%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--555--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--555.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/NordenskioldCliffPalacePhoto%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=ffo7Nzwy" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photograph was taken by Gustaf Nordenskiöld during his initial investigations of the Mesa Verde region in 1891.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--970--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--970.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lowry-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo3%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=omY2Vkiq" width="1000" height="634" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lowry-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lowry Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Lowry pueblo is an Ancestral Puebloan ruin with thirty-seven rooms, eight kivas, and one Great Kiva. It dates to around 1100 CE and could have had several dozen residents at its height.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1056--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1056.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10026526_0.jpg?itok=ozVyre_3" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Encampment, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Ute tipi camp near Denver, 1874. Note the pegs used to secure the base of the lodge in the foreground. William Henry Jackson photograph, History Colorado collections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1298--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1298.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/White-River-Ute-Indian-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=JscUomd-" width="1000" height="657" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The ruins of the White River Ute Indian Agency in 1879 shortly after the Meeker Incident. Courtesy of the Western History Collection, Denver Public Library, X-30699; the original is from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, December 6, 1879.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7711.jpg?itok=7_mqN0MH" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plaza, Bent&#039;s Old Fort Historic Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the plaza within Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site. In the 1830s and '40s, Native Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanos met in the plaza to conduct trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-20T11:41:25-07:00" title="Friday, January 20, 2017 - 11:41" class="datetime">Fri, 01/20/2017 - 11:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section" data-a2a-title="Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwalking-colorado-introduction-origins-section&amp;title=Walking%20Colorado%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Origins%20Section"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Hundreds of generations of Native American ancestors are represented in Colorado by scatters of artifacts along with the less portable evidence of shelter, the warmth of hearths, storage needs, and symbolic expression. We learn about them through archaeology and indigenous peoples’ oral traditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeologists define four broad eras in the history of Colorado and of the whole of the western United States. The most ancient is called the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, when hunting-oriented cultures embraced the challenging conditions and the sometimes-rapid changes occurring at the end of the Ice Age. This is followed by the <a href="/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a>, an era of relatively stable hunter-gatherer lifeways, represented by several cultures of semi-nomadic peoples. More radical changes characterize the transition into the <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong>,</a> when corn-based horticulture replaced foraging among a number of native peoples in the warmer parts of Colorado. Finally, the Historic period is the time frame when non-native explorers and settlers eventually displaced the native tribes in sometimes-violent encounters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Paleo-Indian (12,000–6500 BC)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of sites containing evidence for the hunting and butchering of late <strong>Ice Age</strong> animals—notably Columbian <strong>mammoths</strong>—between 13,000 and 18,000 years ago, if not earlier, have been preserved on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> of Colorado. The evidence is generally limited to distinctively broken long bones thought to indicate marrow extraction and perhaps the use of the fragmented bones as simple tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nomadic hunters of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> culture (or cultures) had spread across the breadth of the country by 13,000 years ago. Their seemingly sudden appearance over such vast spaces begs the question of whether this represents swift migrations into previously unpopulated lands or merely the rapid spread of their lithic (stone) tool technology—most readily recognized by their iconic <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a>—across an already thinly occupied landscape. The issue is still hotly debated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In a general sense, “archaeological cultures” are defined as patterned groups of artifacts and features within a given time frame and geographical territory. The Clovis culture is best known in Colorado from the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, where remains of butchered mammoths have been found. However much or little that Clovis hunters contributed to their demise, mammoths and many other large-bodied Ice Age beasts (“megafauna” such as horses, camels, and ground sloths) vanished from Colorado not long after 11,000 BC.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the large game species that survived the dramatic climatic changes at the end of the Ice Age was the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. Clovis and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong> Folsom</strong></a> hunters pursued a more massive species with longer horns, <em>Bison antiquus</em>, from which the modern bison evolved. In time, later Paleo-Indian groups developed sophisticated systems of communal bison hunting that allowed them to successfully dispatch as many as 200 animals in a single <strong>communal game drive</strong>. Some of the resulting kill and butchery sites are preserved today for archaeological study, famously so in the “River of Bone” feature at the <a href="/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"><strong>Olsen-Chubbuck site</strong></a> near Firstview in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cheyenne-county"><strong>Cheyenne County</strong></a>, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few Paleo-Indian sites in Colorado provide evidence of aspects of everyday life other than hunting. Best known is the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, a repeatedly used camp of the Folsom culture now designated as a National Historic Landmark. Lindenmeier also preserves less deeply buried layers of the later Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Formative periods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paleo-Indian camps rarely retain evidence of lightweight shelters, sometimes only indirectly recognized by the distribution of features and surrounding discarded artifacts. But at the <a href="/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer Site</strong></a> near Gunnison, the rock foundations of more substantial wood-framed and mud-covered houses of Folsom groups have been found on a mesa top. Archaeologists believe these are winter occupations where the mesa-top setting had the advantage of being above the valley bottom where cold air pools during calm winter nights. All of Colorado’s larger parks—<strong>North</strong>, <strong>Middle</strong>, and <strong>South Parks</strong>, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>—contain significant numbers of Paleo-Indian sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few hints of the spiritual beliefs of Paleo-Indian groups also survive. In a high mountain cave in central Colorado, the bones of a man who died more than 8,000 years ago are preserved. Many traditional societies worldwide consider caves to be symbolic portals to and from the spirit world, so Paleo-Indians and later groups could have held similar beliefs. A formal burial site dating to this period, not far from the Lindenmeier site in Larimer County, was a traditional “flexed” interment of a young woman, with the legs folded and the knees drawn up toward the chest. Red ocher coated the remains, and numerous stone tools were present along with a few ornamental artifacts of animal bone and tooth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Caches of artifacts—usually of flaked stone tools—have been found in isolated Paleo-Indian contexts at the Drake and Mahaffey sites in Colorado. Exceptionally well-made projectile points manufactured from materials gathered (or traded from) distant sources are present at the <strong>Drake Cache</strong> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>. Other sites like Mahaffey in <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> contain a mixed bag of tools, tool “preforms” (incomplete tool manufacture), and minimally modified stone flakes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Changes toward more “broad spectrum” survival strategies become widespread in the succeeding Archaic period. This generalized hunter-gatherer lifeway is marked by changing styles of artifacts and features found in the archaeological record.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaic (6500 BC–AD 200)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For thousands of years during the Archaic period, the hunter-gatherer way of life held sway as the predominant cultural tradition among Colorado’s resident peoples. The term <em>Archaic</em> holds connotations of primitive or outdated, but Archaic peoples were the ultimate survivalists. Highly adapted to their environments, their familiarity with a huge range of natural resources enabled a critical flexibility in the face of climate, floral, and faunal changes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Most if not all Archaic populations descended from preceding Paleo-Indian cultures. But regardless of their origins, Archaic cultures in Colorado shared certain basic technologies only slightly altered from Paleo-Indian forms. Thus, artifacts of stone, bone, antler, horn, wood, and other natural materials continued to be made in the absence of any metal or manufactured glass (<strong>obsidian</strong>, a natural volcanic glass, was used to a limited degree). Ceramic containers were not yet known, nor were hamlets or villages permanently occupied. So what was different about Archaic cultures?</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The differences were more a matter of degree than of kind. Hunting weapons continued to be spears propelled by <strong>atlatls</strong>, but the stone spear tips were smaller than Paleo-Indian forms and might be notched on the lower edges or corners. Spear points and other flintknapped tools were usually made from locally available rock types rather than from distant source materials. Use of a broad range of native plant species is clear, far more so than in earlier millennia. The seeds of wild plants were milled into flour using a pair of grinding stones (the <strong>mano and metate</strong>) made of sandstone and other abrasive rocks. Large game animals continued to be hunted, but a range of smaller game such as rabbits and prairie dogs also were sought; fish and birds such as wild turkeys were taken less frequently. Snares, deadfall traps, and nets may have been used more often than spears for smaller game.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Herd hunting of bison and other large herbivores using communal game drive systems endured, but in the Archaic period the evidence for this is more abundant in the subalpine and alpine heights of the Front Range than it is on the plains or western plateaus. The <strong>Kaplan-Hoover</strong> bison kill site in Larimer County is one of the few such lower elevation sites known in Colorado for this period. Camps were established in many of the same places used by their ancestors, but the use of shallow rockshelters as camps increased markedly. A few such as <a href="/article/franktown-cave"><strong>Franktown Cave</strong></a> and <a href="/article/mantles-cave"><strong>Mantle’s Cave</strong></a> were dry enough to protect perishable artifacts of hide, feather, plant fiber, and other rarely preserved materials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rockshelter and cave walls, and open cliff faces and boulders, were sometimes adorned with <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a>. Abstract and geometric designs are common and are interpreted as the work of shamans communicating with the spirit world. Representational images of people and animals also occur, sometimes with exaggerated features. Other spiritual aspects of Archaic cultures are seen in burial sites. Usually in isolated locations outside camps, Archaic groups buried their deceased in unlined pits using the same flexed body position as in Paleo-Indian times. Likely wrapped in hide, bark, or textile robes that have not preserved, the remains were often buried with the tools of everyday life such as seed milling implements, bone awls, hunting equipment, etc. Typically short in stature, Archaic people’s lifespans were also short, on average, after calculating the mortality rate of many children in the equation. But for those fortunate enough to survive childhood, a reasonably long life could be enjoyed. At the <a href="/article/yarmony-archaeological-site"><strong>Yarmony site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a>, an elderly woman 60 years old or more was buried with two sandstone manos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Yarmony and many other Archaic camps preserve the buried foundations of houses in a variety of forms. Semi-subterranean pithouses comparable to much later Basketmaker houses of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> have been found in the Colorado and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a> basins. Similar surface-level dwellings—wood-framed and capped with an insulating layer of mud—are also known from the same areas. A few sites contain rock slab foundations. Several styles of more temporary shelters have been found, some similar to the <a href="/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a> and<strong> <a href="/article/tipi-0">tipis</a></strong> found in much younger sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although credible numbers are hard to come by, archaeologists believe that Archaic population levels were never very high, perhaps a few tens of thousands statewide. Higher populations would have stretched the available resources to the limit, given the need to accumulate a store of goods to survive long winters. But late in the Archaic period the transition to farming began in the American Southwest and soon spread to southern Colorado. The earliest evidence of farming in Colorado, at about 400–350 BC, is found in sites near Durango such as the <a href="/article/falls-creek-rock-shelters-archaeological-site"><strong>Falls Creek Rock shelters</strong></a>. Once farming became more widespread, a very different era dawned: the Formative period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Formative (AD 200–1500)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The contrast between the archaeology of the Formative period and the earlier eras is striking. What transpired among the inhabitants of the region to cause such a radical shift in lifeways? It was the <em>Neolithic Revolution</em>, to use the label describing the foraging-to-farming transition in the Old World.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agriculture focused on the domestic crop triad of corn, beans, and squash, which afforded farmers occasional surpluses for storage, trade, and tribute. All three crops have their origins in the tropics of Mexico and do not thrive in the cool nights and erratic growing seasons of the northern Southwest. Farming in Colorado, then, was risky, and some groups such as the <a href="/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> hedged their bets by hunting and gathering whenever the need arose. Others, such as the <a href="/article/plains-woodland"><strong>Plains Woodland</strong></a> peoples on the plains, only farmed on occasion and in localized areas where success was more likely. The indigenous mountain residents never farmed, although they may have traded for some of the harvest and otherwise interacted with their more sedentary neighbors. Intermarriage was undoubtedly common if the trends of recent history are any guide.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The production of ceramics, particularly cooking jars, made farming even more viable. The varieties of beans grown, today marketed by a <strong>Dove Creek</strong> company as “Anasazi beans,” are storable pinto beans that require extended cooking times. Dropping hot rocks into broths held in water-proofed baskets was the only way for Paleo-Indian and Archaic chefs to cook soups and stews, but it was not an effective method for beans. But ca. AD 500, pottery cooking-jars changed the dynamic, allowing beans to become a welcome supplement to Formative diets. Pottery was not an invention of Colorado residents but instead spread into the state from the south and east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Another innovation of the Formative period was the bow and arrow, the origins of which are mysterious. Although there are hints of its use ca. 1400–1000 BC, the bow and arrow did not become an integral part of hunters’ gear until AD 200–500. The small stone “arrowheads” diagnostic of this weapon are found in profusion, including at farming villages where people tending fields could both control pests and supplement their meat and hide supply by “garden hunting” the animals attracted to the crops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The permanent occupation of sites that first occurred in the Formative necessitated more durable forms of housing. Pithouses were the first design solution but, eventually, slab-lined surface dwellings followed by coursed masonry construction techniques were developed by Ancestral Puebloans and by some Fremont, <a href="/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and <a href="/article/sopris-phase"><strong>Sopris</strong></a> farmers. Room shapes evolved from the round forms of ancient times to square or rectangular shapes that accommodated expansion of the house footprint. Such expansion was itself driven by the rising populations that crop surpluses made possible.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Inevitably, the growth of villages required forms of leadership not previously needed. Community-scale gatherings began to take place as a way of maintaining social cohesion and to validate the roles of leaders. The design of large spaces such as dance plazas and great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (“public architecture”) are the archaeological signatures of these developments by the seventh century AD. The Ancestral Puebloans best represent the trend, as their territory was the most densely settled, but hints of social ranking are also present among the less populous Apishapa and Fremont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A unique Southwestern development was the rise of the social system centered at <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> in northwestern New Mexico during the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Southwestern Colorado has a number of “Chaco outliers” such as <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock</strong></a> and <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> that display clearly Chacoan details such as <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House</strong></a> architecture built with distinctive wall construction methods, but these sites contain artifacts that strongly identify the inhabitants as locals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods, there is scant evidence of violence among Colorado’s residents. However, with rising populations that clustered into more crowded homes, the Formative period witnessed increasing conflict, particularly when the crops failed, stores of food shrank, and potable water sources dwindled. In addition to violence directly seen in some skeletal remains in the Four Corners region, there are other indirect indicators of stressful times. Some <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> rock art sites depict warriors with weapons, protective shields, and the probable taking of human trophies. Other <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> were built with an eye toward defense, a choice also followed by the Apishapa in southeastern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The end of the Formative period is defined by the end of farming in Colorado ca. AD 1400–1450. When the first Spanish explorers ventured into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> basin and San Luis Valley, the only native peoples they encountered were nomadic bands of <strong>Apaches</strong>, <strong>Pawnees</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/utes"><strong>Utes</strong></a>. Archaeological evidence confirms the lack of farming throughout Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Historic (AD 1500–1900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Much research has been done to connect the dots between the various Formative cultures and the native groups we know today. For their part, most modern tribes have little trouble recognizing the traditional sites of their ancestors. The physical evidence of this can be less convincing to archaeologists, however.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Such is not the case with the Ancestral Puebloans (formerly Anasazi) who have clear connections with a score of modern Pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona, each with its own cultural identity and traditions. The contraction of their territory began in the late thirteenth century, resulting in the near-total depopulation of southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah within a few decades.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A very different story describes Fremont history. The Fremont core territory in central and northern Utah was vacant by AD 1350, but Fremont groups living at the geographic margins—including in northwestern Colorado—strove to maintain their way of life into the sixteenth century. But by the time that Spanish explorers traveled there two centuries later, the Fremont were gone. Well-established bands of Utes and, farther north, <strong>Shoshones</strong> held these lands. The fate of the Fremont has been the source of much debate, but no consensus has emerged.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the Colorado <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>, the Apishapa, <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong>, <strong>and Itskari</strong></a> peoples also had challenges maintaining their lifeways. Territorial contractions were part of their history as well, with fewer sites found through the AD 1300s and early 1400s, a period of frequent droughts. It is likely that more favorable conditions farther east drove the migrations. Both oral traditions and archaeological evidence connect these groups to the Pawnee and other Caddoan-speaking relatives. But despite their desire to reclaim their western territories once conditions improved, by the fifteenth century another foraging culture had moved into the high plains region: ancestors of the Apache.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The mountains and large portions of the Western Slope are the homeland of the Utes, but their connection to the foraging culture(s) of the Formative period is complicated by a divergence of views about that connection. Ute people today are adamant that their ancestors have always dwelled in the mountain and plateau country of Colorado and Utah. Thus, they maintain that they are the descendants of Archaic and Paleo-Indian groups in their traditional homelands. Many (but not all) archaeologists, on the other hand, interpret the evidence of artifacts, features, and linguistic patterns as indicative of a recent arrival of Ute and Shoshone ancestors in the Rocky Mountain region within the past 700–1000 years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, nearly fifty federally-recognized tribes claim historical-traditional ties to parts of Colorado. Many of these tribes appear to have little relationship to the Formative cultures described in this Encyclopedia. But at one time or another, their presence here is documented by oral traditions or by non-native explorers, trappers, traders, miners, and homesteaders who populated the state in recent centuries. Those tribes not related to the Formative period cultures came to Colorado following different paths, pushed and pulled by events occurring in sometimes-distant lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>More than 400 years ago, <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-%201590–1790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> were the first of the non-native groups to cross Colorado’s modern borders. For these tribes, the Spaniards’ arrival was a matter of great novelty, from the horses they rode to their metal armor and weapons, not to mention their odd physical appearance. More sinister was the visitors’ insistence that they abandon their religions in favor of Christianity. No less important was another Spanish import: new <a href="/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> against which the tribes had no immunity. Spanish domination of the local tribes mostly affected Pueblos but also some Apaches and <strong>Navajos</strong>. Spanish settlers needed the tribes for their resources and labor, forcibly obtained in their system of slavery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other tribes that the Spanish were unable to subdue engaged them in trade. By the 1620s, the Utes were among these trading partners. They acquired some horses in the early decades, and also sold some captive natives to Spanish slaveholders. More important, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 brought a huge number of horses into native hands, giving a major boost to the equestrian lifeways that developed in Colorado. Territorial ranges were expanded and modified, trading relationships were transformed, the size of social bands increased, and the volume of goods that could be moved from camps grew significantly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1700, as more horses were being moved northward—the Utes and Apaches being middlemen in this trade—guns were moving southward out of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> country of the Missouri River valley toward Colorado. Given the questionable quality of these muskets, horses were the more important commodity and had a deeper impact on native societies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spanish exploration of western Colorado</strong></a> was facilitated partly by Ute guides and partly by Spanish traders with prior experience in Ute territory. Most notable were the travels of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-maría-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in the 1760s and the Dominguez-Escalante expedition of 1776, who followed well-established paths that later became known as the <a href="/article/old-spanish-national-historic-trail"><strong>Old Spanish Trail</strong></a> system. Many of the place names in western Colorado originate in this period: the Dolores, <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas</strong></a>, and Los Pinos Rivers; the La Plata Mountains; <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta County</strong></a>; <strong>Canyon Pintado</strong>; and the Escalante archaeological site, to name a few. The Spanish era in Colorado ended with Mexican independence in 1821–22, leaving only a single site representing more than a transitory presence: a fort constructed north of La Veta Pass in 1819 to monitor American activities on the border with New Spain.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Beginning of the End, or a New Beginning?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Spanish era in the Southwest waned, the Missouri River fur trade expanded into the southern Rocky Mountains. As far as Colorado’s native tribes were concerned, the fur traders and trappers of French and American extraction were less threatening to their way of life than the Spaniards. The tribes readily participated in the fur trade, albeit <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> pelts were rarely on their list of goods to provide. They were frequent visitors to the <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> of the region, particularly to <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Old Fort</strong></a> near present-day La Junta. Ute attacks ended trading activities at <a href="/article/fort-uncompahgre"><strong>Fort Uncompahgre</strong></a> in 1844 and <a href="/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a> in 1854, while an influx of settlers focused on an agricultural life established towns in the San Luis Valley and southeastern Colorado’s Arkansas River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Attempted settlement of the San Luis Valley came first, a northward migration from newly independent Mexico encouraged by the system of <a href="/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican Land Grants</strong></a>. Apaches and Utes, unhappy about encroachment on their hunting grounds, raided new settlements and farmsteads, most of which failed to survive. But with the American victory in the Mexican-American War of 1846, southern Colorado became US territory and the government acted quickly to end the raiding. The “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty with the Utah</strong></a>” signed in 1849 at Abiquiú, New Mexico Territory, promised <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Indian annuities</strong></a> in return for an end to the raiding and allowed for the establishment of military posts in the Ute homeland. The US government wasted little time building posts at Fort Union, New Mexico, and in 1852, <a href="/article/fort-garland"><strong>Fort Massachusetts</strong></a> in Colorado’s San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few years later, in 1858, gold was discovered in Little Dry Creek in present-day Englewood, within Ute and <strong>Arapaho</strong> territory. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> was in full swing the following year, and confrontations with the flood of immigrant miners, merchants, and other settlers were inevitable, as were the losses of tribes’ homelands. The <strong>Plains Indian Wars</strong> expanded into Colorado, with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864 perpetrated on a reservation established for the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong> only three years before, followed by a series of clashes around stage stations and homesteads. Final Colorado battles occurred at <a href="/article/beecher-island-battleground"><strong>Beecher Island</strong></a> (September 17–19, 1868) and <a href="/article/battle-summit-springs"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> (July 11, 1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1870 the plains of Colorado could no longer be called home by any tribe. All had been removed to reservations or federal trust lands in adjoining states. Ute and Shoshone lands in the mountains and Western Slope were likewise being whittled back during the 1860s and 1870s. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> reducing tribal lands contained similar provisions: free passage through tribal territories, allowance for the establishment of military posts and <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, return of stolen property or goods, permission for the tribes to continue hunting, encouragement of the tribes to settle down as farmers, and the promise of Indian annuities to cover shortfalls of critical resources.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government failed miserably at keeping their end of such bargains for a variety of reasons, including the misguided actions of Indian agents charged with meeting treaty terms. For the Utes, the most infamous agent was <a href="/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathanial Meeker</strong></a> at the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservation"><strong>Northern Utes</strong></a> at the agency were so dismayed—both by government failure to provide promised rations and Meeker’s demands and decisions—that the 1879 <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> resulted from their desperation and starvation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The consequences were swift in coming. Calls that “the Utes must go” culminated with the Northern Utes’ removal to Utah within two years. Reservation life was miserable, and there are clear signs that some Utes occasionally left the misery behind to revisit traditional hunting grounds in western Colorado. Recent research has found that such off-reservation activities took place into the early twentieth century. Today, only the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> tribes have reservations within Colorado. For all the other tribes in our history, Colorado remains a key part of their vibrant social memories.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Recent decades have seen a resurgence of Native American efforts to reclaim their cultural identities via the revitalization of crafts, native languages, oral traditions, ceremonies, and, literally, by reclaiming the remains of their ancestors. Passage of the federal Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in 1990 was matched the same year by the approval of an unmarked graves amendment to Colorado’s 1973 antiquities law. But Colorado’s native peoples do not dwell in the past. “We’re still here” is a common refrain and, like all Americans, they strive for a better future.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 1874, two men with the Wheeler Survey ascended <strong>Blanca Peak</strong> east of the San Luis Valley. Upon reaching the 14,345-foot summit, Wheeler’s men were surprised to find out they were not the first people to reach the crest. Low stone walls surrounding a depression had been built long before they arrived. We still don’t know who built those walls, or why. To the Navajo, Blanca Peak is their Sacred Mountain of the East, one of the natural features defining their spiritual world. The constructions on its crest may be from pilgrimages made by Navajo ancestors or by other mountaineers for a different purpose. But it is emblematic of the fact that there are few places in Colorado that our native tribes did not visit at one time or another, leaving physical traces of their presence from the subtle to the spectacular. Articles in the Origins section of the <em>Encyclopedia</em> tell these stories across at least 13,000 years of human history in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history" hreflang="en">history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancient-colorado" hreflang="en">ancient colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindian" hreflang="en">paleoindian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleo-indian" hreflang="en">paleo-indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anthropology" hreflang="en">anthropology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-period" hreflang="en">Formative Period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaic-period" hreflang="en">archaic period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone" hreflang="en">shoshone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spanish-exploration" hreflang="en">spanish exploration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Archaic Continuity in the Colorado Rockies: The Mountain Tradition,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William M. Bueler, <em>Roof of the Rockies: A History of Mountaineering in Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> “<a href="https://pafikotagorontalo.org/">Foundation of the Sacred Mountains</a>,” Wilson Aronilth, Jr., accessed January 9, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James H. Gunnerson and Dolores A. Gunnerson, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co2.Par.89322.File.dat/gunnerson_ethn.pdf"><em>Ethnohistory of the High Plains</em></a>, Cultural Resource Series 26 (Denver, CO: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/1550.pdf">Colorado Tribal Contacts</a>,” updated October 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://exhibits.historycolorado.org/ute-tribal-paths">The Utes Must Go</a>” (exhibit).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven R. Holen and Kathleen Holen, “The Mammoth Steppe Hypothesis: The Middle Wisconsin (Oxygen Isotope Stage 3) Peopling of North America,” in <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em>, eds. Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James D. Keyser, <em>Art of the Warriors: Rock Art of the American Plains</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Björn Kurtén and Elaine Anderson, <em>Pleistocene Mammals of North America</em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jason M. LaBelle and Christopher M. Johnston, eds., “The Lithic Caches of Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 81 (Summer/Fall 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lawrence L. Loendorf, <em>Thunder and Herds: Rock Art of the High Plains</em> (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David B. Madsen and David Rhode, eds., <em>Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ann L. Magennis, Michael D. Metcalf, and Kelly J. Pool, “Early Archaic Human Burials from the Colorado Rocky Mountains: Yarmony and the Red Army Rock Shelter,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Meltzer, “Pleistocene Overkill and North American Mammalian Extinctions,” <em>Annual Review of Anthropology</em> 44 (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cynthia Mosch and Patty Jo Watson, “The Ancient Explorer of Hourglass Cave,” <em>Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews</em> 5, no. 4 (1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark P. Muniz, “Exploring Technological Organization and Burial Practices at the Paleoindian Gordon Creek Site (5LR99), Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 49 (August 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma State University Library, “<a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers">Treaty with the Utah, 1849</a>,” ed. Charles J. Kappler, n.d..</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Swedlund and Duane Anderson, “Gordon Creek Woman Meets Kennewick Man: New Interpretations and Protocols Regarding the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 64 (October 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joe Ben Wheat, <em>The Olsen-Chubbuck Site: A Paleo-Indian Bison Kill</em>, Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 26 (Washington, DC: 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gordon R. Willey and Phillip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. Raymond Wood, ed., <em>Archaeology on the Great Plains</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Jan 2017 18:41:25 +0000 yongli 2188 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Barger Gulch Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Barger Gulch Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:28:06-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:28" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site" data-a2a-title="Barger Gulch Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbarger-gulch-site&amp;title=Barger%20Gulch%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>There are few places in western North America richer in <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> archaeology than <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a>, the valley that forms the headwaters of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> in <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand County</strong></a>. Within Middle Park, the Barger Gulch area preserves an impressive amount of evidence from early humans, with sites dating from roughly 12,900 to 10,000 years ago. Barger Gulch is a small, spring-fed tributary of the Colorado River, flowing south to north, draining an area east of Junction Butte, and joining the Colorado River about four miles east of <strong>Kremmling</strong>. In all, eleven Paleo-Indian localities have been documented along this drainage. Artifacts in the Barger Gulch area span the Paleo-Indian period with one exception— no <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> archaeology has yet been found in Middle Park, though <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a>, the period that follows Clovis, is abundant.</p> <h2>Natural History</h2> <p>If you were to visit the Barger Gulch area today, you would find it to be a nondescript and fairly uninviting area. The high, flat surface that begins on the margins of the Colorado River Valley and slowly slopes upward to the south is covered with a sea of <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> and grass with an occasional isolated <a href="/article/conifers"><strong>juniper or Douglas fir</strong></a> on north-facing slopes. It is one of the driest parts of Middle Park. Barger Gulch has a modest flow and has cut deeply through Miocene Troublesome Formation bedrock. As inhospitable as the place appears today, the archaeology suggests that it was a good place to live more than 10,000 years ago because people in that period returned to the area time and again. One of the attractions comes straight from the bedrock—Troublesome Formation chert, used to make stone tools.</p> <p>During the Miocene, approximately 20 to 5 million years ago, the valley of Middle Park was filling with sediments, and one major source of sedimentation was volcanism. Some of the ashy sediments that filled the basin later were transformed into a fine-grained silicate rock called chert, ideal for the manufacture of stone tools. Large amounts of Troublesome Formation chert, also known as Kremmling Chert, can be found in the Barger Gulch area, and all of the nearby archaeological localities are dominated by this material. Chert was one clear attraction.</p> <h2>Ancient Camp</h2> <p>The most intensively studied part of the Barger Gulch site is called Locality B, a large Folsom campsite dating to around 12,760 years ago. Locality B is remarkable for its large numbers of chipped stone artifacts, with an assemblage totaling more than 75,000 pieces. The types of nonlocal lithic raw materials recovered show that people moved into Barger Gulch from areas east and west of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <p>Paleo-Indian peoples are renowned for the distances they moved in their seasonal rounds, but occasionally, and likely seasonally, they settled down in one spot for an extended duration of time. Barger Gulch is one of a handful of sites that show this less mobile side of early Paleo-Indian life. In the winter, large mammals are snowed out of high-elevation regions, and their density in winter grazing areas in valley bottoms increases dramatically. Current evidence suggests that the Barger Gulch site represents one or multiple cold-season occupations by Folsom hunter-gatherers, who probably camped in the valley bottom for several weeks to take advantage of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds wintering in Middle Park. During the winter, Folsom hunter-gatherers camping in the Barger Gulch area would have had easy access to water, stone, wood, and large game.</p> <h2>Research Findings</h2> <p>Because the Barger Gulch site has a relatively high density of artifacts and well-preserved spatial patterning, archaeologists have used it to examine several poorly studied aspects of human lifeways at the end of the last Ice Age in the Rocky Mountains. The site preserves at least four hearth features, three of which sat within households. This allows for studies of the differences in the use of interior and exterior space. For example, it was found that early-stage flintknapping—the removal of large flakes from the outer portions of chert nodules—mostly took place in exterior spaces. Later-stage knapping, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluting of projectile points</strong></a> and resharpening of tools, occurred inside. There is also evidence for artifacts produced by novice flintknappers at the site, most likely children.</p> <p>The Barger Gulch site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/surovell-todd" hreflang="und">Surovell, Todd A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-folsom-sites" hreflang="en">colorado folsom sites</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-county" hreflang="en">Grand County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/troublesome-formation" hreflang="en">Troublesome formation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Folsom Hearth-Centered Use of Space at Barger Gulch, Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2007).</p> <p>Nicole M. Waguespack and Todd A. Surovell, “A Simple Method for Identifying Households Using Lithic Assemblages: A Case Study From a Folsom Campsite in Middle Park, Colorado,” in <em>Lithics in the West: Using Lithic Analysis to Solve Archaeological Problems in Western North America</em>, ed. Douglas H. MacDonald, William Andrefsky Jr., and Pei-Lia Yu (Missoula: University of Montana Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, “<a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">Colorado Stratigraphy: Main Strat Chart</a>,” updated October 30, 2018.</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell, <em>Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology</em>: <em>Cases From Paleoindian Archaeology</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:28:06 +0000 yongli 3122 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Clovis http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2820--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2820.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/PitbladoFig-1-Clovis-Folsom-pts_0.jpg?itok=KcsTjws6" width="1000" height="1194" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/clovis-and-folsom-projectile-points" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clovis and Folsom projectile points</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Clovis (left) and Folsom (right) fluted projectile points from the Dent and Lindenmeier sites, northern Colorado Plains.&nbsp; The “flute” on each is the large flake scar that begins at the bottom of the spear point and travels up toward the tip.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2821--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2821.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pitblado-Fig-3-CO-Clovis-FINAL_0.jpg?itok=Kt-vJf9A" width="1000" height="833" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado-clovis-site-locations" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado Clovis site locations</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map includes Clovis isolated finds and lithic scatters as coded in the the Colorado COMPASS prehistoric site database, together with Colorado Clovis sites mentioned by name in the text but not entered into COMPASS.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-06T13:59:20-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 6, 2017 - 13:59" class="datetime">Wed, 12/06/2017 - 13:59</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis" data-a2a-title="Clovis"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fclovis&amp;title=Clovis"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The term <em>Clovis</em> refers to the earliest widespread archaeological culture to have occupied North and Central America, ca. 13,250–12,800 years ago. Since the discovery of the first Clovis artifacts in the 1930s, debate has raged over such fundamental issues as whether people who left behind Clovis materials were, in fact, the first Americans; where in the Old World Clovis ancestors originated; and whether Clovis people disproportionately killed megafauna (such as mammoths and mastodons) and avoided smaller game. From the time the term <em>Clovis</em> emerged to describe first Americans, Colorado’s Clovis record has played a central role in these discussions.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>In 1932 <strong>Regis College</strong> geology professor Father Conrad Bilgery began excavating the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> located just south of <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley">Greeley</a>,</strong> recovering numerous mammoth bones and a large fluted projectile point. The following year, Colorado Museum of Natural History (today’s <a href="/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature &amp; Science</strong></a>) paleontology curator Jesse Figgins agreed to continue Bilgery’s work. About five years before, Figgins had overseen paradigm-shifting field research at the ancient <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> site in northeastern New Mexico, where he discovered small, thin, <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a> amidst the bones of now extinct giant <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. This work resolved a debate that had flummoxed archaeologists and the public since the mid-1800s: whether humans had lived in the Americas during the Ice Age. They clearly had, and they hunted mammals.</p> <p>The Dent spearpoints reminded Figgins of Folsom projectiles writ large. He therefore referred to them as “Folsomoid” and surmised that they were simply hefty Folsom points, engineered to better penetrate thick-skinned mammoths. This interpretation changed some years later, however, after excavations at the Blackwater Draw site in east-central New Mexico exposed mammoth bones and Dent-like spearpoints below Ice Age bison bones and Folsom points. This indicated that the more robust fluted points were older than finely flaked Folsom and should be distinguished as such with distinct terminology. Because Blackwater Draw is located near the town of Clovis, New Mexico, an archaeological culture by that name—long thought to be North America’s oldest—was born.</p> <p>Had Figgins recovered evidence for the greater antiquity of the large spearpoints observed at Dent, he would doubtless have named the new artifact type accordingly, and what have been known for eight decades as Clovis points would have been named for their Colorado site instead. But Clovis it was, and the debates raged on. As of this writing, most archaeologists agree that humans occupied at least parts of the Americas no less than a thousand years or so before Clovis time; Clovis ancestors occupied northeast Asia prior to immigrating to the New World; Clovis technology developed in the New World (rather than having been transported from the Old World); and Clovis people ate more than just mammoths.</p> <h2>Clovis Tool Kit</h2> <p>Although the distinctive Clovis projectile point is the most commonly recovered and best-known component of the Clovis tool kit, Clovis hunter-gatherers manufactured a wide variety of implements. These include other chipped stone artifacts, such as massive bifaces and other more specialized stone tools (e.g., scrapers, blades and blade cores, perforators, and gravers). Clovis sites have also yielded occasional bone and ivory cylindrical rods—often interpreted as the parts of composite spear-throwing devices, or atlatls, to which Clovis hunters affixed Clovis points—and in one case, an ivory shaft straightener.</p> <p>Although it is virtually impossible not to appreciate the functionality and sheer beauty of the Clovis tools, it is crucial to keep in mind that after 13,000 years of exposure to the ravages of geologic and geochemical processes, the vast majority of objects they made have disintegrated. All known hunter-gatherers manufacture a wide array of perishable items (e.g., clothing, blankets, and baskets), but the more time passes, the less likely such materials will survive.</p> <p>The disproportionate preservation of material culture has also prompted many archaeologists to interpret Clovis people as specialized big-game hunters. Today we find almost exclusively stone, bone, and ivory hunting tools dating to Clovis time; therefore, it follows that Clovis people must have emphasized hunting at the expense of other pursuits. That is not necessarily or even likely true, although this perspective persists in some archaeological literature and many museum exhibits.</p> <h2>Clovis Sites</h2> <p>Clovis-era sites include kill sites, camps, caches, a human burial, and many isolated occurrences of Clovis projectile points. The sites occur across North America and as far south as parts of Central America, although it remains unclear whether the thousands of isolated projectile points recovered all date to precisely the same time frame; those found in the eastern United States may be a little younger than those found west of the Mississippi River. Archaeologists also debate where Clovis projectile point technology arose and whether the technology spread from north to south, east to west, or along some other trajectory.</p> <p>Unequivocal Clovis kill sites occur principally in the western United States, though a few occur elsewhere. Archaeologists identify Clovis kills by an indisputable association between Clovis projectile points and the bones of now extinct megafauna, principally mammoths and mastodons. Blackwater Draw and the Dent site are examples of only fourteen or so widely accepted Clovis kill localities in North America. Campsites are even rarer than kill sites and are identified by a wider array of artifact types and more diverse subsistence remains than single-species kills.</p> <p>Like kill sites, caches occur more frequently in western North America than elsewhere. They consist of intentionally buried collections of Clovis bifaces, projectile points, blades, flakes, and other artifacts. Roughly two dozen caches have been documented in the United States—four of them in Colorado, including the well-known <strong>Drake Cache</strong>. Drake included thirteen complete Clovis projectile points made of exquisite stone from the Alibates chert quarries in the Texas Panhandle. Archaeologists consider the Anzick site in Montana to be a cache as well because it yielded eighty-six Clovis artifacts. However, that cache, unlike the others, accompanied the burial of a one- to two-year-old child with a genome similar to that of ancient Siberians and fifty-two contemporary Native American populations.</p> <h2>Clovis in Colorado</h2> <p>Colorado is physically and historically at the heart of Clovis archaeology. The Dent mammoth kill was the first professionally excavated Clovis site, which is located at roughly the geographic center of all widely known North American Clovis kills, camps, and caches. As noted, four of the twenty-three published Clovis caches on the continent—17 percent—are located within Colorado’s borders. Although the density of isolated occurrences of Clovis points and Clovis points accompanied by scatters of chipped stone debitage (lithic scatters, or when artifact diversity is high, open camps) is lower in Colorado than in some regions, the state’s site database shows that nearly two dozen such localities have been documented to date.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pitblado-bonnie" hreflang="und">Pitblado, Bonnie</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fluted-points" hreflang="en">fluted points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David G. Anderson, D. Shane Miller, Stephen J. Yerka, J. Christopher Gillam, Erik N. Johanson, Derek T. Anderson, Albert C. Goodyear, and Ashley M. Smallwood, “PIDBA (Paleoindian Database of the Americas) 2010: Current Status and Findings,” <em>Archaeology of Eastern North America</em> 38 (2010).</p> <p>Bruce B. Huckell and J. David Kilby, <em>Clovis Caches: Recent Discoveries and New Research</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “How Many Elephant Kills Are 14? Clovis Mammoth and Mastodon Kills in Context,” <em>Quaternary International</em> 191 (2008).</p> <p>Kenneth B. Tankersley, “The Concept of Clovis and the Peopling of North America,” in <em>The Settlement of the American Continents, A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography</em>, ed. C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2004).</p> <p>Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., “Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>Science</em> 315 (2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>James Adovasio, with Jake Page, <em>The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology’s Greatest Mystery</em> (New York: Modern Library Paperbacks, 2003).</p> <p>Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters, eds., <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> <p>Gary Haynes, <em>The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era</em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” University of Tennessee, Knoxville, last modified October 4, 2015.</p> <p>Ashley M. Smallwood and Thomas A. Jennings, eds., <em>Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding</em> (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 06 Dec 2017 20:59:20 +0000 yongli 2819 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ute Indian Museum http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-indian-museum <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Indian Museum</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2810--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2810.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-museum-dedication"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Ute-Indian-Museum-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=t1xuEc2S" width="1000" height="593" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-museum-dedication" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Museum Dedication</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The first version of the Ute Indian Museum opened to the public in 1956. History Colorado photo.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2811--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2811.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chief-ouray-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Ute-Indian-Museum-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=_p2Mt0y9" width="1000" height="971" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chief-ouray-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chief Ouray Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Several Ute tribal members pose at the monument honoring Chief Ouray. The obelisk was erected in 1926, on the grounds just north of the Museum. History Colorado photo.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-12-05T16:26:14-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 5, 2017 - 16:26" class="datetime">Tue, 12/05/2017 - 16:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-indian-museum" data-a2a-title="Ute Indian Museum"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fute-indian-museum&amp;title=Ute%20Indian%20Museum"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute people</strong></a>, or as they call themselves, <em>Nuche</em> (The People), are Colorado’s longest continuous residents. Their rich cultural heritage and history is on display at the Ute Indian Museum. Nestled in the heart of traditional Uncompahgre Ute territory in <strong>Montrose</strong>, the Ute Indian Museum is <strong>History Colorado</strong>’s only facility in western Colorado. It is also a State Historic Monument and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Ute Indian Museum occupies a little less than nine acres, where the Ute <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Chief Ouray</strong></a> and his wife, <a href="/article/chipeta"><strong>Chipeta</strong></a>, lived.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Long before white immigrants arrived, Colorado’s mountains and canyon lands belonged to the Utes. The Ute Nation was transformed when the horse became an integral part of its culture in the seventeenth century. Today there are three Ute tribes: the <strong>Southern Utes </strong>and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Utes</strong></a> in southern Colorado and the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservatio"><strong>Ute Indian Tribe</strong></a> of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ute culture is resourceful and creative, using local plants and animals in sustainable and respectful ways. For hundreds of years Utes thrived in Colorado, living in mountains during the summer and moving to river valleys in the winter. This changed when they encountered a European migration that overtook and displaced them.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1849, a year after Mexico’s defeat in the Mexican-American War, the first official <strong>treaty </strong>between the Utes and the United States was negotiated at Abiquiú, New Mexico. The Calhoun Treaty, as it was known, resulted in the establishment of an <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agency</strong></a> at Taos, New Mexico. In the decades that followed, a series of treaties and agreements restricted the Utes to increasingly smaller tracts of land until the current reservations were established in the late nineteenth century. The reduction of Ute territory led to multiple violent incidents, such as the <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879 and the <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek Massacre</strong></a> of 1885.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Museum</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The landscape around the Ute Indian Museum has been heavily modified from its original native state. This process began in 1875, when the federal government gave Ouray and Chipeta about 500 acres as a farm and ranch. After Chipeta’s death in 1924, the transformation of a small portion of their farm into the museum grounds began with the construction of Chipeta’s crypt. Then, in 1926 the obelisk commemorating Chief Ouray was erected, and the gravesite of Chief John McCook (Chipeta’s brother) followed in 1937.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The museum opened in 1956 and expanded in the early 1960s to include additional exhibit space and a terrace. Below the road to the museum, the <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Dominguez-Escalante Expedition</strong></a> monument was built as part of the bicentennial celebration in 1976. To the north of this monument, the native gardens and walkway were built in 1988–90. The walkway extends northeast on an elevated boardwalk through wetlands to the southwest bank of the <strong>Uncompahgre River</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A newly expanded museum was built in 2017. With the collaboration of the three Ute tribes, traditional stories and oral histories are now tightly woven into the permanent exhibit space. Throughout the exhibits, visitors journey to iconic places across Colorado to learn the story of Ute life, history, and culture. Told in the voices of tribal members, the exhibits include contemporary views of Ute life, including cultural survival, political self-determination, economic opportunity, and the celebration of the <strong>Bear Dance</strong>. There are approximately 200 artifacts on exhibit, including a headdress from <a href="/article/buckskin-charley"><strong>Buckskin Charley</strong></a> (Sapiah), a velvet dress belonging to Chipeta, a robe that belonged to <strong>Ignacio</strong>, and one of Ouray’s shirts. The museum also includes a changing gallery, a gift shop, a patio with stunning views, shady picnic areas, and <a href="/article/tipi-0"><strong>tipis</strong></a>.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/brafford-cj" hreflang="und">Brafford, C.J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/museums-colorado" hreflang="en">museums in Colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montrose" hreflang="en">Montrose</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-colorado" hreflang="en">History Colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-historical-society" hreflang="en">Colorado Historical Society</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-utes" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Utes</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/northern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">northern ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chipeta" hreflang="en">Chipeta</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “An Inventory and Test Excavation at the Ute Indian Museum, Montrose County, Colorado,” unpublished technical report (Denver: Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, History Colorado, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Janice Colorow, ed., <em>Ute Mountain Ute Government</em> (Towaoc, CO: Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Facilities Services Division, “Ute Indian Museum, Facility and Program Plan, FY-08-09,” unpublished manuscript (Denver: Office of Facilities Management, History Colorado, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>LeRoy R. Hafen, “Historical Summary of the Ute Indians and the San Juan Mining Region,” <em>Ute Indians</em>, Vol. 2: <em>American Indian Ethnohistory: California and Great Basin-Plateau Indians</em>, comp. and ed. David Agee Horr (New York: Garland, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ernie Rose, <em>Utahs of the Rocky Mountains, 1833–1935</em> (Montrose, CO: Montrose Daily Press, 1968).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.visitmontrose.com/171/museums/">Montrose Museums</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/story/community-museums/2016/02/24/ute-indian-museum">Ute Indian Museum</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 05 Dec 2017 23:26:14 +0000 yongli 2808 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Chaco Canyon http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3759--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3759.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_0.jpg?itok=VdTFEA0D" width="1000" height="667" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pueblo Bonito was planned and constructed in stages between AD 850 to AD 1150 by ancestral Puebloan peoples. This&nbsp;was the center of the Chacoan world.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3760--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3760.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chetro-ketl"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Chaco_Canyon_20211122_02_0.jpg?itok=vIkvS010" width="1090" height="448" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chetro-ketl" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chetro Ketl</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chetro Ketl is the second largest Chacoan great house. It covers more than 3 acres, and contains a great kiva and elevated kivas.&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1671--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1671.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fig.-2-Chaco-roads_0.jpg?itok=hasHyQWO" width="1000" height="1009" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/chaco-roads-and-great-houses" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Chaco Roads and Great Houses</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Chaco’s region: prehistoric roads and great houses.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1673--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1673.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo1%5B2%5D_0.jpg?itok=ld6L2yv8" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/great-kiva-lowry-pueblo-montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Kiva at Lowry Pueblo, Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Great Kiva, Lowry Pueblo, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T13:02:36-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 13:02" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 13:02</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaco-canyon" data-a2a-title="Chaco Canyon"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fchaco-canyon&amp;title=Chaco%20Canyon"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the eleventh century, Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico was the center of a Native American cultural region about the size of the state of Indiana. It encompassed most of southwestern Colorado, from <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> on the east to <strong>Far View House</strong> at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong> on the west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon was made a National Park and a World Heritage Site because of its remarkable <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a>: monumental stone masonry buildings much larger and far more formal than any other architecture in the ancient Southwest. At its height, about AD 1100, Chaco was the largest and most complex <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> site.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The heart of Chaco Canyon is a seven and one-half-mile long stretch with the intermittent Chaco Wash running from east-southeast to west-northwest toward the San Juan River. The north side of the canyon has towering sandstone cliffs topped by wide, slickrock terraces; the south side is less dramatic. The largest great houses were concentrated in a “downtown” zone a little more than a mile wide at the center of Chaco Canyon. The scale of Chaco’s world was even larger, however, extending over much of the Four Corners region, as far away as 155 miles from Chaco Canyon. Extrapolating from demographic data for the northern third of the Chaco region and from ranges of outlier community sizes, the Chaco region comprised perhaps 30,000 to 40,000 people, of whom only a few thousand at most resided in great houses. Chaco itself was a capital city, the seat of political power.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco Canyon’s environment was harsh. Summers are blisteringly hot and very dry, and winters are wretchedly cold. The growing season is short, and rainfall is uncertain. Water for basic domestic needs was—and remains—a concern. The canyon contained little wood for building or burning, and no outstanding local resources besides sandstone and petrified wood, which was useful for tools. Because the canyon was a poor place to farm, inhabitants imported much or most of their staple foods—maize, beans, and squash, as well as meat from large game animals—from better-watered areas around the edge of Chaco’s region. How and why did Chaco’s spectacular great houses flourish in this desert canyon, when well-watered valleys lay all but empty to the north and south, closer to mountains and forests? The answers to those questions must be sought outside the canyon itself, in the larger region of which Chaco was the center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The archaeology of Chaco Canyon centers on a dozen remarkable buildings called <em>great houses</em>. Great houses at Chaco began in the late ninth century AD as monumentally upscaled versions of regular domestic structures, unit pueblos—the small, single-family home or, more prosaically, “small sites.” Early great houses were unquestionably residences, and they continued to be used as residences, even if that basic function was obscured by the addition of warehouses and other non-domestic functions over the next three centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Chaco region there were scores of unit pueblos for every great house. An entire unit pueblo, compressed to its floor area, would fit in a large room at a great house. Unit pueblos and great houses constitute one of the clearest examples of stratified housing in archaeology, and a clear indication of a class society. In Mesoamerican terms, great houses were the palaces of noble families; unit pueblos were the farmsteads of commoners.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Great Houses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Shortly after AD 1000, great houses became monuments in addition to elite residences. The traditional curved plans of earlier great houses were replaced by precise, formal geometries. Great house plans are typically described by letters: “D”-shaped, “E”-shaped, and so forth. Vast blocks of storage rooms, disproportionate to the small numbers of great house residents, were added, as were monumental public and official spaces. Most of Chaco’s great houses were built along the north side of the canyon in little over a century, from AD 1020 to about AD 1125; but each great house has a unique construction history, and several started much earlier. Pueblo Bonito was one of the earliest great houses and is typical—perhaps archetypical—of Chaco Canyon great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito took almost three centuries (AD 850 to AD 1125) to build. Like other great houses, Pueblo Bonito was expensive and laborious to build; the labor-per-unit measure of floor area or roofed volume far exceeded that for unit pueblos, which were built and maintained by their resident families. Every stage of construction was monumental, meant to be seen and appreciated. Beginning about CE 1020, the architects of Pueblo Bonito started a series of six major additions, each of which was enormously larger than anything previously built in the Pueblo world. At the culmination, about CE 1125, almost 700 rooms, massed up to four and perhaps five stories tall, covered an area of about two acres. Along the front of the enclosed plaza, two dozen <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (round rooms with both domestic and ritual functions) were built above and below grade. Only a score of families actually lived in this huge building. They were important families who controlled, or at least had access to, vast blocks of storage and non-domestic rooms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Great houses served the dead as well as the living. The earliest part of Pueblo Bonito, the cluster of earliest rooms at the center of the building, became a mausoleum for elite burials. Two high-status middle-aged men—perhaps the building’s founders—were buried in AD 850 with great wealth in wooden crypts beneath the building’s floor. These honored dead defined one aspect of the great house’s monumentality. Later construction preserved the early core with its burials, enveloping the older masonry in better-built blocks of rooms. Many more elite deceased were later richly interred in the oldest parts of the building.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In contrast, burials at unit pueblos were typically in middens fronting the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a>, accompanied by a ceramic pot or two. Scores of unit pueblos and aggregates of such units—commoner homes—lined the south side of the canyon. These homes were identical to farmsteads throughout Chaco’s region and in regions beyond Chaco’s reach: single (extended) family homes, largely self-sufficient, clustered into scattered communities of a few dozen unit pueblos and with a central great kiva, with a total population of a few hundred people. That was the social scale of ancient settlements, before Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo Bonito was only one of a half-dozen major great houses at Chaco. There were many smaller great houses, mostly built on the north side of the canyon. Great houses were part of a large, complex settlement; in effect, a city (described below). “Downtown” Chaco as a built environment or cityscape encompassed many other elements, such as roads, mounds, great kivas, waterworks, and hundreds of unit pueblos on the south side of the canyon, each consisting of five or six rooms and a pit house.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Roads and Waterworks</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Chacoan roads were carefully engineered earthen features, typically long, straight, and about twenty-seven-feet wide. They linked Chaco Canyon to other Chacoan sites and to important natural features, extending outward like spokes on a wheel. Some led to distant great houses; others lead to important natural features. Roads are evident at two of Colorado’s two dozen Chacoan outliers: <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> and Far View House. An elaborate and extensive line-of-sight communication system, with signal fire stations atop high points, paralleled the road system, allowing information to pass to and from Chaco to the edges of its region relatively quickly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The north side of Chaco Canyon was lined with small-scale waterworks, capturing rare rainfall in bedrock reservoirs atop the cliffs and channeling it to small fields. These systems have been interpreted as subsistence infrastructure, but given the poor agricultural prospects and the clear monumentality of Chaco Canyon, it seems possible that water was an element of landscape architecture, irrigating gardens between great houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco Region</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Chaco’s roads and imported food suggest, its sphere of influence extended far beyond the confines of Chaco Canyon. It was the center of a large regional system of about 30,000 square miles, defined by about 150 smaller “outlier” great houses, road networks, and line-of-sight signaling systems.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Small outlier great houses used the same techniques and design principles as Chaco Canyon great houses, but the outliers were typically about one-twentieth the size of buildings such as Pueblo Bonito, as if a portion of those buildings had been cut away and transplanted over great distances. Lowry Pueblo is one of these outliers, located almost 125 miles from Chaco Canyon. Almost always, the great house sat amid (usually above) a scattered community of a score or more unit pueblos. Outlier great houses might represent direct imposition of Chacoan forms and presumably people, or they could represent local copies or emulations of Chacoan styles. In either case, great house residents were identified with Chaco.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>What was Chaco?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeological interpretations of Chaco Canyon range from a valley with a half-dozen farming villages (“pueblos”), to a ceremonial pilgrimage center, to the capital of a small city-state. The people of Chaco Canyon were ancestors of modern Pueblo Indian tribes, who today live in about forty traditional farming villages in New Mexico and Arizona. Pueblo Indian traditions reference Chaco and its history, as a place where various clans resided in the migrations that eventually led to Pueblos such as Hopi, Zuni, and Acoma (among others). Many archaeologists interpret Chaco as if its great houses were like modern Pueblos: egalitarian, communal, independent farming villages. Other archaeologists recognize that historic and modern Pueblos do not have a single regional center; each Pueblo is independent. While certainly a place and event in Pueblo history, Chaco was probably more than a cluster of farming villages—it was likely an episode of political centralization at odds with modern Pueblo ways of life; modern Pueblo societies developed partly in reaction to and rejection of Chaco.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/lekson-stephen-h" hreflang="und">Lekson, Stephen H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-colorado" hreflang="en">mesa verde colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Stephen H. Lekson, ed., <em>The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Chaco Meridian: One Thousand Years of Political and Religious Power in the Ancient Southwest</em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “Chaco Canyon and the US Southwest,” in <em>A World with States, Empires, and Networks: Cambridge History of the World</em>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed., ed. Craig Benjamin (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/escalante_pueblo.html">Escalante Pueblo</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kendrick Frazier, <em>People of Chaco: A Canyon and its Culture</em> (New York: W.W. Norton, 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>In Search of Chaco: New Approaches to an Archaeological Enigma</em> (Santa Fe: SAR Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/archaeological_sites/lowry_pueblo.html">Lowry Pueblo</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 19:02:36 +0000 yongli 1670 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Earth Lodge http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1494--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1494.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=CQhEGBM_" width="1000" height="580" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/drawings-hidatsa-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Drawings of Hidatsa Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cross-section (upper) and elevation (lower) drawings of an Hidatsa earth lodge, recorded by anthropologist Gilbert L. Wilson.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1495--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1495.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Earthlodge-Media-4_0.jpg?itok=RAEcri-h" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/modern-earth-lodge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Modern Earth Lodge</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Replica Mandan earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-23T16:33:19-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 16:33" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 16:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/earth-lodge" data-a2a-title="Earth Lodge"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fearth-lodge&amp;title=Earth%20Lodge"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>An earth lodge is a distinctive type of timber-frame house built from the early 1400s to the late 1800s by a dozen different Indigenous nations on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. These massive circular structures, often encompassing 1,500 square feet or more, featured four large support posts arranged around a central fireplace. The walls were formed by a ring of shorter posts and rafters were laid between the center posts and the wall posts. The resulting wooden shell or framework was then covered with successive layers of willow branches, a matting of prairie grass, and finally sod or earth. The entryway consisted of a projecting passage six to fifteen feet in length.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p> <p>The <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong></a> culture, which occupied northeast Colorado, western Nebraska, northern Kansas, and southeast Wyoming from 1100 to 1300 built early versions of these dwellings. However, the best-known earth lodges were built in the 1700s and 1800s by the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras, all of whom were <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>-hunting farmers living on the Missouri River. The first detailed description of an earth lodge was written in 1804 by Patrick Gass, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In the early 1830s, well-known artist Karl Bodmer made detailed drawings of Mandan earth lodges, including an interior scene that shows how it was used.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges such as those built by the Missouri River farmers have not been discovered in Colorado. However, cultural groups of the Central Plains Tradition, including the Upper Republican culture, built timber-frame houses that most archaeologists regard as precursors to historic-era earth lodges. While Central Plains lodges have not yet been documented in Colorado, Upper Republic groups regularly visited the state and may have lived in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> Valley for extended periods of time. The Buick Campsite, located near present-day Limon, features a temporary structure built by Upper Republican people. The Buick site, along with others such as the <a href="/article/donovan-archaeological-site"><strong>Donovan site</strong></a> located in northern <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, demonstrate repeated seasonal Upper Republican use of Colorado’s High Plains landscape.</p> <p>Like classic Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara earth lodges, Central Plains Tradition culture lodges featured four central support posts around a central fire place as well as an extended entryway. The walls of Central Plains lodges were made from clay, known as daub, plastered over a framework of small branches covered with grass. The roofs were also made from branches, grass, and daub. However, in contrast to historic-era earth lodges, Central Plains lodges were square or rectangular in plan, and most were about half as large.</p> <p>Classic earth lodges and Central Plains Tradition culture lodges share a number of similarities with the pithouses built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who lived in southwest Colorado. Like the Plains houses, Puebloan pithouses of the Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III periods were earth- or daub-covered timber-frame buildings. However, Puebloan houses were built in pits that were two to three feet deep, while earth lodges were mostly built on the surface or in shallow pits no more than one foot deep. Many lodges of the Central Plains tradition were built on the surface, although some were built in pits up to four feet deep. Some Puebloan pithouses also incorporated vertical rock slab foundations, which were not used in the construction of Plains houses.</p> <p>The people who built the classic earth lodges, as well as earlier Central Plains tradition culture lodges, were farmers who also hunted bison and other animals. Because they grew corn (maize), beans, squash, <a href="/article/sunflowers"><strong>sunflowers</strong></a>, and other crops, their houses were built close to river and stream floodplains, where cultivation was easier and groundwater was more abundant than on the nearby upland prairies. Because they lived in one location for most of the year, their lodges contained numerous underground storage pits, where they kept surplus food, tools, and other items.</p> <p>The cosmological principles and cultural values embodied in earth lodge architecture remain important to native peoples today. Earth lodges continue to be built on the Fort Berthold Reservation (Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation) in western North Dakota. In addition, the National Park Service built a replica earth lodge at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site near Stanton, North Dakota, and several replica lodges are located at Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park south of Mandan, North Dakota. The Dancing Leaf Earthlodge, a replica Central Plains tradition house, is located in Wellfleet, Nebraska, twenty miles south of North Platte.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/mitchell-mark-d" hreflang="und">Mitchell, Mark D. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/architecture" hreflang="en">architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-indians" hreflang="en">Plains Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/central-plains-tradition" hreflang="en">Central Plains tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/plains-village-tradition" hreflang="en">Plains Village tradition</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pawnee" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pawnee</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pawnee-nation" hreflang="en">Pawnee Nation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historical-archaeology" hreflang="en">historical archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/upper-republican-culture" hreflang="en">Upper Republican culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/itskari-culture" hreflang="en">Itskari culture</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin P. Gilmore, “Late Prehistoric Stage (A.D. 150–1540),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Platt River Basin</em>, ed. Kevin P. Gilmore, Marcia Tate, Mark L. Chenault, Bonnie Clark, Terri McBride, and Margaret Wood (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p> <p>James H. Gunnerson, <em>Archaeology of the High Plains</em>, Cultural Resource Series No. 19 (Lakewood, CO: Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper, “100° W Longitude: Exploring Cultural Dynamics at the Western Edge of the Central Plains,” <em>Central Plains Archaeology</em> 11, no. 1 (2009).</p> <p>Donna C. Roper and Elizabeth P. Pauls, <em>Plains Earthlodges</em> (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005).</p> <p>Laura L. Scheiber, “Intersecting Landscapes in Northeastern Colorado,” in <em>Archaeological Landscapes on the High Plains</em>, ed. Laura L. Scheiber and Bonnie Clark (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008).</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, “Plains Village Tradition,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 13: <em>Plains</em>, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>Gilbert L. Wilson, <em>The Hidatsa Earthlodge</em>, ed. Bella Weitzner (New York: The American Museum of Natural History, 1934).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1997).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/knri/index.htm">Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, North Dakota</a>,” updated December 16, 2015.</p> <p>New World Encyclopedia, “<a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Earth_lodge">Earth Lodge</a>,” updated July 22, 2014.</p> <p>North Dakota State University, “<a href="http://onaslant.ndsu.edu/">On-A-Slant Virtual Village</a>.”</p> <p>Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 22:33:19 +0000 yongli 1493 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Culturally Modified Trees http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/culturally-modified-trees <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Culturally Modified Trees</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1491--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1491.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/large-scar-peeled-cmt"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Title%201%20Example%20of%20a%20large%20scar%20on%20a%20peeled%20CMT_0_0.jpg?itok=7z8Dl6jN" width="1024" height="1536" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/large-scar-peeled-cmt" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Large Scar on Peeled CMT </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This ponderosa pine tree was likely peeled in the 1800s to obtain the inner bark, and is located at Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve in Saguache County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1492--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1492.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/delimbed-pinon-pine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Image20-20CMT1-%28002%29_0.jpg?itok=F_DdNCu1" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/delimbed-pinon-pine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Delimbed Piñon Pine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This CMT is located at a historic campsite along the Old Spanish National Historic Trail (OSNHT) in the San Luis Valley, Colorado; the lower branches were removed with an ax to open the area for livestock and/or increase line-of-sight.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-23T13:38:10-06:00" title="Thursday, June 23, 2016 - 13:38" class="datetime">Thu, 06/23/2016 - 13:38</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/culturally-modified-trees" data-a2a-title="Culturally Modified Trees"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fculturally-modified-trees&amp;title=Culturally%20Modified%20Trees"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Culturally Modified Trees (or CMTs) are trees that exhibit peels, ax cuts, delimbing, wood removal, and other cultural modifications. Numerous CMTs are found in the foothills and mountains of Colorado. Research has shown that these trees are artifacts reflecting cultural utilization of trees by Native Americans and other people from the seventeenth century through the early twentieth century.</p> <p>Tree bark and bark-related substances are known to have been used for a variety of functions by Native Americans and other early historic peoples. The outer bark of trees was used to construct trays, baskets, and cradleboards, as well as roofs and walls of structures. Resin and pitch obtained from areas of a tree where the bark was peeled were used as adhesives and waterproofing agents for baskets and other objects. Wooden slabs pried from peeled areas on trees were used to construct saddle frames, cradleboards, and wooden tools. The inner bark, pitch, and sap were utilized medicinally as a poultice or drink for many types of disorders. The inner bark was also used by Native Americans as a delicacy or sweet food and as an emergency food in circumstances of starvation.</p> <h2>Types and Characteristics of CMTs</h2> <p>Types of scientifically recognized CMTs include witness/survey marker, delimbed, fence line, claim marker, trail marker/blazed, and peeled trees. These CMTs exhibit characteristics that differ from natural scarring by animals such as porcupine or bear, or scars created by lightning or ground fires.</p> <p>Witness/survey marker trees were modified to delineate geographical locations. They are often associated with rock cairns (stacked stones) and metal sign-markers. Trees that were delimbed usually exhibit ax-cut limbs and were often located along trails or roads to enlarge a travel corridor or create open spaces for livestock. Fence-line trees were often peeled vertically to enable attachment of metal fencing. Claim marker trees usually exhibit a peeled area or shelf cut into a tree to place mining claim information or signs. Trail marker / blazed trees were modified with an ax or other sharp tool to delineate trails, roads, and other significant locations or objects along travel corridors. Peeled trees exhibit various-sized scars where bark was removed from the trunk of a tree.</p> <p>Species of CMTs found in Colorado include <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a>, ponderosa <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conifers"><strong>pine</strong></a>, Engelmann spruce, piñon pine, limber pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, Rocky Mountain juniper, and bristlecone pine. CMTs are found at elevations from approximately 6,000 to 11,700 feet in Colorado. CMTs are often found along trails, travel corridors, mountain passes, within or near campsites, and in the vicinity of water sources such as springs, streams, and rivers.</p> <p>CMTs that were peeled to obtain inner bark or other bark or tree substances are the most common type documented in Colorado. Although they can vary in size and shape, peeled CMTs usually exhibit an oval or rectangular-shaped scar with one or more points at the upper end where the bark was removed from the tree trunk. The lower end of the peeled area is usually located one to three feet above the ground and often exhibits a horizontal cut line with visible ax cut marks.</p> <p>The peeled areas range from one-half inch to five feet in width. The lengths of the scars range from four inches to nine feet. The average-sized peeled area is approximately seventeen inches wide and four feet long. A study replicating the bark peeling process indicates that approximately one pound of inner bark would have been available from a peel this size. Nutritional analysis of inner bark from pine indicates that one pound contains approximately 600 calories, calcium, carbohydrates, protein, iron, Vitamin C, magnesium, and zinc.</p> <p>Based on interviews with Native Americans in the 1950s, the bark-peeling process took place as follows: a tree was selected for peeling, and a small sample of outer and inner bark were removed from the tree and tested. If determined acceptable, a horizontal cut was made across the tree trunk with an ax or other sharp tool. A debarking stick (sharpened on the end like a chisel) was utilized to pry the outer bark from the tree trunk. The inner bark was then removed from the outer bark slabs with a scraper and the inner bark was eaten or saved for later use. Other bark/tree substances—such as pitch, sap, and wooden slabs—were also removed, if desired.</p> <h2>Tree Peelers</h2> <p>Historical evidence and ethnographic studies (descriptions of human cultures) suggest that Native Americans likely created most of the existing peeled CMTs in Colorado from the late 1600s to the early 1900s. Groups in Colorado that were known to have used bark and bark-related substances include the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong>,</a> <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, and various <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloan</strong></a> peoples. Other groups that may have created CMTs in Colorado include early Hispano and white explorers, traders, trappers, and settlers.</p> <p>CMTs can be dated through dendrochronological analysis (<a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dating</strong></a>). Tree-ring dating is important because it enables archaeologists to determine the actual year that a tree was modified, and in some cases, even the season. This information provides archaeologists with a very detailed picture of how a specific geographical area was used through time during the early historic time period. It can also suggest which groups of people may have created the CMTs and help determine why the trees were used.</p> <h2>Current Status and Significance of CMTs in Colorado</h2> <p>Culturally modified trees have been recorded as archaeological resources in Colorado for over thirty-five years but prior to that, many of these trees had been overlooked as significant cultural resources. Some were cut down during development, timber harvesting, or road-building projects. Other CMTs have been destroyed or damaged by forest fires, insects, or disease. Additional CMTs have reached their maximum lifespan of 400-600 years and have begun to die of natural causes.</p> <p>The trees are important cultural resources to help understand past lifeways, especially regarding how Native Americans adapted and survived during the recent historic past in Colorado. Archaeologists and land managers are studying CMTS and consulting with Native Americans to learn more about them and determine how to protect and manage these unique cultural resources. In 2000 a group of over seventy-two ponderosa pine CMTs (<a href="/article/indian-grove"><strong>Indian Grove</strong></a>), located at <a href="/article/great-sand-dunes-national-park-and-preserve"><strong>Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve</strong></a>, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Many additional CMTs have been documented, dated, interpreted to the public, protected, and preserved.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/martorano-marilyn" hreflang="und">Martorano, Marilyn A. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/culturally-modified-tree" hreflang="en">Culturally Modified Tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cmt" hreflang="en">CMT</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/peeled-tree" hreflang="en">peeled tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tree-ring-dating" hreflang="en">tree-ring dating</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Marilyn A. Martorano, “Culturally Peeled Trees and Ute Indians in Colorado,” in <em>Archaeology of the Eastern Ute: A Symposium</em>, ed. Paul R. Nickens, Occasional Papers 1 (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1988).</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p>Marilyn A. Martorano, “Scarred Ponderosa Pine Trees Reflecting Cultural Utilization of Bark” (master’s thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 1981).</p> <p>Thain White, “Scarred Trees in Western Montana,” <em>Montana State University Anthropology and Sociology Papers</em> 17 (1954).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Arnoud H. Styrd, <a href="https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/mr/mr091.htm"><em>Culturally Modified Trees of British Columbia</em>: <em>A Handbook for the Identification and Recording of Culturally Modified Trees</em></a> (Victoria: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1998).</p> <p>Thomas W. Swetnam, “Peeled Ponderosa Pine Trees: A Record of Inner Bark Utilization by Native Americans,” <em>Journal of Ethnobiology</em> 4, no. 2 (December 1984).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 23 Jun 2016 19:38:10 +0000 yongli 1489 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1354--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1354.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_Bonito_Aerial%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=NVZtimPq" width="912" height="684" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of Pueblo Bonito, one of the most distinctive great houses in Chaco Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T14:21:06-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 14:21" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 14:21</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region" data-a2a-title="Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region&amp;title=Ancestral%20Puebloans%20of%20the%20Four%20Corners%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Formerly labeled Anasazi, the Ancestral Puebloan culture is the most widely known of the ancient cultures of Colorado. The people who built the <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great houses</strong></a> of <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> were subsistence farmers of corn, beans, and squash. The structures of this culture date to between ca. 350 BC and AD 1300 and are found throughout southwestern Colorado and other adjacent states of the Four Corners region. The great southward migration from this region by AD 1300 marks the end of the Ancestral Puebloan occupation in southwestern Colorado. The sites and histories of this ancestral culture are still valued today in song and prayer by the Pueblo peoples now residing in New Mexico and Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> refers to both the ancient cultural tradition and the peoples once found in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest. It is one of three major cultural traditions defined by archaeologists in the four southwestern states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah). The other two traditions are the Hohokam and Mogollon, neither of which extends into Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Archaeology and Terminology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early investigators such as <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Alfred V. Kidder referred to what we now call the Ancestral Pueblo tradition as the <em>Anasazi</em>. Although many early researchers drew inspiration from the historic Pueblos in their interpretations of the architecture and practices of the Ancestral Pueblo, they did not always make a clear link between this ancient culture and historic Pueblo peoples. They drew upon the Navajo workmen who helped them with some of their investigations and who called these ancient people <em>ʾ</em><em>anaasází</em>, translated as “old people,” “enemy ancestors,” or “ancient non-Navajos.” As archaeologists have increasingly associated many aspects of this ancient cultural tradition with the modern Pueblos, the term <em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> has gradually replaced <em>Anasazi</em> in archaeological literature as a more appropriate term.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The two branches of the Ancestral Pueblo tradition discussed in this summary—Mesa Verde and Chaco—are distinguishable from one another by differences in their pottery styles, architecture, and settlements, but they also shared a great deal in common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The cultural diversity we see in the past is similar to modern Pueblo culture, which encompasses seven distinct languages and twenty-one pueblos, each under separate governance. They share a richly interwoven past. When Spanish conquistadors encountered the Pueblo groups in the sixteenth century, they found at least 50,000 to 60,000 people in approximately seventy-five Pueblo villages in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. Over the last 125 years, historians, archaeologists, and Pueblo tribal authorities have worked to untangle Ancestral Puebloan history to better understand how this tradition has shaped the customs and ways of life of modern Pueblo people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All Pueblo culture shares in common an agricultural heritage focused on the cultivation of maize (corn) and a sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyle centered on large village communities, or pueblos. The roots of this culture date back more than two millennia, to the very beginnings of agriculture and settled life in the northern Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture in the Northern Southwest (350 BC–AD 575<strong>)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The environment of the Four Corners made hunting and gathering difficult. The semiarid and arid upland landscape of the <strong>Colorado Plateau </strong>and Southern Rocky Mountains had patches of wild resources that were not reliable subsistence sources. In good years, the piñon nut harvest could be remarkable and large game such as <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, pronghorn, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a></strong> offered fine hunting opportunities at certain times and locales throughout the year. But these resources, even when teamed with the wild grasses, berries, and other native plants of the area, necessitated a mobile lifestyle and tremendous seasonal flexibility. Consequently, the population was restricted to small groups that used particular areas seasonally. Climatic shifts also limited human occupation in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 2100 to 1200 BC, increasingly reliable summer precipitation and the introduction of maize from the south allowed for early horticulture. The first corn was not well adapted to the short growing seasons and dry <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>, and the resulting corncobs were only an inch or two long. It would take 1,000–1,500 years before maize varieties were developed or introduced that could be successfully grown across a wide area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the transition from a limited horticulture and seminomadic lifeway to a more dedicated and sedentary agricultural lifeway was slow, small farming communities emerged in the late <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> to early <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods and the population began to increase steadily. In general, this early farming culture is still referred to as <strong>Basketmaker</strong> because basketry and woven goods remained the mainstays of storage, cooking, and serving vessels.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 350–200 BC and AD 300–350, there was a notable increase in multi-season and multi-household residential sites in certain regions. Evidence at these sites shows that the inhabitants were more dependent on maize cultivation, supplemented by localized hunting and gathering. These early farmers invested energy in more substantial and weatherproof pithouses and large, secure cists for food storage. The trash heaps, or middens, at these early residential sites indicate the inhabitants were at least semisedentary, residing at a single location for more than half a year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southern half of the Ancestral Pueblo area in New Mexico and Arizona is a source of innovation and many changes in the period between AD 200 and 600. The earliest Basketmaker brown ware pottery originates here and serves as a model for the first pottery in the Mesa Verde region. The original development and most widespread use of large community structures called great <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> also occurred in the south. Finally, beans, which offered a critical dietary pairing with maize, were more widely distributed in the south in early Basketmaker times. The south offered a historically secure and possibly more resilient locale for early agriculture, and at least half of the early farming populations in the Mesa Verde region likely could trace their origins to south of the San Juan River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Pueblos and <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a> (AD 575–900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The adoption of maize agriculture and the increasing use of beans and squash to achieve a more balanced diet helped to trigger a population increase, a demographic transition that characterizes many early agricultural societies. With decreased mobility, mothers can have and sustain more children and larger households are economically useful and viable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 600 the population south of the San Juan River had increased significantly, and immigrant populations began to move into the Mesa Verde region once again. The central part of this region holds evidence of early habitations built during the span of AD 575–700. <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>Tree-ring</strong></a> and pollen records suggest that for much of the seventh century climatic conditions for farming would have been good in this region, and the immigrants were moving into a landscape rich in natural and wild resources. By AD 725–750, there were at least 4,500 people spread across the whole Mesa Verde region, from Elk Ridge north of Blanding, Utah, to the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> valley near <strong>Durango</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The settlements of the mid-seventh century were most commonly single-household or paired-household hamlets. Small villages of eight to ten pithouses are known, but these were exceptional. Equally rare were great kivas, immense pit structures that could be from ten to twenty meters in diameter. <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>Rock art</strong></a> that dates to this period appears to portray community gatherings at great kivas and suggests the grand scale of these ritual events.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 750, the first small room blocks that would have housed two to four individual families are evident, foreshadowing a significant transformation in how settlements will be organized. Within a single generation after this architectural change, the first large villages with ten to twenty or more households emerge. Some of the earliest villages in the Ancestral Pueblo area occur in eastern and western Mesa Verde by about AD 775.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The period between AD 775 and 875 saw significant demographic shifts across the whole Ancestral Pueblo area, continued population growth, and a concentration of population in the central Mesa Verde region when compared to other Pueblo regions. Migration from the peripheries to the center of the Mesa Verde region, along with natural reproduction, concentrated as many 12,000 people into clusters of compact villages by AD 875. A mix of styles in the architecture, pottery, basketry, and organization of these villages suggests diversity within the regional population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest villages and the concentration of population in the Mesa Verde region lasted only two to three generations. After a demographic peak at approximately AD 860, the population began to decrease by 880, and by the middle of the next century, there were no more than 2,500 people in the core area of the Mesa Verde region. Social and environmental turmoil appear to have been accelerated by several extended periods of drought and shortened growing seasons, and three centuries of expanding human populations had taken a toll on the region’s natural resources, wild game, and clean water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, we see evidence of the failure of key sociopolitical organizations suggested by the ritual burning of specific community structures and patterned acts of ritual violence against particular individuals in villages with early great houses. Particular structures, which previously had been the center of community feasts and ritual events, were deliberately burned down when they were depopulated. The focus on specific structures and particular individuals suggests these were deliberate, internal acts. Apparently, the social “glue” and alliances within these community centers came apart under the stresses of the late ninth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Once again, the various Pueblo groups—with their particular histories, evolving languages, and increasingly interwoven traditions—chose to leave their communities in this region and head either west and southwest or south and southeast. It appears that out of the dust and ideas of these ninth-century Mesa Verde villages emerged the even greater houses of Chaco Canyon of the tenth and eleventh centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco World (AD 900–1125)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the tenth century the center of the Ancestral Pueblo world moved south of the San Juan River once again. The developments following the depopulation of the early Pueblo villages that resulted in the emergence of a southern great house system are still poorly understood. Current explanations argue that the large influx of people from the northern villages, combined with the germ of what was learned from the failure of the first great house experiments, gave rise to an organizational model in which great houses were placed at the center of a more dispersed rural community instead of within villages. Great houses were situated on prominent places within a landscape, and smaller residences were built around it. Between AD 900 and 1000, a great house system of over twenty-five communities appeared south of the San Juan, and throughout the period of AD 1020–1125. Chaco Canyon was the undisputed center of this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Chaco system influenced and at least partially united—if not dominated—much of the northern Southwest for at least a century. This is one of many elements of Ancestral Puebloan history that helps us understand the extraordinarily entangled histories of the modern Pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the century of the Chaco system’s florescence, the great houses in Chaco Canyon became truly monumental, rising four or five stories and having precisely laid masonry, massive walls, and striking symmetries. The reach of this system stretched from the <a href="/article/far-view-sites"><strong>Far View Group</strong></a> of sites at Mesa Verde National Park and <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> in the far north to the Andrews and Casamero sites near Grants, New Mexico, in the south. By AD 1125–1150, there may have been as many as 200 great houses aligned with or emulating this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco’s century of prominence coincided with a regional population increase. Population rebounded in Mesa Verde and other regions that had seen significant population loss in the tenth century. We are still uncertain about the extent to which these outlying regions were connected to Chaco Canyon, but it is clear that many outlying great houses were built in the same fashion as the great houses of the canyon. By the mid-to-late 1000s, there was a clear and strong connection between Chaco Canyon and particular groups of sites, such as the Aztec complex of sites in New Mexico, just south of Durango along the Animas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Chaco’s Decline and the Last Migration from the North (AD 1125–1300)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Southwest suffered one of the most severe droughts of the last millennium between AD 1130 and 1180. It is a period associated with a significant increase in violence, decreased population, and regional reorganization. Construction in Chaco Canyon all but ceased, and both its influence and population moved to other regions. It is uncertain whether the drought was the primary cause of Chaco’s dramatic decline or was simply one more factor bringing down a system that had become too top-heavy and costly for its adherents. Whatever the causes, Chaco’s decline was quick and decisive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the north, centers of influence emerged around Aztec—at the periphery of both the Chaco and Mesa Verde regional systems—and around several large Mesa Verde community centers, such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo and the Goodman Point–Shields Pueblo. The turbulence and violence of the late twelfth century subsided in the Mesa Verde region as Aztec’s leadership faltered and power struggles became more localized and smaller in scale. However, there still appears to have been a widespread perception of risk that may have propelled a growing number of people to seek refuge in large villages. The settlement pattern shifted from small villages on mesa tops close to farm fields to canyon rims closer to water and defensive positions. This shift resulted in significant increases in both the population and size of the largest villages, as outlying populations converged in the central Mesa Verde region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Community architecture and religious practices also changed. Great houses were no longer constructed but in some areas were replaced by villages with multi-walled structures. Multi-walled structures are uncommon in the western Mesa Verde region and not found in the late Pueblo villages of <a href="/.../hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a>. This absence is especially evident at western sites such as <strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong> that had large great houses only a century earlier.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After AD 1225 some villages, such as Yellow Jacket, became larger than the others. Village clusters became more tightly packed and competition for suitable agricultural land, trade partnerships, and access to wild resources and water appears to have intensified. The more competitive social landscape after AD 1250 is marked by a dramatic rise in the number of towers and walls dating to this period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Population in the core of the Mesa Verde region appears to have peaked between AD 1225 and 1260 at an estimated 26,000, with certainly more than 30,000 people across the whole region. Soon thereafter, people began to leave. Emigration accelerated markedly once it began, and the collapse of settlements on the peripheries, such as those at Hovenweep, must have contributed to the chaos. People within or adjacent to what is now Mesa Verde National Park used the protection afforded by cliff dwellings and the advantage of nearby agricultural lands to hold on longer than many other settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some of the first sites investigated by the Wetherills and <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf</strong> <strong>Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, such as <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> and <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, may have been among the last communities to depopulate. The entire region was largely depopulated by AD 1290, only thirty or forty years after it had reached its highest population. Many of the most defining characteristics of Mesa Verde architecture, pottery, social organization, and material culture were left behind. Where did these Ancestral Puebloans go? Subtle clues within the material culture of later sites, along with histories of the Pueblos, have helped experts identify the places where these migrants settled. People from the western communities largely moved into what is now Arizona and forged new relationships and identities with the Hopi. Central and eastern Mesa Verde groups appear to have had connections with groups in northern New Mexico such as the Keresan Pueblos (e.g., Acoma, <a href="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya"><strong>S</strong></a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya">anta Ana/Tamaya</a></strong>, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) and Tewa Pueblos (e.g., Ohkay Owingeh, San Ildefonso, and Santa Clara).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Interestingly, one of the very last occupied sites, <strong>Yucca House</strong>, is likely mentioned in T19 Pueblos of New Mexico ewa oral history as being a place of the ancestors. It is also the only late Mesa Verde village where a portion of its layout is built in a style not commonly seen until fourteenth-century pueblos of northern New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no single reason explains the final Mesa Verde migration, it is clear that social and political strife, the threat of violence, religious upheaval, and disruptions of interaction and trade networks all predate the most severe droughts of this period. The droughts must have been the final blow, especially with the promise of slightly better conditions to the south. Whether non-Pueblo groups—such as the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> or Athapaskans—forced the Ancestral Pueblo people to leave the Mesa Verde region is an old hypothesis that still has some adherents, but today there is little archaeological evidence that these groups constituted a significant presence in the Mesa Verde region in AD 1280, when the last Puebloans were leaving.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the depopulation of the Chaco, Mesa Verde, and other even more northerly regions and the establishment of the historically known pueblos of the Rio Grande and Little Colorado regions, the history of the Ancestral Pueblo becomes the “deep history” that is now remembered in the oral traditions of the modern Pueblo and researched by archaeologists and historians. These historic Pueblo groups built even larger villages and a more populous civilization, but structures of Mesa Verde and Chaco, as well as the lessons they offer, continue to intrigue us.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-hovenweep-national-monument-national-monuments-colorado-canyons-ancients-national" hreflang="en">hovenweep hovenweep national monument national monuments colorado canyons of the ancients national monument southwest colorado four corners region hiking southwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chimney-rock-archaeological-area" hreflang="en">chimney rock archaeological area</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. G. Matson, <em>The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul F. Reed, <em>Chaco’s Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after A.D. 1100</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark D. Varien, Scott G. Ortman, Timothy A. Kohler, Donna M. Glowacki, and C. David Johnson, “Historical Ecology in the Mesa Verde Region: Results from the Village EcoDynamics Project,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 72 (April 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John A. Ware, <em>A Pueblo Social History: Kinship, Sodality, and Community in the Northern Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/azru/index.htm">Aztec Ruins, National Monument, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” US Bureau of Land Management, last modified May 28, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 3, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument, Colorado</a>,” Chimney Rock Interpretive Association, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda S. Cordell and Maxine E. McBrinn, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em>, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado, Utah</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 1, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/index.htm">Learn About the Park</a>,” Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service, last modified November 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>A History of the Ancient Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://indianpueblo.org/pueblos-pigments-and-prominence-the-murals-of-ipcc/">The 19 Pueblos of New Mexico</a>,” Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>In Search of Chaco</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/who_were_the_anasazi.html">Who Were the Anasazi</a>?,” Anasazi Heritage Center, US Bureau of Land Management, last modified August 2, 2012.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 20:21:06 +0000 yongli 1353 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Yucca House National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1311--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1311.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Yucca-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=NE1Hfvsp" width="1000" height="631" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jackson&#039;s View of the Upper House at &quot;Aztec Spring&quot;</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>William H. Jackson's famous photo taken in 1874 is one of the earliest known images of the Yucca House site, showing more extensive standing walls than now exist. The view is to the southeast with Mesa Verde in the background and Capt. John T. Moss standing in front of a wall near the center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1312--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1312.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_0343_2_0.jpg?itok=KelZ2fJJ" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View from the Upper House looking east at the Lower House</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1313--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1313.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/yucca_house_past_3-D_0.jpg?itok=b3UpYb6x" width="1000" height="666" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cyber-Montage of Yucca House Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This "virtual reality" reconstruction of Yucca House by Dennis R. Holloway, Architect, looks east with the Mesa Verde escarpment in the background. It is based on mapping by Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and photography by Adriel Heisey.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T15:29:48-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 15:29" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 15:29</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Yucca House National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fyucca-house-national-monument&amp;title=Yucca%20House%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Yucca House National Monument was established to protect and preserve a large <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>village south of <strong>Cortez</strong> in the southwestern corner of Colorado. Yucca House is an important Ancestral Pueblo village based on its size, unique configurations, and prominent, highly visible location in the Montezuma Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Location</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The monument is situated along the western edge of the Montezuma Valley on the lower, eastern slope of <strong>Ute Mountain</strong>, at an elevation of approximately 5,800 feet and with an average rainfall of 11–15 inches and average frost-free period of 100 to 135 days. This area is geologically diverse with access to Mancos Shale, igneous rock cobbles (diorite), both Dakota and Point Lookout sandstones, and gravel and alluvium terraces. All these geological materials were used in the construction of Yucca House.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description and Importance</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Yucca House has two distinct architectural complexes: the Lower House and the West Complex (also called the Upper House by Holmes in 1878). The Lower House is an L-shaped, rectangular room block containing eight first-story rooms and possibly second-story rooms given the amount of rubble. South of the L-shaped room block is a plaza that is defined by a low masonry enclosing wall on the west and south, and an earthen berm along the southeast edge. In the middle of the plaza is a great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The West Complex is a D- or horseshoe-shaped pueblo bisected by a spring that includes the Upper House, a prominent building with two enclosed kivas. This layout is strikingly similar to that of Sand Canyon Pueblo and other late Pueblo III period (post-AD 1200) villages. The West Complex contains multiple room blocks, as many as 100 kivas, several towers, a great kiva, and a circular bi-walled structure. Based on the number of kivas, there are probably 450 to 600 rooms. Most of the residential architecture is north of the spring and Upper House, and the public architecture is on the south side.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A critical issue for understanding its regional significance is determining when Ancestral Pueblo people constructed and lived in the village. Yucca House has long been thought of as a Chacoan <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great house</strong></a> due to the distinctiveness of the Upper House, which has architectural characteristics typical of great houses. However, the limited data available points to Yucca House being a Pueblo III period village (AD 1150–1290) with a strong post-1250s occupation. There are only three <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dates</strong></a> for the site and they all come from the southeast corner of the Upper House. These samples, collected by Al Lancaster, date to the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Much of the data regarding chronology comes from the West Complex, and there is little data about the construction, occupation, and use of the Lower House. Thus, until further testing is done, we do not know if the Lower House was built during the Pueblo II period or earlier, and then used until the late AD 1200s, or if it was exclusively built and occupied during the Pueblo III period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History of the Monument</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On August 19, 1892, Henry [Harry] Van Kleek purchased Aztec Springs from George W. Stafford, likely because he wanted the reliable water source for ranching and was intrigued by the large Pueblo site as a potential tourist destination. Jesse Walter Fewkes, an early archaeologist who worked at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, visited the site in 1918 and was so impressed with its size and preservation that he convinced Van Kleek to deed a 9.6 acre parcel that included most of Yucca House to the government on July 2, 1919. Because of the significance of Yucca House as an intact example of a valley pueblo, President Woodrow Wilson declared it a National Monument, issuing Presidential Proclamation No. 1549 on December 19, 1919. It was at this time that the name of the site was changed from Aztec Springs to Yucca House. This was Fewkes’ suggestion, on account of its location on the slopes of Ute Mountain, which is referred to by the Ute and other local groups as the “mountain with lots of yucca growing on it.” Fewkes noted that Yucca Mountain is a place name that Tewa Pueblo people used to refer to this area and that they also consider Yucca House an ancestral village.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1919, Yucca House National Monument has been managed by Mesa Verde National Park. In May 1990, the monument was expanded to thirty-four acres when Hallie Ismay donated an additional twenty-four acres to provide access to Yucca House from the south and to preserve several sites on the ridge near the main village. Among these sites is Snider’s Well, which is situated on a gravel topped ridge of Mancos Shale that runs south from Yucca House. Snider’s Well is an isolated <strong>Chacoan</strong> period kiva containing a mass burial that was excavated by the <strong>Wetherills</strong> during the spring and early summer of 1894. Recent survey on adjacent lands has determined there were a series of several isolated kivas along this same ridge.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaeological Research at Yucca House</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Relatively little formal archaeological investigation has occurred at Yucca House. Although <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>W. H. Jackson</strong></a> was the first to describe the site as part of the 1874 <strong>Hayden Expedition</strong>, it was W. H. Holmes who drew the first sketch map of Yucca House when he returned to the site the following year. Fewkes also published a description and a schematic map (not to scale) in his Bureau of American Ethnology report. In 1964, Al Schroeder and Al Lancaster conducted the only archaeological testing and stabilization at Yucca House to date. Schroeder excavated five test trenches to the north of the Upper House in the West Complex, which uncovered structures with both adobe and masonry wall construction, and a portion of a room with a flagstone floor. Lancaster excavated in the Lower House where he tested the great kiva and did limited excavation and stabilization of the north wall of the Lower House room block.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Bob Powers and his colleagues included Yucca House in their inventory of Chacoan outliers in the northern Southwest. Most recently, in 2000, Donna Glowacki directed the Yucca House Mapping Project, a joint effort between Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and Mesa Verde National Park to produce the first detailed and systematic map of the site, conduct an analysis of surface pottery, and use remote sensing, resistivity, and magnetometry to map sub-surface features. Although we now have a better sense of layout and spatial relationships among the architectural features at Yucca House, we still know relatively little about the length of the Yucca House occupation, the role of public architecture in the village, and the extent of social interaction and other relationships with nearby large villages.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/glowacki-donna-m" hreflang="und">Glowacki, Donna M. </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/blackburn-fred-m" hreflang="und">Blackburn, Fred M. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sniders-well" hreflang="en">Snider&#039;s Well</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred M. Blackburn, <em>The Wetherills: Friends of Mesa Verde</em> (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Whitman Cross, <em>The Laccolithic Mountain Groups of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona</em>, Department of Interior, US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1895).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, Letter to Mr. Albright Regarding the Origins of the Name Yucca House, letter on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, <em>Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 70 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1919).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donna M. Glowacki, “Yucca House (5MT5006) Mapping Project Report,” unpublished manuscript on file, Mesa Verde National Park and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Holmes, <em>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Examined During the Summer of 1875</em>, extracted from Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. II, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Jackson, “Report of W. H. Jackson on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado,” in <em>Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Embracing Colorado and Parts of Adjacent Territories; Being a Report of Progress of the Exploration for the Year 1874</em>, F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William D. Lipe and Mark D. Varien, “Pueblo III (A.D. 1150–1300),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em>, eds. William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and R. H. Wilshusen (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert C. McBride and Diane E. McBride, “Cultural Resource Survey of the Bernard and Nancy Karwick Property, Montezuma County, Colorado: A Study of the Greater Yucca House Community,” unpublished paper submitted to History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frank McNitt, <em>Richard Wetherill: Anasazi, Pioneer Explorer of the Southwestern Ruins </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde National Park, “Management Plan, Statement for Management, Yucca House National Monument,” unpublished report on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1987.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert P. Powers, William B. Gillespie, and Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Outlier Survey: A Regional View of Settlement in the San Juan Basin</em>, Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service (Albuquerque: US Department of the Interior, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas Ramsey, A. Price, and D. Curtis, “Preliminary Information from the Cortez Soil Survey Area,” United States Department of Agriculture (Cortez, CO: Soil Conservation Service, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis R. Holloway, “<a href="http://www.dennisrhollowayarchitect.com/YuccaHouse.html">Yucca House, Four Corners Ancestral Puebloan, A.D. 1150-1300, near Towaoc, Colorado</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yuho/index.htm">Yucca House National Monument, Colorado</a>,” National Park Service, last modified November 17, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 21:29:48 +0000 yongli 1308 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Paleo-Indian Period http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Paleo-Indian Period</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T14:08:38-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 14:08" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 14:08</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period" data-a2a-title="Paleo-Indian Period"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpaleo-indian-period&amp;title=Paleo-Indian%20Period"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Paleo-Indian period is the era from the end of the <strong>Pleistocene</strong> (the last Ice Age) to about 9,000 years ago (7000 BC), during which the first people migrated to North and South America. This period is seen through a glass darkly: Paleo-Indian sites are few and scattered, and the material from these sites consists almost entirely of animal bone and stone tools. Available information from Paleo-Indian times documents hunting of several animals that became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene, spectacularly skilled stone working by artisans who made beautifully crafted stone tools (especially spear points), and the beginning of a reliance on <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hunting that persisted on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> for 10,000 years.</p> <p>Although Paleo-Indians were more than just flintknappers and big-game hunters, those have been the most visible aspects of their lives since archaeologists first recognized this period in the early twentieth century. From animal kill sites to tool caches, some of the most important clues to the Paleo-Indian past have been found in Colorado.</p> <h2>First People: Clovis and Pre-Clovis</h2> <p>Europeans have debated the origins of the indigenous people of North America ever since the Spanish conquest of Mexico. If human beings did not evolve here, where did they come from and how did they get here? Traditionally, it has been argued that humans migrated here out of Asia, either moving in boats down the west coast or walking through a corridor between the continental <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glaciers</strong></a> onto the northern Great Plains, although the timing of this migration has always been uncertain. This theory has been complicated by recent arguments that the earliest North Americans were biologically distinct from more recent people and that they may have arrived from Europe.</p> <p>However, chemists have now extracted DNA from very ancient skeletons in Montana and the Yucatan Peninsula. Most (not all) of the skeletons of the earliest people in North America do look slightly different from those of many recent people. Similar skeletons are well known on the northwestern Great Plains from many periods of time. This new genetic work leaves no doubt that the earliest migrants to this continent were the biological ancestors of recent people, and that these migrants were unambiguously Asians, not Europeans.</p> <p>But even if the first people in the New World (and Colorado) arrived here from Asia, it is less certain when they arrived. People were certainly in what is now Colorado by 11,500 BC, producing the distinctive and beautiful spear points and other artifacts classified as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a>. But it is also possible that people were here earlier. Sites dated as early as 39,000 years ago, including the Dutton and Selby sites near Wray and the Villa Grove site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache County</strong></a>, contain the bones of large, extinct animals broken in ways that suggest human action. However, these localities produce no stone artifacts at all, and very few archaeologists accept them as definite evidence of human occupation.</p> <p>By about 11,500 BC, though, discoveries of Clovis artifacts in sites with the bones of at least some of these animals leave no doubt that people were here. The best-known Clovis sites in North America are mammoth kills, and this has led many to view Clovis people as specialized big-game hunters. The <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> is the only Clovis site in Colorado (Figure 1). By themselves, however, these sites are misleading since large bones like those of mammoths always attract archaeological attention, and digging around them can hardly tell us about activities other than hunting.</p> <p>Clovis campsites (best known from Texas) tell a very different story. Clovis people relied on a wide array of large and small animals. They also cached tools on the landscape. Most often understood as “insurance” to guarantee access to the tools in areas without natural stone sources, these caches also may have served as offerings or for other reasons. Three of these tool caches are in Colorado: the CW and Drake caches from northeastern Colorado and the Mahaffy cache from within the city of Boulder (Figure 2). The CW cache includes tools made from stone that outcrops north of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sterling-0"><strong>Sterling</strong></a>, but the other two include material from the Texas Panhandle (the Drake cache) and from across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a> as far away as Utah (the Mahaffy cache). These discoveries suggest movements over very large areas, although it is uncertain whether families, individuals, or larger social groups made these movements.</p> <p>By some time after 11,000 BC, most large mammals in North America, including mammoths, mastodons, camels, horses, and many others, were extinct. A handful of archaeologists think these were simply exterminated by human hunters. However, the overwhelming majority sees no convincing evidence of this and suspects that a combination of environmental change and some degree of human hunting is more probable. In fact, no one knows for certain what caused this extinction, although recent work in modern and ancient animal DNA is beginning to offer fairly detailed answers. So far, this new work does not suggest extinction by overhunting.</p> <h2>Plains and Mountain Hunters and Gatherers</h2> <p>Knowledge of human ways of life after 10,800 BC has increased dramatically. Later Paleo-Indian sites are subdivided by types of spear points: <strong>Folsom</strong> in the plains and mountains from 10,800 to about 9700 BC and a variety of types (Agate Basin, Hell Gap, Scottsbluff, Eden, and so on) after that on the plains. Many plains types also occur in the mountains alongside a number of distinctive mountain points (often labeled Foothills-Mountain and Western Stemmed).</p> <p>It is known that Clovis people passed through the high country in Colorado, but essentially nothing is known about what they did there. Later Paleo-Indian groups, though, lived throughout Colorado. On the eastern plains and in the mountain parks, Paleo-Indians hunted bison and other animals. People undoubtedly hunted in a variety of ways, but large bison kills at sites like<a href="/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"> <strong>Olsen-Chubbuck</strong></a> and<strong> <a href="/article/jones-miller-bison-kill-site">Jones-Miller</a></strong> on the eastern plains were communal events that involved large numbers of people and sometimes killed hundreds of animals at a time.</p> <p>Archaeologists have often viewed later Paleo-Indian groups much like those who lived during Clovis times as wide-ranging nomads who rarely or never reused particular places on the landscape. This is clearly wrong. Paleo-Indian sites throughout the plains, and throughout Colorado—for example, Folsom-age <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a>, near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, and Cody-age <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jurgens-archaeological-site"><strong>Jurgens</strong></a> on the plains near Greeley, as well as sites in the mountains—document nearly total reliance on local raw material to make all of their tools other than spear points, implying that they did not travel over particularly large areas. Lindenmeier, perhaps the most spectacular Paleo-Indian site in North America, also shows thick accumulations of debris that mark a place where people camped over and over again for centuries. Paleo-Indians did not always do that—the Folsom-age Cattle Guard site in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> is a single encampment near a bison kill—but enough is known to say that Paleo-Indian ways of life were quite variable, often at a local level.</p> <p>Within Colorado, this variation especially involved the obvious differences between the eastern plains and the western mountains and Colorado Plateau. Bison ranged into the mountains and Paleo-Indians hunted them there, in Middle Park and elsewhere, just as plains Paleo-Indians hunted them (and many other animals) on the open grasslands. But mountain groups seem more local in their habits. For example, there is little evidence that they imported stone from the plains or from distant parts of the high country, and they seem to have occupied the high country year-round. Folsom groups in western Colorado built stone foundation houses at least sometimes (these are unknown elsewhere), and later Paleo-Indian groups in the area roasted food (probably but not definitely plants) in pits, using pre-heated rocks as heating elements. Unsurprisingly, mountain sheep and other high elevation species were important in the diet of high country Paleo-Indians.</p> <h2>End of Paleo-Indian Times</h2> <p>The Paleo-Indian period began near the end of the Ice Age, when glaciers were melting as climate warmed. It was punctuated in the middle by a climatic interval called the Younger Dryas, a return to cooler and wetter conditions that began fairly abruptly at 10,800 BC and ended even more abruptly at 9700 BC. For the remainder of the period, the climate warmed and dried. On the Great Plains in general, as upland range conditions deteriorated and bison herds declined, hunters preyed on animals like deer and antelope more often, and families took more small animals. After 8000 BC, human populations seem to have thinned on the Colorado plains, with some people perhaps joining their neighbors in the high country; by 7000 BC and after, people throughout the state began to make new styles of spear points and to experiment with new kinds of hunting, marking the end of this period.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/bamforth-douglas-b" hreflang="und">Bamforth, Douglas B. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindians" hreflang="en">Paleoindians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Brunswig and Bonnie Pitblado, <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleo-Indian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2007).</p> <p>James Chatters, Douglas Kennett, et al., “Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans,” <em>Science</em> 344 (May 16, 2014).</p> <p>David Kilby and Bruce Huckell, <em>Clovis Caches: Recent Discoveries and New Research</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014).</p> <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>David Meltzer, <em>First People in a New World</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Douglas B. Bamforth, <em>The Allen Site: A Paleo-Indian Camp in Southwestern Nebraska</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007).</p> <p>Donald Grayson and David Meltzer, “Revisiting Paleoindian Exploitation of Extinct North American Mammals,” <em>Journal of Archaeological Science</em> 56 (2015).</p> <p>Edward J. Knell and Mark P. Muniz, <em>Paleoindian Lifeways of the Cody Complex</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Brenda Martin, Kate Bowell, Treloar Tredennick Bower, and Terry Burton, “<a href="https://fcmod.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/lindenmeier.pdf">The Excavation of Lindenmeier: A Folsom Site Uncovered 1934-40</a>,” (Fort Collins, CO: Fort Collins Museum of Discovery, 2009).</p> <p>David Meltzer, <em>The Great Paleolithic War: How Science Forged an Understanding of America’s Ice Age Past</em> (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2015).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/main.htm">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” The University of Tennessee at Knoxville, updated October 4, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 20:08:38 +0000 yongli 1302 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Kivas http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Kivas</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1185--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1185.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Puzzle%20House%20Aerial_0.jpg?itok=L-wtVsAi" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/puzzle-house-aerial-1993" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Puzzle House Aerial, 1993</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Kiva and room block from the Puzzle House site in Montezuma County.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1187--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1187.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/harvest-dance-santo-domingo-pueblo-1910"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/P-1219_0.jpg?itok=PhGW2B6m" width="1000" height="570" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/harvest-dance-santo-domingo-pueblo-1910" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Harvest Dance, Santo Domingo Pueblo, 1910</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Turquoise or Squash Kiva at Santo Domingo Pueblo, Sandoval County, New Mexico.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas" data-a2a-title="Kivas"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fkivas&amp;title=Kivas"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Kivas were architecturally unique rooms or structures built by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong> </a>in southwest Colorado that served important ceremonial and social functions. Architecturally, they are recognized in the archaeological record in southwestern Colorado as far back as AD 500, although there are widespread inconsistencies in the use of the term. Although no longer used in Colorado, kivas remain important ceremonial structures and social units within contemporary Pueblo communities in the Southwest.</p> <h2>Definition</h2> <p>The term <em>Kiva </em>was originally derived from a Hopi word meaning “ceremonial room” and was adopted by early twentieth-century archaeologists. <strong>John Wesley Powell</strong> seems to be the first to use the Hopi term in describing a small site in Glen Canyon during the Colorado River exploration. He states: “In the space in the angle there is a deep excavation. From what we know of the people in the province of Tusayan, who are, doubtless, of the same race as the former inhabitants of these sites, we conclude that this was a “kiva” or underground chamber, in which their religious ceremonies were performed.”</p> <p>Jesse Walter Fewkes, in his description of <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, further explains: “The special chamber set apart by Pueblo Indians for ceremonial purposes was called by the early Spanish discoverers an <em>estufa</em>, or stove, a name no doubt suggested by the great heat of the room when occupied. An estufa is commonly designated by the Hopi Indians a <em>kiva</em>, which term is rapidly replacing the older name. It is found that prehistoric sites as well as modern pueblos have kivas.</p> <p>The way we understand the term <em>Kiva</em> today stems back to the first Pecos Conference held in 1927. Alfred V. Kidder clarified that after discussing the variety of shapes and internal features of kivas, the conference adopted this broad definition: “A kiva is a chamber specially constructed for ceremonial purposes.”</p> <p>This broad definition glosses over the wide range of variation that anthropologists observe over time and across the Southwest. For example, the shape of kivas varies. In Western Pueblos (Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, and Laguna) kivas are rectangular and usually incorporated into the room blocks. However, in Eastern Pueblos (such as <strong>Tamaya</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) kivas are generally round and are separate structures. There is also variation in size, design, and function. Using the presence of a specific ritual feature called a <em>sipapu</em>, Fewkes attempted to differentiate a circular structure with a ceremonial purpose (kiva) from a pithouse. He explains that “a sipapu is a small circular opening in the floor representing symbolically the entrance to the underworld.” In fact, some archaeologists argue today that the presence of ceremonial features is a much clearer indication of a kiva’s ceremonial use than its size, shape, or construction.</p> <h2>Small Kivas</h2> <p>The purpose of kivas has also changed over time. In Prehistoric times, at Ancestral Puebloan sites after AD 900, each small room block had a kiva. These “unit pueblos”—which consisted of a room block, kiva, and an associated midden for trash—have been called Prudden Units, after the archaeologist who first recognized them. It is unclear what purpose the kivas in these unit pueblos served but they usually contain diverse remains. This suggests they may have served many uses, both secular and ceremonial. Many archaeologists question the use of the term <em>kiva</em> for these types of structures because the term implies a ceremonial purpose that may or may not have been their primary function.</p> <p>Prudden cautions us not to see all these structures as kivas, and suggests that some may be the “last manifestation of a long standing tradition of pithouses.” He argues that many of these circular subterranean/semisubterranean rooms exhibit wide variations in features and probably function more as living rooms with multiple uses for men, women, and children. These rooms may have evolved out of earlier pithouse structures and over time their purpose changed to become more ceremonial and gender specific. While their exact purpose is unknown prehistorically, archaeologists have been calling them kivas for about a hundred years and it is likely that some ceremonial or ritual activities took place in them.</p> <p>During the Pueblo I through Pueblo III eras (AD 700–1300), Mesa Verde kivas in the Four Corners area of the Southwest typically have one proto-kiva or kiva for each block of six to nine rooms, and were probably used by relatively small social groups such as an extended family. Mesa Verde kivas also have a distinctive shape. They are keyhole shaped, having a larger southern recess than ones found farther south in the <strong>Chaco</strong> region. This recess results from building out the walls as opposed to simply containing a recess in the bench, as in the Chacoan great kivas. Mesa Verde kivas also have high masonry pilasters to support the cribbed roof.</p> <h2>Great Kivas</h2> <p>Great kivas, on the other hand, were ceremonial structures and public buildings that could accommodate large numbers of people. In the Mesa Verde region, great kivas appear as early as the Basketmaker III period (AD 500–750) and continued through the Pueblo III period (AD 1150–1300), when the region was largely depopulated. Great kivas served to integrate various sectors of the community through ceremony and meetings. They differed from small kivas not just in size and their unambiguous purpose but also in the distinctive internal features they contained. These distinctions include unique floor features (like foot drums), size (generally over 100 square meters of floor space), and artifacts (large bowls for serving, presumably related to feasting). Great kivas can be broken into Chacoan and non-Chacoan kivas, each with slightly different features.</p> <p>Chacoan great kivas appear in the Mesa Verde region during the Pueblo II era (AD 900-1150) in conjunction with Chaco-style <strong>great houses</strong>. They are associated with developments in <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> originating in New Mexico. Chacoan great kivas had a highly standardized construction design that included</p> <ul><li>a four-posthole arrangement in a square in the center of the structure designed to seat the large posts needed to the support the massive roof;</li> <li>benches around the interior circumference of the kivas (sometimes doubled)</li> <li>a series of wall niches around the circumference above the benches, varying in dimension and number and sometimes including more than one series on different levels;</li> <li>a staircase leading down from an antechamber, which can usually be found on the north side;</li> <li>a north/south axis with a fire box slightly offset to the south;</li> <li>a deflector (common in small kivas with a ventilation shaft on the south side), just south of the fire pit;</li> <li>two floor vaults.</li> </ul><h2>Tower Kivas</h2> <p>Tower kivas, another form found in southwest Colorado, are circular kivas with two or more stories. They can be freestanding; however, they are more commonly incorporated into a room block and enclosed by rectangular walls. The intervening spaces are filled with rubble. Tower kivas can be found throughout the Southwest.</p> <h2>Contemporary Kivas</h2> <p>Since most contemporary kivas are used for ritual and private ceremonies and activities, it is inappropriate for nonpueblo residents to press for information on what happens inside. However, the anthropologist and San Juan Pueblo native Alfonso Ortiz has offered a description of the underlying meaning from the perspective of a Tewa speaker: “The contemporary Tewa kiva … is regarded, when in use, as a symbolic representation of the primordial underworld home from which the Tewa believe they emerged to this world. The term used for the kiva when gods [kachinas] are impersonated, <em>Sipofene</em>, is the same name used for the primordial home. The impersonation of the gods is itself a reenactment of the original act of emergence from the underworld. Therefore, although there may be numerous sacred centers, the kiva itself is the center of centers, or the navel of navels.”</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/larkin-karin" hreflang="und">Larkin, Karin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Linda Cordell, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em> (San Diego: Academic Press, 1997).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895,” in <em>Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895-96</em>, by J. W. Powell (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898).</p> <p>J. Walter Fewkes, “Ventilators in Ceremonial Rooms of Pre Historic Cliff-Dwellings,” <em>American Anthropologist </em>New Series 10 (July–September 1908).</p> <p>A. V. Kidder, “Southwestern Archaeological Conference,” <em>Science</em> New Series 66 (November 18, 1927).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007).</p> <p>Stephen H. Lekson, “The Idea of the Kiva in Anasazi Archaeology,” <em>Kiva </em>53 (Spring 1988).</p> <p>W. D. Lipe and Michelle Hegmon, “The Architecture of Social Integration in Prehistoric Pueblos,” <em>Occasional Papers of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center </em>No. 1 (Cortez, CO: Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, 1989).</p> <p>Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton, <em>Native American Architecture</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).</p> <p>J. W. Powell, <em>Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tributaries. Explored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, Under the Direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</em> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://crowcanyon.org/">Crow Canyon Archaeological Center</a> .</p> <p>Alfonso Ortiz, ed., <em>Handbook of North American Indians</em>, vol. 9:<em> The Southwest</em> (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1979).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Canyon National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” last modified December 3, 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</a>,” last modified December 11, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Mar 2016 17:39:35 +0000 yongli 1181 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fluted Points http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fluted Points</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1830--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1830.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fluted-point-1"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fluted-Points-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=7UBk5zss" width="1000" height="1546" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fluted-point-1" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fluted Point 1</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Folsom point from the Lindenmeier Site, ColoradoD</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-29T12:38:23-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 29, 2015 - 12:38" class="datetime">Tue, 12/29/2015 - 12:38</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0" data-a2a-title="Fluted Points"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffluted-points-0&amp;title=Fluted%20Points"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Fluted projectile points represent the earliest North American stone tool technology, although they comprise a small portion of the overall stone technology observed in the New World. These easily recognized spear points represent one form of technology used by the earliest human inhabitants of North and South America. Locally, the two most iconic fluted point traditions in Colorado were manufactured by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong> Folsom peoples</strong></a> of the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>. Fluted points are quite rare in the Colorado archaeological record, but their importance to understanding the people of the New World is fundamental.</p> <p>The “flute” of a fluted point is the groovelike flaking scar intentionally created by a flintknapper by removing a flake from the base of a spear point. Some points may have only one large flute removed, whereas others may have several smaller flutes. Fluting is generally done on both sides of the point, but in some cases only one side of the point is fluted. In Clovis technology, the flute generally extends no more than half the distance of the overall point length, whereas in the Folsom tradition the flute generally extends nearly the entire length. Apart from the fluting, Clovis points tend to be longer than their Folsom successors, also having more convex margins and a less concave base. However, both consistently have intentionally abraded basal margins.</p> <p>The first fluted points were discovered near Folsom, New Mexico, in the 1920s. These “Folsom” points provided the first glimpse of the antiquity of human culture in North America, because they were found in direct association with an extinct species of<strong> bison</strong> (<em>Bison antiquus</em>). Later, in the early 1930s, a small sample of fluted points (different than those from Folsom) was recovered in association with <strong>mammoth</strong> remains outside the Blackwater Draw area near Clovis, New Mexico. These “Clovis” points (originally identified as Llano) pushed the antiquity of human presence in North America into the late <strong>Pleistocene</strong> period, or sometime before 11,000 BC.</p> <p>Stratigraphically, Clovis materials persistently lay below Folsom materials, suggesting an earlier occupation. However, it was not until absolute dating methods (specifically, <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dating</strong></a>) were developed in the early 1950s that better chronological resolution of these early cultures was achieved. In 1931, albeit before those recovered at Blackwater Draw, Clovis style fluted points were found in direct association with mammoth remains near Dent, Colorado, and were later dated to approximately 10,900 BC. Since then, stone tools have been documented at numerous Clovis sites dated between 11,050 and 10,750 BC.</p> <p>The act of fluting requires incredible skill, and many fluted points appear to have been fractured during the manufacturing process, especially with the thinner Folsom points. Broken, partially fluted tools are well documented in the archaeological record. Flintknappers continued to craft the points despite this high rate of failure, indicating a cultural necessity for fluting. The flute could be a stylistic identifier or may have served a functional role in the tool’s performance. Early interpretations of fluted points suggested they represented something akin to fullers (or “blood grooves”) seen in modern knives; however, this hypothesis has lost most of its supporters after additional experimental research. Another hypothesis suggests fluted points maximized penetration due to their thinner profile. Additionally, this thinner profile allows easier hafting into multicomponent weaponry (e.g., foreshafts, <strong>atlatls</strong>, etc.) which was a common practice among Paleo-Indian cultures.</p> <p>Folsom flintknappers were the last to flute their spear points, as later Paleo-Indian groups made no attempt at fluting. The reasoning behind this sudden change in hunting point technology, as well as the act of fluting, is still ambiguous today among researchers. However, the importance of fluted points in archaeological contexts remains unequivocal, as they have been invaluable in helping archaeologists determine how some of the earliest humans lived in Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wernick-christopher" hreflang="und">Wernick, Christopher</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom-culture" hreflang="en">folsom culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ice-age" hreflang="en">Ice Age</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/atlatls" hreflang="en">atlatls</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mammoths" hreflang="en">mammoths</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Bruce A. Bradley, Michael B. Collins, and Andrew Hemmings, <em>Clovis Technology</em> (Ann Arbor, Michigan: International Monographs in Prehistory, 2010).</p> <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em> (Boulder: Johnson Publishing, 1983).</p> <p>Juliet E. Morrow and Toby A. Morrow, “Geographic Variation in Fluted Projectile Points: A Hemispherical Perspective,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 64 (April 1999).</p> <p>Michael R. Waters and Thomas W. Stafford, Jr., “Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>Science</em> 315 (February 2007).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>“<a href="http://pidba.utk.edu/">PIDBA: The Paleoindian Database of the Americas</a>,” University of Tennessee.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 29 Dec 2015 19:38:23 +0000 yongli 1070 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ghost Dance http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ghost Dance</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-29T12:16:12-07:00" title="Tuesday, December 29, 2015 - 12:16" class="datetime">Tue, 12/29/2015 - 12:16</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ghost-dance" data-a2a-title="Ghost Dance"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fghost-dance&amp;title=Ghost%20Dance"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Ghost Dances are key ceremonies within a broader Indigenous religious movement that developed in the late nineteenth century in response to the brutal conquest of Native American nations by the US government and white settlers. By that time, most federally recognized tribes in Colorado lived on reservations outside of the state. The dances are performed to activate the movement’s prophecy of a return to traditional Native American ways of life. The Nuche, or <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people, were one of the first groups to learn of the Ghost Dance teachings, which then spread through Colorado, over the mountains, and onto the plains in an attempt to create spiritual unity between the scattered Native American groups.</p> <h2>Culture, Contact, and Conflict</h2> <p>Events such as the <strong>Louisiana Purchase</strong>, development of the <strong>Transcontinental Railroad</strong>, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado</strong> <strong>Gold Rush</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> propelled a wave of whites onto Indian lands. In the mid-to-late nineteenth century, clashes between Native Americans and white settlers escalated, resulting in the so-called <strong>Indian Wars</strong>. Several <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/event/treaties"><strong>treaties</strong></a> hoped to settle the unrest, but often the US government did not uphold them and tribes did not agree with them. The government focused their efforts toward the reservation system and tried to integrate Native Americans into a western education system and introduce them to agriculture.</p> <p>Recognizing threats to their traditional ways, Native Americans throughout the American west turned to “religious” movements hoping to bring an end to their struggle. One of these movements was the Ghost Dance. The Ghost Dance movement includes two episodes, the first in 1870 and the second in 1890. Both events began in Paiute country, near the Walker River Reservation in Nevada. The ideas between the two episodes blended traditional Native American beliefs with the Christian idea of a messiah.</p> <h2>The 1870 Ghost Dance</h2> <p>In the late 1860s, a Paviotso man named Wodziwob fell into a trance in which he spoke of dead Indians coming back to life, eternal life and earthly paradise for all Indians, and all white people disappearing. The ceremony amongst the Paviotso resembled a round dance, but as the dance spread to western Nevada, California, and Oregon, the ceremony changed from tribe to tribe as different groups added new songs and elements. The 1870 Ghost Dance seemingly ended in the mid-1870s, though movements with ties to other teachings—such as the Big Head Cult and <em>Bole-Maru </em>religion—have continued into recent times. Scholars interpret the end of the dance as a result of the US government forcing tribes to stop, responding to the fears of those white settlers who saw it as a threat and tribes losing interest as the prophecies were not coming to pass.</p> <h2>Reservations and Allotments</h2> <p>The tensions between the US government and Native Americans continued to rise with changes in policy toward the end of the nineteenth century. Congressman Henry Dawes of Massachusetts wrote the bill for the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act">General Allotment Act</a> </strong>(also known as the Dawes Severalty Act or simply the Dawes Act), which passed in 1887. In contrast to the reservation system that forced tribes into areas as a group, the Dawes Act created a system of private land ownership amongst the tribes. Individuals could receive land allotments up to 160 acres in addition to full US citizenship. Not all tribes bought into the program, because they saw how it conflicted with the social organization of many groups, which emphasized communal ownership and respect for the land.</p> <p><strong>Chief Ignacio</strong> of the Southern Ute tribe actively refused to accept the allotment system. The chief and his followers (including most of the Weeminuche Ute) consolidated in protest on the western portion of the Ute reservation at the foot of Sleeping Ute Mountain in southwest Colorado. This area would eventually become the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a>. After all those who agreed to the allotment program bought land, the government considered the remaining plots a surplus for white settlers to purchase. As a result of the allotment system, Native Americans lost 90 million acres of land from 1887 to 1934.</p> <h2>The 1890 Ghost Dance</h2> <p>On January 1, 1889, Wovoka (also known as Jack Wilson) had a vision similar to Wodziwob’s while he was in Mason Valley, Nevada, near the Walker River Reservation. Wovoka, the son of a disciple of Wodziwob’s, said he learned in his vision that he needed to tell his people they must love each other and do this dance for five consecutive days so that the sickness and death would cease and return dead Indians to this world. Wovoka took an active role in spreading his message by making trips to other tribes and preaching it, inviting others to come listen to him preach as well as shipping items to individuals to help them with the dance. By 1890, word of Wovoka’s Ghost Dance spread west through Nevada and California, but more prominently it spread east through the Rocky Mountains to the plains from southern Canada to what is today Oklahoma and the Texas panhandle.</p> <p>As in the 1870 movement, details of the dance changed from tribe to tribe with different songs, garments, duration of the dance, and specific calling by the participants. This variety likely occurred because tribes would incorporate the message of the Ghost Dance into an existing dance. One commonality is that the dance occurred in a circle. Some tribes, most notably the Lakota, adopted the use of the “Ghost Dance shirt.”&nbsp;The dancers believed the shirt to be bulletproof. James Mooney, an ethnographer, suggested that the shirts represented influence of Mormon missionaries.</p> <h2>Colorado Ghost Dances</h2> <p>James Mooney described the dances in his report to the Bureau of Ethnology, noting differences between tribes east and west of the Rocky Mountains. Because of the Utes’ geographic proximity and relationship to the Paiute, they participated in dances and spread word to other tribes. Mooney suggests that the Southern Utes did not believe Wovoka’s prophecy and likely did not participate in dances. According to Robert McPherson’s ethnographic account of the White Mesa Ute, Edward Dutchie reported that a dance secretly called the Ghost Dance occurred in <strong>Towaoc</strong> and <strong>Ignacio</strong>. McPherson also noted that the Nuche preferred to call them “Worship Dances.” White Mesa elders recalling the Worship Dances noted the use of white garments and dancing around a tree.</p> <p>The narrative behind the Ute dances follows a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wolves-colorado\"><strong>wolf</strong></a>-and-coyote structure typical of Numic cultures: the wolf represents the wise older brother, and the coyote represents the imitating younger brother who causes problems, serving as a metaphor for the pattern of the people. In particular, Coyote causes problems with Bear, which results in the murder of Wolf. Coyote then must conduct a series of tasks in hopes to bring back his brother so they may be reunited and live happily together. The story of resurrection parallels the teachings of Wovoka, thus strengthening the connection between the Ute Worship Dance and the Ghost Dances as a whole.</p> <h2>End of the Ghost Dance Movement</h2> <p>As tensions continued to rise between Euro-American settlers acquiring leftover allotment lands, confusion arose around the Ghost Dance. Lakota&nbsp;were particularly thought of as violent Ghost Dancers, and skirmishes developed regularly in the areas adjacent to the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations. In December 1890, a dance group fled from the Cheyenne River Reservation to the Pine Ridge Reservation. The Seventh Cavalry intercepted the party along Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. On December 29, 1890, as the Cavalry proceeded to disarm members of the tribe, a deaf man became confused and refused to hand over his gun. The gun went off, prompting the Cavalry to open fire. The Ghost Dance movement in many respects ended with the Wounded Knee Massacre. Most tribes stopped dances but kept aspects of the teachings alive, such as a hand game amongst the Assiniboine. Disciples also continued to visit Wovoka for a number of years. The events coincided with Frederick Jackson Turner’s “frontier thesis,” which declared the frontier to be officially conquered by white Americans and thus closed.</p> <h2>Impact of the Ghost Dance Movement</h2> <p>Many scholars refer to the Ghost Dance movement as a reaction to the pressures of the reservation system and a way to cope. Other scholars describe the movement as a matter of creating the universal identity of “Indian” as opposed to individual tribal membership because American Indians’ lives drastically changed when they lived together on reservations and allotted lands.</p> <p>According to elders at White Mesa, Utes continued Worship Dances until the 1960s, with the last being for Anson Cantsee, as reported by his granddaughter, Adoline Eyetoo. McPherson reports in his ethnography that Jack Cantsee, Sr. (the son of Anson) continues to perform Worship Dances in places such as Towaoc and Ignacio. Other movements and dances such as the <strong>Sun Dance</strong>, <strong>Bear Dance</strong>, <strong>Peyote Religion</strong>, and <strong>Native American Church </strong>share aspects of the Ghost Dances, such as foretelling a better time and guiding Indians to a better life. The Ghost Dance movement inspired literature such as Dee Brown’s <em>Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</em> and several works by Native American authors such as Sherman Alexie. Both historical fiction and documentaries about the American West highlight the dances. The Ghost Dance continues to be a symbol of American Indians’ attempts to preserve their heritage.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/simon-rebecca-l" hreflang="und">Simon, Rebecca L.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ghost-dance" hreflang="en">Ghost dance</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sun-dance" hreflang="en">Sun dance</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/revitalization-movement" hreflang="en">Revitalization movement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/religious-movement" hreflang="en">religious movement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-tribes" hreflang="en">Indian tribes</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>John D. Barton, <em>A History of Duchesne County</em>, digitized by J. Willard Marriott Library (Salt Lake City: Utah Historical Society, Duchesne County Commission, 1998).</p> <p>Alex K. Carroll, M. Nieves Zedeño, and Richard W. Stoffle, “Landscapes of the Ghost Dance: A Cartography of Numic Ritual,” <em>Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory</em> 11 (June 2004).</p> <p>Kristen Jean Carroll, “Place, Performance, and Social Memory in the 1890s Ghost Dance” (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007).</p> <p>Raymond J. DeMallie and David Reed Miller, “Assiniboine,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: Plains</em>, vol. 13, part 1, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, “History of the United States Plains Since 1850,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: Plains</em>, vol. 13, part 1, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>W. W. Hill, “The Navaho Indians and the Ghost Dance of 1890,” <em>American Anthropologist</em> 46 (October–December 1944).</p> <p>Michael Hittman, “The 1870 Ghost Dance at the Walker River Reservation: A Reconstruction,” <em>Ethnohistory</em> 20 (Summer 1973).</p> <p>E. Adamson Hoebel, “Brief Communications: The Comanche Sun Dance and Messianic Outbreak of 1873,” <em>American Anthropologist</em> 43 (April–June 1941).</p> <p>Alfred L. Kroeber, “A Ghost-Dance in California,” <em>Journal of American Folklore</em> 17, no. 64 (January–March 1904).</p> <p>Willis Fletcher Johnson, <em>The Red Record of the Sioux: Life of Sitting Bill and History of the Indian War of 1890–’91 </em>(Philadelphia: Edgewood Publishing Company, 1891).</p> <p>Alexander Lesser, “The Cultural Significance of the Ghost Dance,” <em>American Anthropologist</em> 35 (January–March 1933).</p> <p>David McCrady, “History of the Canadian Plains since 1870,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians:</em> <em>Plains</em>, vol. 13, part 1, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> <p>William McLoughlin, “Ghost Dance Movements: Some Thoughts on Definition Based on Cherokee History,” <em>Ethnohistory</em> 37 (Winter 1990).</p> <p>Robert S. McPherson, <em>As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes</em> (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 2011).</p> <p>James Mooney, “The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890,” in <em>The Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution: 1892–1893 </em>(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1896), Kindle edition.</p> <p>Daniel S. Murphree, ed., <em>Native America: A State by State Historical Encyclopedia</em> (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012).</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-west/">New Perspectives on the West</a>,” West Film Project and&nbsp;WETA.</p> <p>Alex Ruuska, “Ghost Dancing and the Iron Horse: Surviving through Tradition and Technology,” <em>Technology and Culture</em> 52 (July 2011).</p> <p>Gregory E. Smoak, <em>Ghost Dances and Identity: Prophetic Religion and American Indian Ethnogenesis in the Nineteenth Century</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).</p> <p>Richard W. Stoffle, Lawrence Loendorf, Diane E. Austin, David B. Halmo, and Angelita Bulletts, “Ghost Dancing in the Grand Canyon: Southern Paiute Rock Art, Ceremony, and Cultural Landscapes,” <em>Current Anthropology </em>41 (February 2001).</p> <p>Lisa Tatonetti, “Dancing That Way, Things Began to Change: The Ghost Dance as Pan Tribal Metaphor in Sherman Alexie’s Writing,” in <em>Sherman Alexie: A Collection of Critical Essays</em>, ed. Jeff Berglund and Jan Roush (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2010).</p> <p>Matthew A. Taylor, “‘Contagious Emotions’ and the Ghost Dance Religion: Mooney’s Science, Black Elk’s Fever,” <em>ELH</em> 81 (Fall 2014).</p> <p>Russell Thornton, <em>We Shall Live Again: The 1870 and 1890 Ghost Dance Movements as Demographic Revitalization</em> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).</p> <p>Robert M. Utley, “Indian-United States Military Situation, 1848–1891,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian-White Relations</em>, vol. 4, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988).</p> <p>Richard White and William Cronon, “Ecological Change and Indian-White Relations,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian-White Relations</em>, vol. 4, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988).</p> <p>Gloria Young, “Intertribal Religious Movements,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: Plains</em>, vol. 13, part 2, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Dee Brown, <em>Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West</em> (New York: Bantam Books, 1972).</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-west/">New Perspectives on the West</a>,” West Film Project and&nbsp;WETA, 2001.</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/knee.htm">Massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890</a>,” Eyewitnesstohistory.com, 1998.</p> <p><a href="http://www.succm.org/">Southern Ute Cultural Center and Museum</a></p> <p>“<a href="https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/wounded-knee">Wounded Knee</a>,” The History Channel, 2009.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.ushistory.org/us/40e.asp">The Wounded Knee Massacre</a>,” USHistory.org.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 29 Dec 2015 19:16:12 +0000 yongli 1069 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Tipi http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tipi-0 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tipi</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1056--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1056.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10026526_0.jpg?itok=ozVyre_3" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Encampment, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Ute tipi camp near Denver, 1874. Note the pegs used to secure the base of the lodge in the foreground. William Henry Jackson photograph, History Colorado collections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1057--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1057.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/monitor-mesa-wickiup"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Image-2_Monitor_Mesa_Wickiup_08_1976_0.jpg?itok=dRfXFn1q" width="1000" height="1389" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/monitor-mesa-wickiup" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Monitor Mesa Wickiup</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Conical lodge frames or wickiups may have been covered with skins, brush, bark, or other materials. This tipi-like framework of poles is preserved in an old-growth forest in Montrose County, Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1058--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1058.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/spaced-stone-enclosure"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Image-3_Keota_Stone_Circle_May_2013_0.jpg?itok=pEnvpRzn" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/spaced-stone-enclosure" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">A Spaced Stone Enclosure</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Keota Stone Circles Archaeological District in Weld County is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Scores of roughly circular “tipi rings” such as this one have been documented there.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--548--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--548.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/tipi-pictograph"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Image%204_Trinchera_Cave_tipi_cropped_08_1998_0.jpg?itok=vFRHquQZ" width="1090" height="1635" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/tipi-pictograph" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tipi Pictograph</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This quite realistic pictograph of a tipi is part of a larger rock art panel at a rockshelter site in Las Animas County. Note the red painted band at the bottom of the lodge and the clearly defined smoke flaps painted in charcoal at the top.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-28T11:20:30-07:00" title="Monday, December 28, 2015 - 11:20" class="datetime">Mon, 12/28/2015 - 11:20</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tipi-0" data-a2a-title="Tipi"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftipi-0&amp;title=Tipi"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The tipi, or tepee, is an iconic form of Native American housing. It has a long history of use throughout Colorado and the western plains of North America. Sturdy and secure yet portable, the hide-covered tipi has been an ideal shelter for millennia among mobile human groups. The term comes from Siouan languages as <em>thipi</em>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<em>tīpī</em> for dwelling or house, literally translated as “used to live in.”</p> <h2>Earliest Uses</h2> <p>The earliest evidence for the use of tipis in Colorado and adjacent states can be found in late Ice Age sites of the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>. This evidence takes one of two forms: circular patterns of post molds—the organic imprints of rotted lodge poles—and spaced stone enclosures, or “tipi rings.” Standing pole frameworks from hide-covered lodges are rarely preserved, but a few examples remain in the old-growth forests of the Rocky Mountain region, most of which date from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s AD.</p> <p>At the Hell Gap archaeological site in southeastern Wyoming, about ninety-five miles (155 km) north of the Colorado border, five separate post mold patterns are preserved in vertically stratified layers <a href="/article/radiocarbon-dating-0"><strong>radiocarbon dated</strong></a> to the period 8800–10,450 BC. Four of these five features define lodges that are quite small, about six and a half feet in diameter; the fifth post mold pattern is about thirteen feet in diameter. While it cannot be proven whether or not these features represent the remains of hide-covered tipis as opposed to brush- or bark-covered <a href="/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a>, a conical or domed form to the superstructure best explains the arrangement and orientation of post molds. At the very least, these are among the oldest known lodges in the west.</p> <p>The Hell Gap site also preserves the most ancient stone tipi ring feature known to science in this region. A single oval-shaped, spaced stone enclosure about seven and a half feet in diameter is buried in a late Paleo-Indian layer radiocarbon dated to slightly younger Paleo-Indian times at about 7800 BC. Such rings of usually flat stone slabs were used to anchor the perimeter of the hide covering on the lodge. In later eras, these features become the most common evidence of housing in grassland environments from southern Canada to Texas, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Where stone was not naturally available, wood or bone pegs were used to fix the base of the hide covering through attached loops, but these stakes are almost never preserved. Their use is best documented in historical photographs.</p> <p>Stone tipi rings are found in sites throughout Colorado, but are much more numerous on the western plains beginning in the <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a> after 6500 BC. Even during the <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong></a>, when some native tribes had adapted a farming lifestyle based on cultivation of corn with some beans and squash, the tipi continued to be used as a temporary lodge for hunting and gathering excursions. Tipi rings of later periods are generally 10–20 feet in diameter, defining a floor area of about 75–300 square feet. Once horses spread among Native American groups in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the “modern” tipi form developed as an often larger, taller structure housing a single nuclear family with one or a few relatives such as a single parent.</p> <p>To be sure, some Colorado groups maintained their traditional nomadic lifestyle throughout the Prehistoric era into documented history, with the tipi as a favored choice of shelter. By the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>gold rush</strong></a> of the mid-nineteenth century, historical accounts in newspapers, photographs, and other records document the use of the tipi by virtually every indigenous group that inhabited Colorado.</p> <h2>Architectural Details</h2> <p>From afar, tipis display a very symmetrical form, but on closer inspection, their actual “tilted cone” shape comes into view. Steepest in the rear, the tipi wall slopes more gradually on the front side toward the doorway, an angle emphasized by the smoke flaps at the top of the lodge that are held forward by long exterior poles. Construction of the lodge begins with a framework of three or four poles upon which the remaining interior posts rest. The tripod frame is most common among the <strong>Arapaho, Cheyenne, Kiowa, Lakota Sioux</strong>, and <strong>Pawnee</strong>. The doorway often faces east to the rising sun, and is no more than a gap in the hide covers that can be secured with bone or wood pins.</p> <p>Up to eight prepared <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hides (or skins of other large game) were needed to cover a single tipi ten feet in diameter. Historical photographs and the occasional <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> panel show that exterior surfaces were often brightly painted with scenes featuring animals, people, spirit beings, or other symbols. In the nineteenth century, canvas covers quickly replaced hides as the bison herds dwindled from hunting pressure and, especially, wholesale slaughter by US government sanction. Canvas has the added benefit of being more lightweight and thus easier to transport.</p> <p>Fireplaces are located a bit off-center in a floor pit, or may be placed outside the lodge in warmer months. Sleeping space is arranged around the lodge wall, and may be segregated by gender, as was also true of sitting space. Storage of small articles likewise is around the edges, between the beds. For example, in a Sioux or Kiowa tipi the men generally sit on the north side and the women on the south side of the floor space. In a larger lodge or in tipis of ceremonial function, more central floor space may also be reserved for special activities, the specifics of which vary by tribal affiliation.</p> <h2>Tipi Camps</h2> <p>Both historically and in earlier times, the size of tipi encampments varied significantly. Prehistoric tipi ring sites in Colorado may have only a single-lodge foundation preserved, but sites with five to twenty rings are not uncommon. However, the original number of lodges present can be difficult to discern if stone slabs were collected and reused in a nearby location or redistributed on-site for other purposes. Camps containing scores or hundreds of lodges also occur on the western plains of North America, and even larger camps of more than a thousand lodges were documented—Custer’s men attacked a village of about 1,200 lodges at Little Bighorn.</p> <p>The spatial pattern of lodges within a camp also varied by tribe. In certain circumstances, lodges were arranged in a circular pattern with an opening on the east side of the camp, mirroring the design of an individual lodge. This “camp circle” has been documented among many plains tribes, but not for the <strong>Comanche</strong>. The camp circle exemplified group cohesion, and was mandated for formal events such as ceremonial occasions and communal hunting forays. In other cases, a seemingly random scatter of lodges may have obscured a subtler pattern of slight clustering among a subset of lodges housing members of an individual clan or other social or kinship grouping. Regardless of the lodge pattern, individual families and bands within a tribe would recognize where they belonged within the village layout.</p> <p>While habitation is the most common function recognized for tipis, many other non-domestic activities took place in lodges reserved for special purposes. Larger tipis within a camp may mark the lodge of a village chief, and also could be marked with a banner of some kind tied to the top of the tallest lodge post—the “lifting pole” at the rear to which the covering is tied. Smaller tipis might be built by children, who may erect even smaller lodges for their dogs. Warrior societies within tribes such as the Cheyenne and Lakota Sioux may have a lodge reserved for their activities, just as a “medicine lodge” can house the village shaman. An especially large “council house” accommodates group events, and some tribes built burial tipis after the passing of important individuals, necessitating that the camp be moved.</p> <h2>Past and Future</h2> <p>In the mountains and Western Slope of Colorado, the traditional <strong>Ute Indian</strong> lodge was a smaller wickiup either freestanding, like a tipi, or a lean-to built against a large tree. However, by the seventeenth century, the Utes had acquired horses from the Spanish to the south and began making more frequent forays onto the plains. There they hunted bison and adapted a number of practices from their neighbors, including, &nbsp;given their newfound access to abundant bison products, the larger hide-covered tipi. Theirs was a four-pole-framed tipi, a design similar to that of their northern cousins, the <strong>Eastern Shoshone</strong>.</p> <p>Tipis remain an exemplary form of traditional architecture, emblematic of the nomadic lifeways of so many Plains Indian tribes in North America. Modern Anglo-Americans in particular appear drawn to them as significant and symbolic features of Native American histories seemingly lost to time.</p> <p>However, the tipi endures today as both a sacred tie to tradition among Indian tribes and as a highly functional form of shelter for others engaged in everything from recreation to “back-to-nature” rural living. Its circular form is symbolic of the cycle of life, just as its traditional construction materials come from the land and cycle back into it upon abandonment. Given all of its advantages, combining simplicity of design with extreme functionality, the tipi’s endurance as an option for shelter seems assured.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tipi" hreflang="en">Tipi</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tepee" hreflang="en">Tepee</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-houses" hreflang="en">native houses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tipi-rings" hreflang="en">tipi rings</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-circles" hreflang="en">stone circles</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Leslie B. Davis, ed., “From Microcosm to Macrocosm: Advances in Tipi Ring Investigation and Interpretation,” Memoir 19, <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 28, no. 102 (November 1983).</p> <p>Raymond J. DeMallie, “Introduction,” in <em>Handbook of North American Indians: Plains</em>, vol. 13, pt. 1, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001).</p> <p>Mary Lou Larson, Marcel Kornfeld, and George C. Frison, eds., <em>Hell Gap: A Stratified Paleoindian Campsite at the Edge of the Rockies</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2009).</p> <p>Reginald Laubin and Gladys Laubin, <em>The Indian Tipi: Its History, Construction, and Use</em>, 2nd ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kimball M. Banks and J. Signe Snortland, “Every Picture Tells a Story: Historic Images, Tipi Camps, and Archaeology,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 40, no. 152 (May 1995).</p> <p>Ted J. Brasser, “The Tipi as an Element in the Emergence of Historic Plains Indian Nomadism,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 27, no. 98, pt. 1 (November 1982).</p> <p>Walter Stanley Campbell, “The Cheyenne Tipi,” <em>American Anthropologist</em> 17, no. 4, n.s. (October–December 1915).</p> <p>Ken Deaver and Sherri Deaver, “<a href="http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.arc.048">Tipis</a>,” <em>Encyclopedia of the Great Plains</em>, University of Nebraska­–Lincoln, 2011.</p> <p>R. A. Flayharty and Elizabeth Ann Morris, “T-W-Diamond, A Stone Ring Site in Northern Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 19, no. 65 (August 1974).</p> <p>Paul Goble, <em>Tipi: Home of the Nomadic Buffalo Hunters</em> (Bloomington, Indiana:&nbsp;World Wisdom, 2007).</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/kids/houses/tipis.html">Tipis: Early ‘Mobile Homes</a>,’” University of Texas at Austin.</p> <p>“<a href="http://www.tipis.org/">Tipis-Tepees-Teepees</a>,” Holley Arts.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 28 Dec 2015 18:20:30 +0000 yongli 1055 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cliff Dwelling http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Dwelling</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1255--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1255.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-dwelling-historic-photograph"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Cliff-Dwelling-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=lN0dobvx" width="1000" height="794" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-dwelling-historic-photograph" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Dwelling, historic photograph</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Perhaps the first photograph of a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwelling</strong></a> in southwestern Colorado, Two Story House. The two individuals in the photograph are Captain John Moss, guide for the Hayden Survey, and Ernest Ingersoll, reporter with the Hayden Survey. Photographed by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>William Henry Jackson</strong></a>, 1874.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-11-20T14:00:06-07:00" title="Friday, November 20, 2015 - 14:00" class="datetime">Fri, 11/20/2015 - 14:00</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling" data-a2a-title="Cliff Dwelling"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcliff-dwelling&amp;title=Cliff%20Dwelling"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The cliff dwellings of southwestern Colorado are among the world’s greatest archaeological treasures. The term <em>cliff dwelling </em>can be applied to any archaeological site used as a habitation and located in an alcove or rock overhang; however, the most famous cliff dwellings are those created by <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> people during the thirteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest and greatest concentration of cliff dwellings is located in <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, but there are numerous others throughout the sandstone canyons of southwestern Colorado, including those found in the <strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribal Park</strong> and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>,<strong> Navajo</strong>, and<strong> Pueblo </strong>peoples knew of the region’s cliff dwellings, and this knowledge is recorded in their oral traditions, but widespread awareness of the cliff dwellings came only after explorers began to regularly visit southwestern Colorado during the mid-to-late nineteenth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Holmes and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>William H. Jackson</strong></a> made the first scientific documentation of a cliff dwelling during the 1874 field season of an expedition known as the Hayden Survey. Jackson described and photographed cliff dwellings in lower Mancos River Canyon at that time.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Perhaps the most important “discovery” of a cliff dwelling occurred in December 1888. <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Charlie Mason, two ranchers from <strong>Mancos</strong>, were searching for stray cattle on the landform known as Mesa Verde when they came across an exceptionally large cliff dwelling that, given its size and grandeur, they named “<a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Of course, the Ute Indians who called Mesa Verde home likely knew about Cliff Palace long before Wetherill and Mason first laid eyes on it, and it is possible that <strong>Acowitz</strong>—a Ute leader and friend of the Wetherill family—first told them about the ruin and described its general location. It is also likely that Richard’s brother Al viewed Cliff Palace three years earlier in 1885, but he was too tired to enter the alcove and his sighting went unrecorded.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In contrast, Richard Wetherill and a number of other ranchers returned to Cliff Palace to thoroughly explore the ruin in the days that followed their discovery. This triggered an ongoing effort by the Wetherill brothers to investigate Mesa Verde’s other cliff dwellings, and by 1890 they had reportedly searched through 182 dwellings. The artifacts they recovered were publicly displayed, and adventurous tourists began to seek out guided trips to view these remarkable sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The most notable of these early visitors was <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, a Swedish scientist, who arrived at the Wetherill’s Alamo Ranch in July 1891. He worked with the Wetherills and other laborers throughout that summer to excavate and photograph many cliff dwellings on Mesa Verde. Nordenskiöld taught the Wetherills methods that were more scientific and systematic, and in 1893 he published a book, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde</em>, that reports on the excavations and the collections he amassed. He removed these artifacts to his homeland, and today the collection is housed at the National Museum of Finland in Helsinki.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The early explorations of cliff dwellings and Nordenskiöld’s removal of artifacts to another country led to the recognition that the cliff dwellings and other archaeological sites needed protection. The result was the <a href="/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act </strong></a>of 1906, which led to the creation of Mesa Verde National Park that year. It was the first park set aside to preserve cultural, as opposed to natural, resources.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The cliff dwellings in southwestern Colorado have provided unparalleled opportunities for research because of the remarkable preservation of the buildings and the artifacts found there. Some structures contain intact roofs made from timbers, other vegetal material, and sediment commonly referred to as adobe. These preserved timbers were key resources in the development of <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dating</strong></a>, the world’s most precise method for dating archaeological sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Artifacts recovered from cliff dwellings include durable items such as stone tools and pottery as well as perishable materials such as clothing, sandals, and blankets that are preserved because the alcoves keep the dwellings dry and largely free of moisture. These perishable artifacts are not preserved at other, more open sites, and they have been critical to reconstructing the lives of Ancestral Pueblo people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today the cliff dwellings of southwestern Colorado are also among the most important sites for educating the public about Ancestral Pueblo people and the human past. More than half a million people visit the cliff dwellings each year. Most go to Mesa Verde National Park, but many also visit the Ute Mountain Tribal Park and Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/varien-mark-d" hreflang="und">Varien, Mark D.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-indians" hreflang="en">Pueblo Indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo-architecture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-palace" hreflang="en">Cliff Palace</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred M. Blackburn, <em>The Wetherills: Friends of Mesa Verde</em> (Durango, CO: The Durango Herald Small Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William D. Lipe, “History of Archaeology,” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin, </em>ed. William D. Lipe et al. (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Florence C. Lister, <em>Troweling Through Time: The First Century of Mesa Verdean Archaeology </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gustaf Nordenskiöld, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde</em> (Glorieta, New Mexico: Rio Grande Press, 1979; orig. in D. Lloyd Morgan, trans., <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado: Their Pottery and Implements</em> [Chicago: P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner, 1893]).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://crowcanyon.org/">Crow Canyon Archaeological Center</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide</em>, 2nd ed. (Flagstaff, Arizona: Northland Publishing Company, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, ed., <em>The Mesa Verde World: Explorations in Ancestral Pueblo Archaeology</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Arthur H. Rohn, <em>Mug House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em>, Archeological Research Series No. 7-D (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ian Thompson, <em>The Towers of Hovenweep</em> (Moab, Utah: Canyonlands Natural History Association, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.utemountaintribalpark.info/">Ute Mountain Tribal Park</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Nov 2015 21:00:06 +0000 yongli 967 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org