving from reservations to cities in pursuit of better&nbsp;economic and educational opportunities.</p> <p>Third, a variety of federal institutions, from Congress to the Bureau of the Budget, remained resistant to Indigenous autonomy and failed to adequately fund IRA provisions even after the act was passed.</p> <p>Finally, whatever its actual merits, the IRA was destined to prove controversial among Indigenous nations because it was designed&nbsp;by a federal government that had spent generations deceiving, dispossessing, and murdering Indigenous people.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>The IRA&nbsp;unintentionally laid the groundwork for more repressive Indian policy in the coming years. Under presidents Truman and Eisenhower, Congress came to agree with John Collier’s initial suggestion of dismantling the BIA and other federal support systems for Indigenous&nbsp;nations. This resulted in a policy known as “termination,” officially adopted in 1953. Termination sought to completely sever the link between the federal government and tribes without the financial support that Collier called for in the IRA. Under termination, Indigenous nations were allowed to file suit against the government for any money they believed they were owed, but they would be on their own after that. Most of the nation’s federally recognized&nbsp;tribes resisted the termination policy, as they had been dealing with federal agencies for more than seventy years and had grown accustomed to the interactions.</p> <p>In addition to its&nbsp;controversial application and legacy, the IRA&nbsp;fell well short of its goal to improve the lives of the majority of Indigenous people, even as it is widely recognized as a valiant effort at legitimate reform.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-reorganization-act" hreflang="en">indian reorganization act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-new-deal" hreflang="en">indian new deal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute" hreflang="en">southern ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute" hreflang="en">ute mountain ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-history" hreflang="en">indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/new-deal" hreflang="en">New Deal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-collier" hreflang="en">john collier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/franklin-d-roosevelt" hreflang="en">franklin d roosevelt</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gary Clayton Anderson and Kathleen P. Chamberlain, <em>Power and Promise: The Changing American West </em>(New York: Pearson, 2008).</p> <p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p> <p>House Committee on Indian Affairs, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0000108282&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=1"><em>Hearings on Readjustment of Indian Affairs, H.R. 7902</em></a>, 73 Cong., 2 sess. (1934).</p> <p>Lawrence C. Kelly, “The Indian Reorganization Act: The Dream and the Reality,” <em>Pacific Historical Review </em>44, no. 3 (August 1975).</p> <p>Tomas Amalio Salinas, “Pearl Chase, John Collier, and Indian Reform Through the New Deal: Native American Affairs in California and the West, 1880–1937” (PhD dissertation, University of California–Santa Barbara, 1995).</p> <p>Ryan W. Schmidt, “American Indian Identity and Blood Quantum in the 21st Century: A Critical Review,” <em>Journal of Anthropology </em>2011 (2011).</p> <p>M. Kaye Tatro, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CU006">Curtis Act (1898)</a>,”<em> Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, n.d.</p> <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Cody White, “<a href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/ccc-id.html">The CCC Indian Division</a>,” <em>Prologue Magazine</em> 48, no. 2 (Summer 2016).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 19:19:05 +0000 yongli 3166 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Appropriations Act (1871) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T10:31:24-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 10:31" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 10:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0" data-a2a-title="Indian Appropriations Act (1871)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-appropriations-act-1871-0&amp;title=Indian%20Appropriations%20Act%20%281871%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 declared that American Indians were no longer considered members of “sovereign nations” and that the US government could no longer establish treaties with them. The act effectively made Indians wards of the US government and paved the way for other laws that granted the federal government increased power over the land and lives of indigenous peoples.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it promised not to “invalidate or impair the obligation” of previous treaties, the act was the first step toward the elimination of indigenous sovereignty, which was completed in 1898 with the <strong>Curtis Act</strong>, and the invalidation of previous treaty obligations, a power finally granted to Congress in 1903. One of the first arrangements to be made in the post-treaty era was the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, in which <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Utes</strong></a> under <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> ceded Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike other Indian Appropriations Acts, most of which served the mundane purpose of allocating federal funds to fulfill treaty obligations, the Appropriations Act of 1871 marked a major shift in federal Indian policy. Nearly a century earlier, immediately after the nation was established, President George Washington applied the president’s treaty-making power to Indian nations, setting a precedent for nation-to-nation diplomacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Four decades later, indigenous sovereignty was upheld in the 1832 Supreme Court decision <em>Worcester v. Georgia</em>, which declared that Indians did indeed belong to “sovereign nation[s].” This result obliged the United States to engage with Indians in diplomacy the same as it would Spain, Britain, or France. President Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future administrations respected it, forging treaties with various American Indian nations that had to be ratified by Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many American Indians who signed treaties did not fully understand what they were signing because they were unfamiliar with the US government as well as American legal writing and practices. Still, over time, treaties became an important source of indigenous power since they were by definition made between equal partners—nation to nation. If nothing else, tribes could point to treaties to protest nondelivery or delay of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> (money and supplies promised in treaties) or trespassing on tribal lands. Many American Indian leaders rightly came to regard treaties as the final say on what the US government and its citizens could or could not do regarding Indian land and people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Civil War, however, a renewed spirit of white national unity, as well as the ongoing conquest of the American West, compelled many in Congress and the western territories to reconsider indigenous sovereignty. Treaties that created reservations and Indian agencies, they argued, essentially made Indians dependent on the government, so why must they continue to be recognized as independent nations?</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Appropriations Act of 1871</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the Constitution, treating making was the prerogative of the president, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. The House of Representatives had no say in creating treaties and was only responsible for allocating funds to carry out their provisions. By the 1870s, however, the House had new members representing new constituencies in western states, many of whom lobbied for Indian removal. The House as a whole had also come to resent its minor role in Indian affairs, going so far as to refuse to fund new treaties. As the House debated the Appropriations Act of 1871, representatives hitched a rider denying Indian sovereignty to what was otherwise a routine allocations bill. Even though the rider increased the House’s power in Indian affairs, the Senate approved the bill on March 3, 1871, and President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A New Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it prevented new treaties from being written, the Appropriations Act did not end binding agreements with Indian nations. These agreements, however, differed from treaties in that they were not bilateral—meaning the US government could choose to respect American Indians’ demands at its own discretion. The Brunot Agreement of 1873, for example, still had to be ratified by Congress and made the government accountable for the agreement’s stated compensation to the Utes. However, the Appropriations Act laid the groundwork for the government to abandon past obligations, a right that the Supreme Court granted to Congress in its 1903 decision <em>Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the 1871 Appropriations Act, historian Mark G. Hirsch writes, “US repudiation of treaties and tribalism was steadfastly opposed by American Indians, who continued to identify themselves as members of autonomous, self-governing nations.” This resistance took many forms, from religious movements such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> to outright refusal to participate in subsequent laws, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act of 1887</strong></a>. In Colorado, the 1879 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> stemmed from the Utes’ refusal to give up either their tribal identity or their sovereignty, especially because the latter was protected by treaty. While not opposing the Appropriations Act by name, these assertions of autonomy were responses to the denial of Indian self-determination that was codified in the 1871 Act.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Dawes Act, which broke up collectively owned Indian reservations into individual lots, demonstrated Congress’s true intent with the Appropriations Act. Nothing in any treaty signed before 1871 gave the federal government the right to forcibly break up reservations, but after tribal sovereignty was nullified in the Appropriations Act, Congress assumed the right to legislate on all matters concerning Indian affairs as it saw fit. By breaking up spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held collectively for generations, the Dawes Act dealt another crippling blow to indigenous sovereignty in the late nineteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous nations within the United States had gone from having the rights due any other foreign country to having almost no right to exist. This process had been under way before 1871, but the Indian Appropriations Act of that year incorporated it into official government policy, opening the door for its rapid acceleration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While no new treaties have been brokered since 1871, Congress did eventually restore some measure of indigenous sovereignty in 1934 with the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). However, because it forced tribes to hold votes and write their own Constitutions, many tribes correctly viewed the IRA as another government mandate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though most tribes today have some form of self-government, the fight for indigenous sovereignty denied in the 1871 Act continues. In New Mexico, for example, tribes are resisting government-sponsored energy drilling near sacred sites on public land; in North Dakota they have protested government-imposed oil pipelines across treaty-protected land. Meanwhile, in Alaska and Colorado, tribes are lobbying for the power and resources to combat disproportionately high rates of sexual assault and other violent crime on reservations.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-appropriations-act" hreflang="en">indian appropriations act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cultural-genocide" hreflang="en">cultural genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty" hreflang="en">treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous" hreflang="en">indigenous</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/41st-congress/session-3/c41s3ch120.pdf">An Act Making Appropriations for the Current and Contingent Expenses of the Indian Department…</a>” (Indian Appropriations Act), 41st Congress, Sess. III, Ch. 119–120, March 3, 1871.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/194/">Antoine v Washington</a>, 420 US 194 (1975).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeff Brady, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/11/29/671701019/2-years-after-standing-rock-protests-north-dakota-oil-business-is-booming">2 Years After Standing Rock Protests, Tensions Remain but Oil Business Booms</a>,” NPR, November 29, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Susan Montoya Bryan, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/protecting-the-incredible-magical-spiritual-that-is-chaco-canyon">Protecting the ‘Incredible, Magical, Spiritual,’ That Is Chaco Canyon</a>,” Associated Press and <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joaqlin Estus, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/the-fix-for-alaska-s-public-safety-crisis-recognize-tribal-powers">The Fix for Alaska’s Public Safety Crisis? Recognize Tribal Powers</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phillip M. Kannan, “<a href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&amp;context=wmborj">Reinstating Treaty-Making with Native American Tribes</a>,” <em>William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal </em>16, no. 3 (2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alysa Landry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/ulysses-s-grant-mass-genocide-through-permanent-peace-policy">Ulysses S. Grant: Mass Genocide Through ‘Permanent Peace’ Policy</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, May 3, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a>, 187 US 553 (1903).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/155413">Meeting Addresses Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Plans; Ute Mountain Looks to Hemp, More Officers</a>,” <em>Journal </em>(Cortez, CO), October 14, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 16:31:24 +0000 yongli 3165 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Appropriations Act (1871) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/indian-appropriations-act-1871"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Appropriations-Act-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=mMnKk355" width="1090" height="1470" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/indian-appropriations-act-1871" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Appropriations Act (1871)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In what was supposed to be a routine bill providing funds to Indian Agencies, the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871&nbsp; included a significant clause declaring that Indigenous people did not belong to "independent nations" and could therefore not enter treaties with the United States. A departure from previous US-Indigenous relations, the Act dealt a major blow to Indigenous sovereignty.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-13T10:30:57-06:00" title="Friday, March 13, 2020 - 10:30" class="datetime">Fri, 03/13/2020 - 10:30</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871" data-a2a-title="Indian Appropriations Act (1871)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-appropriations-act-1871&amp;title=Indian%20Appropriations%20Act%20%281871%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 declared that Indigenous people were no longer considered members of “sovereign nations” and that the US government could no longer establish treaties with them. The act effectively made Native Americans wards of the US government and paved the way for other laws that granted the federal government increased power over the land and lives of Indigenous peoples.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it promised not to “invalidate or impair the obligation” of previous treaties, the act was the first step toward the elimination of Indigenous sovereignty, which was completed in 1898 with the <strong>Curtis Act</strong>, and the invalidation of previous treaty obligations, a power finally granted to Congress in 1903. One of the first arrangements to be made in the post-treaty era was the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, in which <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Utes</strong></a> under <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> ceded Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unlike other Indian Appropriations Acts, most of which served the mundane purpose of allocating federal funds to fulfill treaty obligations, the Appropriations Act of 1871 marked a major shift in federal Indigenous policy. Nearly a century earlier, immediately after the nation was established, President George Washington applied the president’s treaty-making power to Indigenous nations, setting a precedent for nation-to-nation diplomacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Four decades later, Indigenous sovereignty was upheld in the 1832 Supreme Court decision <em>Worcester v. Georgia</em>, which declared that Indigenous people did indeed belong to “sovereign nation[s].” This result obliged the United States to engage with Indigenous people in diplomacy the same as it would Spain, Britain, or France. President Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future administrations respected it, forging treaties with various Native nations that had to be ratified by Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many Indigenous leaders who signed treaties did not fully understand what they were signing because they were unfamiliar with the US government as well as American legal writing and practices. That eventually changed, however, and over time treaties became an important source of Indigenous power since they were by definition made between equal partners—nation to nation. If nothing else, Indigenous nations could point to treaties to protest nondelivery or delay of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> (money and supplies promised in treaties) or trespassing on Indigenous land. Many Indigenous leaders rightly came to regard treaties as the final say on what the US government and its citizens could or could not do regarding Indigenous land and people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>, however, a renewed spirit of white national unity, as well as the ongoing conquest of the American West, compelled many in Congress and the western territories to reconsider Indigenous sovereignty. Treaties that created reservations and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, they argued, essentially made Indians dependent on the government, so why must they continue to be recognized as independent nations?</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Appropriations Act of 1871</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the Constitution, treaty making was the prerogative of the president, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. The House of Representatives had no say in creating treaties and was only responsible for allocating funds to carry out their provisions. By the 1870s, however, the House had new members representing new constituencies in western states, many of whom lobbied for the removal of Indigenous people. The House as a whole had also come to resent its minor role in Indigenous affairs, going so far as to refuse to fund new treaties. As the House debated the Appropriations Act of 1871, representatives hitched a rider denying Native sovereignty to what was otherwise a routine allocations bill. Even though the rider increased the House’s power in Indigenous affairs, the Senate approved the bill on March 3, 1871, and President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A New Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it prevented new treaties from being written, the Appropriations Act did not end binding agreements with Indigenous nations. These agreements, however, differed from treaties in that they were not bilateral—meaning the US government could choose to respect Native Americans’ demands at its own discretion. The Brunot Agreement of 1873, for example, still had to be ratified by Congress and made the government accountable for the agreement’s stated compensation to the Utes. However, the Appropriations Act laid the groundwork for the government to abandon past obligations, a right that the Supreme Court granted to Congress in its 1903 decision <em>Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the 1871 Appropriations Act, historian Mark G. Hirsch writes, “US repudiation of treaties and tribalism was steadfastly opposed by American Indians, who continued to identify themselves as members of autonomous, self-governing nations.” This resistance took many forms, from religious movements such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> to outright refusal to participate in subsequent laws, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act of 1887</strong></a>. In Colorado, the 1879 <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> stemmed from the Utes’ refusal to give up either their tribal identity or their sovereignty, especially because the latter was protected by treaty. While not opposing the Appropriations Act by name, these assertions of autonomy were responses to the denial of Indigenous self-determination that was codified in the 1871 Act.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Dawes Act, which broke up collectively owned Indigenous reservations into individual lots, demonstrated Congress’s true intent with the Appropriations Act. Nothing in any treaty signed before 1871 gave the federal government the right to forcibly break up reservations, but after tribal sovereignty was nullified in the Appropriations Act, Congress assumed the right to legislate on all matters concerning Indigenous affairs as it saw fit. By breaking up spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held collectively for generations, the Dawes Act dealt another crippling blow to Indigenous sovereignty in the late nineteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous nations within the United States had gone from having the rights due any other foreign country to having almost no right to exist. This process had been under way before 1871, but the Indian Appropriations Act of that year incorporated it into official government policy, opening the door for its rapid acceleration.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While no new treaties have been written since 1871, Congress did eventually restore some measure of Indigenous sovereignty in 1934 with the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). However, because it forced tribes to hold votes and write their own Constitutions, many tribes correctly viewed the IRA as another government mandate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though most federally recognized tribes today have some form of self-government, the fight for Indigenous sovereignty denied in the 1871 Act continues. In New Mexico, for example, Indigenous people are resisting government-sponsored energy drilling near sacred sites on public land; in North Dakota they have protested government-imposed oil pipelines across treaty-protected land. Meanwhile, in Alaska and Colorado, tribes are lobbying for the power and resources to combat disproportionately high rates of sexual assault and other violent crime on federal reservations.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-appropriations-act" hreflang="en">indian appropriations act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american-history" hreflang="en">native american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cultural-genocide" hreflang="en">cultural genocide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty" hreflang="en">treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous" hreflang="en">indigenous</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/41st-congress/session-3/c41s3ch120.pdf">An Act Making Appropriations for the Current and Contingent Expenses of the Indian Department…</a>” (Indian Appropriations Act), 41st Congress, Sess. III, Ch. 119–120, March 3, 1871.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/194/">Antoine v Washington</a>, 420 US 194 (1975).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeff Brady, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/11/29/671701019/2-years-after-standing-rock-protests-north-dakota-oil-business-is-booming">2 Years After Standing Rock Protests, Tensions Remain but Oil Business Booms</a>,” NPR, November 29, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Susan Montoya Bryan, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/protecting-the-incredible-magical-spiritual-that-is-chaco-canyon">Protecting the ‘Incredible, Magical, Spiritual,’ That Is Chaco Canyon</a>,” Associated Press and <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joaqlin Estus, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/news/the-fix-for-alaska-s-public-safety-crisis-recognize-tribal-powers">The Fix for Alaska’s Public Safety Crisis? Recognize Tribal Powers</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 30, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phillip M. Kannan, “<a href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&amp;context=wmborj">Reinstating Treaty-Making with Native American Tribes</a>,” <em>William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal </em>16, no. 3 (2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alysa Landry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/ulysses-s-grant-mass-genocide-through-permanent-peace-policy">Ulysses S. Grant: Mass Genocide Through ‘Permanent Peace’ Policy</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, May 3, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a>, 187 US 553 (1903).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jim Mimiaga, “<a href="https://www.the-journal.com/articles/155413">Meeting Addresses Ute Mountain Ute Tribe Plans; Ute Mountain Looks to Hemp, More Officers</a>,” <em>Journal </em>(Cortez, CO), October 14, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donald L. Fixico, <em>The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources</em>, 2nd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism </em>(New York: Peter Land, 2007).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 13 Mar 2020 16:30:57 +0000 yongli 3164 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Dawes Act (General Allotment Act) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Dawes Act (General Allotment Act)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T13:39:56-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 13:39" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 13:39</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act" data-a2a-title="Dawes Act (General Allotment Act)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdawes-act-general-allotment-act&amp;title=Dawes%20Act%20%28General%20Allotment%20Act%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Passed by Congress in 1887, the Dawes Act—formally known as the General Allotment Act—authorized the US government to survey and divide federal Indigenous reservations into private lots for individual tribal members. The Dawes Act’s central idea of “allotment” became the foundation of federal Indigenous policy well into the twentieth century, with disastrous results for Indigenous people in Colorado and throughout the nation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many white observers, such as Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, the act’s sponsor, thought the law would help “civilize” Indigenous people and protect what remained of their land. However, as many Indigenous leaders realized, the Dawes Act undermined indigenous sovereignty and brought Indian land into the US legal system, which served only to benefit non-Indians. The Dawes Act provided the legal means for taking land away from Indigenous people. Between the passage of the act and the end of the allotment era in 1934, Indigenous lands in the United States were reduced by 60 percent.<br /><br />&#13; The Dawes Act did not affect Indigenous people living in Colorado until 1895, when it became a divisive and damaging force on the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> Reservation. Disagreement over allotment split the original Southern Ute Reservation in two, resulting in the creation of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a> and the unallotted Ute Mountain Reservation. The rest of the Southern Ute Tribe accepted allotment and lost more than 523,000 acres under the policy, though it was able to recover almost half of that land in 1938.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late nineteenth century, the goal of most US Indigenous policy was to “civilize” Native Americans, that is, to have them adopt the values and traditions of Euro-American society. Although most Indigenous people lived on communally owned reservations, private land ownership and improvement were seen as fundamental aspects of transforming the Indigenous population. As a result, allotment—often referred to as <em>severalty</em>—was offered to some federally recognized tribes in treaties well before the 1880s.<br /><br />&#13; Indigenous land protections were dealt a blow in 1871, when Congress’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>Indian Appropriations Act</strong></a> invalidated the Supreme Court’s 1832 ruling that Indigenous people belonged to “sovereign nations.” Later, President Ulysses S. Grant turned over administration of Indigenous reservations—including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian Agencies</strong></a>—to missionaries who sought to convert Indigenous people to Christianity, place their children in boarding schools, and force them to adopt farming, Western dress, and other non-Native ways of life. This policy had disastrous results across the nation. In Colorado, it led to such tragedies as the 1879 <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> and the opening of the <strong>Teller Indian School</strong> outside of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>.<br /><br />&#13; Observing the manifest problems with missionary-led Indigenous policy, groups of sympathetic whites began to consider alternatives that would take a more humane—albeit paternalistic—approach to changing Indigenous people. In 1882 Philadelphian Herbert Welsh founded the Indian Rights Association, which investigated conditions on reservations and advanced ideas to bring Native Americans into “the common life of the people of the United States.” In the early 1880s, the Indian Rights Association and similar groups met to discuss potential legislation, attracting the attention of sympathetic politicians such as Dawes. Figuring that Indigenous land would be best protected by the same set of laws that protected non-Native land, the reformers developed the policy of allotment, and Dawes found plenty of support for the idea in Congress.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Allotting Indigenous Lands</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As it was written, the Dawes Act offered to allot each Indigenous “head of a family” 160 acres, the size of a standard <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a>. Those who accepted allotment would have their land protected in federal trust for twenty-five years, and at the end of that period they would receive title to the land as well as full citizenship. Later amendments to the act raised the maximum allotment size to 320 acres, but they also abolished the federal trust protection, allowed for the sale of unallotted or “surplus” lands to non-Natives, and allowed non-Natives to lease allotments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In theory, the Dawes Act would persuade Indigenous people to abandon the tribal system altogether and become assimilated, solving the nation’s so-called "Indian problem." The act’s white supporters lauded its passage as progress in US-Indigenous relations. Charles Painter, of the Indian Rights Association, celebrated the act as “the only practical measure” to save Indigenous lands from unscrupulous whites; offering Indigenous people “a personal patent” on their land, he argued, was a stronger legal mechanism for protecting the land than treaties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In practice, however, the amended Dawes Act and later allotment laws not only failed to protect Indigenous land, but actually facilitated its transfer to non-Natives. Many Indigenous people lacked the skills, money, or credit needed to start a successful farm, so they eventually decided to sell or lease their land to non-Natives. Sales of so-called surplus land further diminished tribal holdings, as did the deaths of “family heads,” whose allotments grew smaller as they were divided among an increasing number of heirs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Resistance and Effects</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Most Indigenous nations resisted allotment at the outset, seeing the new law as no different from the Indian agents and boarding schools that had already been forced on them. Reactions varied by nation, however. For example, in South Dakota, Lakota under Sitting Bull attacked fellow tribal members for agreeing to allotment, while in Oklahoma the Choctaw and Chickasaw studied the law extensively in order to get the fairest possible deal. The Dawes Act also helped stimulate a revival of the <a href="/article/ghost-dance"><strong>Ghost Dance</strong></a> among many Indigenous nations, as they appealed to the spiritual realm to help restore their lands and culture.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Allotment in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the time of its passage, the Dawes Act did not apply to Colorado’s Southern Ute Reservation, because white Coloradans were more interested in removing their Indigenous neighbors than in breaking up the reservation. They nearly got their wish in 1888, when Congress passed a bill to remove the Southern Ute Tribe. The <em>Saguache Democrat </em>eagerly proclaimed that the Utes were “now ready to go” and that their removal would “throw open for settlement several hundred thousand acres of the best farming land in Colorado.” However, lawmakers from Utah and Colorado disagreed over where the Utes would be resettled, and Congress ultimately failed to pass the necessary follow-up legislation to the 1888 bill.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Having failed to remove the Utes outright, Congress eventually opted for allotment. In 1895, over the objection of President Grover Cleveland’s administration, lawmakers passed the Hunter Act, which essentially applied the Dawes Act to the Southern Ute Reservation. However, the Hunter Act differed from the Dawes Act in that it offered each of the tribe’s three bands the option to reject allotment and live in a separate part of the reservation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Of the three bands, only the Weeminuche, led by <strong>Ignacio</strong>, refused allotment, seeing it as another attempt to undermine their sovereignty. They moved to the western part of the reservation, at the base of <strong>Sleeping Ute Mountain</strong>, and eventually established the Ute Mountain Reservation. Meanwhile, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Sapiah</strong></a> (Buckskin Charley), one of the earliest Ute leaders to take up farming, advocated for the rest of the Southern Utes—the Muache and Capote—to accept allotment. He encountered plenty of opposition, but in the end the two bands narrowly voted to accept allotment.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As it did for other Indigenous nations, allotment drastically reduced the Southern Ute Reservation. In 1899 the federal government opened more than 523,000 acres of “surplus” Southern Ute land for sale to non-Natives; the Utes retained only about 73,000 acres in allotments.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For those Utes who held allotments, development often proved impossible, as the best water rights were already taken by whites upstream and farming equipment was unavailable or unaffordable. As a result, Ute landowners were often deemed “incompetent” and their land sold to non-Natives. Sale of allotted land continued into the twentieth century; as late as 1911, Southern Ute Reservation Superintendent <strong>Charles Werner</strong> reported selling 1,040 acres of inherited land and 1,400 acres of land held by “incompetent” Ute landowners.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though they rejected allotment, the Weeminuche still felt the effects of it because the fragmentation of the original Southern Ute Reservation restricted their access to good grazing land. In 1906 they lost even more hunting and grazing land when the government took 70,000 acres to form <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>. This left them even more dependent on government rations, though they continued to sustain themselves by hunting, gathering, and trading.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of Allotment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The era of allotment finally ended in 1934 with the passage of the <strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong> (IRA). Part of the “Indian New Deal,” the IRA reestablished tribal governments and gave them authority to reconsolidate previously allotted lands. It even allowed for the restoration of “surplus” lands sold during the allotment era. Under the IRA, the Southern Ute Tribe was able to recover 220,000 acres, less than half of the “surplus” land it had lost under allotment.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While individuals—especially those who managed to start farms—may have benefitted from allotment, the policy decimated Indigenous identity and solidarity, leaving future generations to navigate a complicated US legal system just to reclaim their own land. Although its creators perhaps meant well, the Dawes Act splintered spiritually and culturally significant land that had been held communally for generations. For that reason, it is widely seen today as a key piece of the United States’ larger campaign of cultural genocide against Indigenous people.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dawes-act" hreflang="en">dawes act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/allotment" hreflang="en">allotment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans" hreflang="en">native americans</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>George Clayton Anderson and Kathleen P. Chamberlain, <em>Power and Promise: The Changing American West </em>(New York: Pearson, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&amp;doc=50&amp;page=transcript">Dawes Act of 1887 (full text)</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=FPF18941220.2.13&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=--1894-----en-20--1-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute%22+%22severalty%22+%22allotment%22-------0--">Fight Over the Ute Bill: The Administration Has Decided to Oppose It</a>,” <em>Fairplay Flume</em>, December 20, 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laurence Armand French, <em>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism</em> (New York: Peter Lang, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Historical Society of Pennsylvania, “<a href="http://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/i/IRA1523.html">Indian Rights Association records</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=TSS18960222.2.67&amp;srpos=13&amp;e=--1894-----en-20--1-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute%22+%22severalty%22+%22allotment%22-------0--">Land for the Utes</a>,” <em>Silverton Standard</em>, February 22, 1896.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nebraskastudies.org, “<a href="http://www.nebraskastudies.org/1875-1899/the-dawes-act/">The Dawes Act</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul Stuart, “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30015511?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents">United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission</a>,” <em>Social Service Review </em>51, no. 3 (September 1977).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SGD18881122-01.2.7&amp;srpos=31&amp;e=--1887-----en-20--21-byDA-txt-txIN-%22ute+reservation%22-------0--">The Utes Now Ready to Go</a>,” <em>Saguache Democrat</em>, November 22, 1888.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia, 31 US 515 (1832)</a>,” Justia, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Jason Edward Black, <em>American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Allotment </em>(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William T. Hagan, <em>The Indian Rights Association: The Herbert Welsh Years, 1882–1904 </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frederick E. Hoxie, <em>A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sondra G. Jones, <em>Being and Becoming Ute: The Story of an American Indian People </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2019).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Protest of the Indian Rights Association Against the Proposed Removal of the Southern Ute Indians,” Philadelphia, 1890.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Treuer, <em>The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present</em> (New York: Riverhead, 2019).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 20:39:56 +0000 yongli 3111 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Progressive Era in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Progressive Era in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3341--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3341.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/voter-will-not-forget-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Progressive-Era-Reform-in-Colorado-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=7fGOjder" width="1090" height="1173" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/voter-will-not-forget-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Voter Will Not Forget</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Voter Will Not Forget This Picture on Election Day!</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3342--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3342.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/modern-devil-fish-0"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Progressive%20Era%20Reform%20in%20Colorado%20Media%202_0.jpg?itok=etRIqWIN" width="646" height="621" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/modern-devil-fish-0" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Modern Devil Fish</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>"The tentacles of the Devil Fish cannot be destroyed unless the HEAD,<br /> the source of their sustaining power, is destroyed." -- Victor Hugo's Toilers of the Sea</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:30:13-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:30" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:30</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/progressive-era-colorado" data-a2a-title="Progressive Era in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprogressive-era-colorado&amp;title=Progressive%20Era%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Progressive Era (1900–20) was a national period of social and political reform in which grassroots activists and their political allies sought the power of government and science to address pressing public problems. In Colorado, Progressives brought significant political and social changes to the state, including the creation of statewide <strong>initiatives and referenda</strong>, an eight-hour workday for miners and women, a minimum wage, child labor laws, juvenile courts, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition"><strong>alcohol prohibition</strong></a>. Meanwhile, Progressive impulses at the federal level targeted Colorado’s public lands and water resources, resulting in the creation of national forests, national parks, and large-scale<strong> <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado">irrigation</a></strong> projects.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Part of a National Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beginning around 1900, many middle- and working-class Americans organized publicly to call out a range of problems across the nation. Political party machines dominated elections and often corrupted the voting process. Many women expressed frustration with their exclusion from public life and threats to the common welfare. Newly emerging monopolies in business constrained worker freedom and consumer choice. Rapidly growing cities struggled to accommodate a swelling influx of immigrants and rural migrants. Journalists exposed housing and hygiene crises as well as economic injustices.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In this context, it is perhaps not surprising that the Progressive Era began in earnest with an act of working-class discontent: In 1901 a disgruntled steel worker-turned-anarchist assassinated President William McKinley, putting reformist Vice President Theodore Roosevelt in office. Progressives helped elect Roosevelt in 1904, and in 1906 the president called for the nation’s reformers to focus their “movement of agitation . . . to punish the authors of evil, whether in industry or politics.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressivism was a national movement, but it took on unique characteristics in the young state of Colorado, which was experiencing rapid urbanization, economic uncertainty, and industrial unrest. As the state capital and financial hub, <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> grew dramatically after the first stirrings of <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>gold rush</strong></a> excitement in 1858. By 1900 male and female Progressive reformers in the Mile High City expressed urgent concerns about political corruption; abuses of power by railroad, utility, mining, and financial corporations; alcohol abuse; prostitution; the treatment of juveniles accused of crimes; high taxes; and the best path forward for development. In mining towns such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>, <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a>, business consolidation and cycles of boom and bust created uncertainty in the lives of wage earners, retailers, saloonkeepers, and landlords.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Dimensions of Colorado Progressivism</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Progressive Era reformers typically began with exposés of wrongdoing. During the 1904 campaign to elect the city’s mayor, for example, <strong><em>The </em><em>Denver Post</em></strong> printed a remarkable cartoon drawn by artist <strong>Wilbur Steele</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><img alt="" src="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/voter-will-not-forget" /><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/voter-will-not-forget"><img alt="The Voter Will Not Forget" src="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/sites/default/files/Speer%20and%20honest%20voter_0.jpg" style="height:646px; width:600px" /></a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>It portrayed Democratic Party “Boss” (and 1904 mayoral candidate) <a href="/article/robert-w-speer"><strong>Robert Speer</strong></a> standing with a giant foot planted on the chest of a prostrate young woman labeled “honest elections.” The violence suggested by Speer’s stance was reinforced by the smoking gun of a city detective also identified as a “thug.” As the gun smoke wafted upward, it transformed into a banner announcing: “We do things to the honest voter!” The aggressively masculine position of Speer threatening to trample the feminine voter signaled an urgent concern for Progressive reformers in early twentieth-century Colorado. From this perspective, Speer represented the evils of a political party system that distorted masculinity and threatened election integrity.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Female reformers played a central role in the movement to clean up elections and redefine women’s citizenship. One of the most urgent reforms for Progressives nationwide was women’s right to vote, also known as suffrage. Colorado’s male voters had approved the franchise for women much earlier than in other states. Effective campaigning by female activists combined with a sympathetic <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/populism-colorado"><strong>Populist</strong></a> movement of male miners and farmers to approve <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/womens-suffrage-movement"><strong>women’s suffrage</strong></a> in 1893—nearly thirty years before women in Mississippi or Massachusetts could vote. By 1900 Colorado women had decades of experience with campaigning and voting, and a few women had been elected to the state legislature. Yet while the main political parties remained male dominated, there was little enthusiasm for a separate women’s party. Lobbying chiefly through a network of women’s clubs, female activists promoted political reforms to make elections and parties honest and more democratic.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, Colorado’s female Progressives forged coalitions with male activists to advance a broader agenda on behalf of women and children. Among their most important male allies was Judge <strong>Benjamin Barr Lindsey</strong>, who achieved national recognition as an advocate for a newly created juvenile court system in Denver. Together the juvenile judge and clubwomen secured an early form of welfare for widowed mothers, new rules to make juvenile courts the place to judge wrongdoing by male and female minors, child labor restrictions, and modest public health programs to assist mothers and infants. Colorado’s first female state senator, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/helen-ring-robinson"><strong>Helen Ring Robinson</strong></a>, labeled this effort “the maternal in politics,” which suggested a public role for mothers as activists, voters, and elected officials. Thus, the state’s early embrace of women’s suffrage made female Progressives into municipal housekeepers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/helen-ring-robinson"><img alt="Helen Ring Robinson" src="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/sites/default/files/helen_robinson.jpg" style="height:630px; width:450px" /></a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Democratic and Republican Party corruption and patronage became frequent targets for female and male Progressives alike. Their activism resulted in key democratic changes: the direct primary to weaken the influence of party bosses; the creation of <strong>initiative</strong>, referendum, and recall processes to allow voters to bypass the party-dominated state legislature; and the direct election of senators. Some state leaders, such as Democratic Governor <strong>John Shafroth</strong> (1909–13), embraced these reforms, which reflected the agitation of movement activists in Colorado. Mayor Robert Speer, elected with the help of fraudulent voting in 1904, ran a much cleaner campaign for reelection in 1908 as a result of Progressive vigilance. Speer’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/city-beautiful-movement-denver"><strong>City Beautiful</strong></a> initiatives also reflected the vision of Progressive urbanites, creating new sewage and sanitation systems, professionally designed public parks, and paved, well-lit streets.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Reformers did encounter important limits to political change. Activist attorney <strong>Edward Costigan</strong> ran twice for governor of Colorado at the head of a separate Progressive Party, but he was unable to break the party loyalty of most Democratic and Republican voters and lost both elections. The new Progressive Party achieved few electoral wins.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Protestant Progressives</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Costigan’s campaigns also revealed another feature of Progressivism: Leaders often framed their appeals for Progressive reform in the language of Protestant Christianity. After Costigan cofounded an “honest” voter’s league to challenge the party machines in 1905, he sought the “sanction and baptism” of the churches. The <strong>Denver Christian Citizenship Union</strong>, a group of religious leaders in the city, sought to waken “Christian people . . . to the standard of good citizenship.” For Protestant Progressives “vice” especially meant saloons, gambling halls, and prostitution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Newspaper reporters and cartoonists worked to incite the indignation of Christian voters. <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> editor <strong>Edward Keating</strong> and reporter <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ellis-meredith-0"><strong>Ellis Meredith</strong></a>, muckraking journalists <strong>Harvey O’Higgins</strong> and <strong>George Creel</strong>, and <em>Post </em>cartoonist Steele exposed corruption, corporate manipulation, worker injustices, and dangers to women and children in rapidly urbanizing, industrial communities in Colorado. They shaped a fearful vision of an endangered feminine public at the mercy of male political bosses, selfish business owners, and wicked saloonkeepers.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prohibition</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Often linked with political corruption in the minds of Colorado Progressives was the saloon. A workingman’s social club in the nineteenth century, the saloon represented a host of evils in the minds of twentieth-century Progressives, as depicted in the 1904 cartoon “The Modern Devil Fish.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/modern-devil-fish"><img alt="The Modern Devil Fish" src="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/sites/default/files/Modern%20Devil%20Fish.jpg" style="height:577px; width:600px" /></a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>This cartoon showed the idealistic hopes of a small Prohibition Party and many more Progressives who prayed that a vote to ban alcohol would shut down the saloon and its connections to gambling, prostitution, and political party organizing. Proposals to allow neighborhood saloon bans and prohibit alcohol outright appeared regularly between 1900 and 1914. In 1914 a majority of Colorado voters finally enacted Prohibition by initiative, six years before the rest of the nation went dry. As in other states, this social experiment did reduce alcohol consumption among Colorado men during the 1920s. But women, who had rarely entered saloons, became regular patrons at speakeasies across the state, and bootlegging operations routinely flouted the law. The chaos of Prohibition eroded Progressive hopes for a broad social and political transformation.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Business Regulation and Labor Warfare</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>More effective over the long term were Progressive reforms to curb the overwhelming power of big businesses. Male and female activists lobbied together until voters in 1912 approved an eight-hour day for female workers and male miners. A minimum wage law for women followed soon after. But here, too, Progressives fell short of their goal. They could not get the state to declare <strong>coal mining</strong> and <strong>smelting</strong> as businesses subject to “the public interest,” which would have empowered the legislature to pass a range of health and safety regulations for workers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indeed, industrial strife and labor violence were among the most intractable problems that Colorado Progressives confronted. Major mining strikes in the state often degenerated into violence and death, such as at Telluride in 1901–3, Cripple Creek in 1904, and <a href="/article/ludlow-massacre"><strong>Ludlow</strong></a> in 1914. These bitter conflicts generated intense pressure by workers for economic change.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A new group of Progressive reformers responded. These were typically lawyers who promoted first investigation and then mediation of workplace disputes in the hope of averting violent strikes. In 1915 Colorado legislators created the <strong>Colorado Industrial Commission</strong>, the nation’s first state board with powers to ban strikes and lockouts in industries with a public interest, pending an investigation by labor-management experts. The commission, however, largely acted to protect the consuming public and prevent violence, not to protect workers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some female workers did benefit from the commission’s interventions during <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>. But in the 1920s, the commission did not side with coal miners and meatpackers in their quest to end National Guard harassment, unjust working conditions, and low wages. This failure ultimately led to new violence in the mining industry, such as in the 1927 strike at the <strong>Columbine Mine</strong> in Lafayette.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The creation of the Colorado Industrial Commission highlights another Progressive Era trend: at all levels, government increasingly turned to panels of experts to address problems that Progressives called attention to. Taken from increasingly professionalized fields such as engineering, medicine, the natural sciences, and the social sciences, these experts advised policymakers on everything from labor mediation to dam construction.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Natural Resources in the Progressive Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the federal level, perhaps no “expert” was more important to Colorado’s Progressive Era than <strong>Gifford Pinchot</strong>, the nation’s first expert forest manager. With Pinchot’s help, President Roosevelt, an ardent conservationist himself, established the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> and the modern national forest system in 1905. Across Colorado’s five national forests, Pinchot’s Forest Service became a model Progressive entity, relying on data from research stations and a staff of trained, vetted rangers to help manage and protect an important public resource. Some Coloradans resented this outside interference. Indeed, national forests became “the lightning rod of federal management,” the historian Richard White has noted, “enrag[ing] those who still envisioned the West as a region where opportunity was synonymous with unrestricted access to resources.” Despite opposition and even arson, the US Forest Service established its authority by the 1910s and now manages eleven national forests in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like the creation of Denver’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-mountain-parks"><strong>Mountain Parks</strong></a> at the same time, the establishment of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in 1906 and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a> in 1915 reflected the Progressive impulse to protect natural areas for scientific study and the benefit and enjoyment of the public—instead of leaving them vulnerable to the whims of capital and industry. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a> of 1906 and the creation of the National Park Service in 1916 epitomized this aspect of federal Progressivism. In Colorado the National Park Service now administers four national parks and five national monuments (established under the Antiquities Act), as well as a national recreation area and a handful of national historic sites and trails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Federal Progressivism also helped stimulate Colorado agriculture. In 1902, with the support of Colorado Progressives such as John Shafroth (then a US Representative), the Roosevelt Administration created the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> to help irrigate the arid West. Staffed with experts in engineering and hydrology, the bureau completed one of its first five <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> projects—the Gunnison Tunnel—in western Colorado’s Uncompahgre Valley. The Bureau of Reclamation would go on to complete sixteen water development projects in the state, allowing Colorado to become an agricultural powerhouse in the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As these federal initiatives show, Progressivism in Colorado meant more than fighting political corruption, building cleaner cities, or protecting workers; it also brought a new era of federal land management and water resource development that continues today and underwrites important state industries such as agriculture, recreation, and tourism.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Waning of the Progressive Movement</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Many Progressives lost enthusiasm for political reform after World War I, which exposed underlying tensions in American politics and society. For many of Colorado’s working-class Progressives, the coercive power of state government under the Industrial Commission and National Guard proved more dangerous and less amenable to reform than they had hoped. The war also unleashed a flood of xenophobic nationalism that promoted suspicion of immigrants, especially Germans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Capitalizing on the hyperpatriotism of the war years and anti-immigrant sentiment, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Colorado Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> enrolled more than 30,000 members between 1923 and 1925. While Ben Lindsey and others fought with the Klan openly, the hooded order nonetheless managed to capture the state Republican Party in the election of 1924. Klan leaders in state government targeted the nascent maternal bureaucracy that female Progressives had worked painstakingly to create. The power of the Klan in office ended up being checked not by Progressives in Colorado, who were largely in retreat, but instead by antistatist conservatives.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Conclusion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Nonetheless, between 1900 and 1920 Progressives had relied on the exposé to cast light on political party corruption and corporate manipulation of politics. They had placed their faith in an expanded role of government to address a range of social, economic, environmental, and political problems. In many cases, from alcohol prohibition to workers’ rights, forest conservation, and city sanitation, their faith was rewarded. Female reformers demanded that state efforts protect mothers and children with new initiatives. The reform movement energized many Colorado women who assumed new roles in public life. The rise of the Klan and its capture of the Republican Party reminded voters again of the dangers of party machines. Some Progressive activists did challenge the Klan, but their influence was limited. Despite their accomplishments, reform crusades had become passé or too constricting. It would take <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>the New Deal</strong></a> in the 1930s to revive the belief that government intervention could address economic injustice and promote social welfare.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/laugen-r-todd" hreflang="und">Laugen, R. Todd</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/progressive-era" hreflang="en">Progressive Era</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/progressive-reform" hreflang="en">progressive reform</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/progressive-era-colorado" hreflang="en">progressive era colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/robert-speer" hreflang="en">robert speer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/child-labor-laws" hreflang="en">child labor laws</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prohibition" hreflang="en">prohibition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/temperance" hreflang="en">temperance</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/labor" hreflang="en">labor</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/strikes" hreflang="en">strikes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-politics" hreflang="en">colorado politics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-elections" hreflang="en">colorado elections</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Shelly C. Dudley, “<a href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/reclamation/uncompahgre/">The First Five: A Brief History of the Uncompahgre Project (Gunnison)</a>,” WaterHistory.org, n.d.<br /><br />&#13; John Fedkiw, <a href="https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/ManagingMultipleUsesOnNationalForests.pdf"><em>Managing Multiple Uses on National Forests, 1905–1995</em></a> (Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phil Goodstein, <em>Robert Speer’s Denver, 1904–1920</em> (Denver: New Society Publications, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. Todd Laugen, <em>The Gospel of Progressivism: Moral Reform and Labor War in Colorado, 1900–1930</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Leonard, Thomas Noel, and Donald L. Walker Jr., <em>Honest John Shafroth: A Colorado Reformer </em>(Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael McGerr, <em>A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robyn Muncy, <em>Relentless Reformer: Josephine Roche and Progressivism in Twentieth-Century America</em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pat Pascoe, <em>Helen Ring Robinson: Colorado Senator and Suffragist</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard White, <em>“It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gerald W. Williams, <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/2015/06/The_USDA_Forest_Service_TheFirstCentury.pdf"><em>The USDA Forest Service—The First Century</em></a> (Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 2005). </p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Woman Legislators Should Be Womanly,” <em>New York Times</em>, November 23, 1913.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Andrews, <em>Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War</em> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>George Creel, <em>Rebel at Large</em> (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1947).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rheta Child Dorr, “The Women Did It in Colorado,” <em>Hampton’s Magazine</em> 26, no. 4 (April 1911).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Alan Goldberg, <em>Hooded Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Colorado</em> (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Edward Keating, <em>The Gentleman From Colorado: A Memoir</em> (Denver: Sage Books, 1964).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.rmpbs.org/coloradoexperience/conflict/kkk/">KKK</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, Rocky Mountain PBS, January 19, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Larsen, <em>The Good Fight: The Life and Times of Ben B. Lindsey</em> (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1972)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Benjamin Barr Lindsey and Harvey O’Higgins, <em>The Beast</em> (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1910).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.rmpbs.org/coloradoexperience/conflict/ludlow-massacre/">Ludlow Massacre</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, Rocky Mountain PBS, April 22, 2013<em>.</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/colorado-experience-speer-city/">Speer and the City</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, Rocky Mountain PBS, November 9, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.rmpbs.org/coloradoexperience/conflict/womens-suffrage-movement/">Suffrage</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, Rocky Mountain PBS, November 4, 2016.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:30:13 +0000 yongli 3095 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org