%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Montezuma County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * 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field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/MontezumaCounty_0.jpg?itok=3rYlvBkh" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Montezuma County, home of Mesa Verde National Park, was established in 1889.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-27T15:03:09-06:00" title="Monday, June 27, 2016 - 15:03" class="datetime">Mon, 06/27/2016 - 15:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county" data-a2a-title="Montezuma County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmontezuma-county&amp;title=Montezuma%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Montezuma County, famous for the ancient Native American ruins at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>, is the  southwesternmost county in Colorado. The county covers 2,040 square miles of the <strong>Colorado Plateau</strong>, and has the distinction of bordering Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is known as the <strong>Four Corners </strong>region, where the boundaries of four states intersect. Montezuma County is surrounded by three different San Juan Counties: <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>, Colorado to the northeast; San Juan County, New Mexico to the south; and San Juan County, Utah to the west. <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores County</strong></a>, Colorado, lies along its northern border and <a href="/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a> along its eastern. The county’s southwest corner touches Apache County, Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the county was established in 1889, the ruins within its borders were thought to be of Aztec origin. Thus, Montezuma County is named after the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II, and its county seat, <strong>Cortez</strong>, is named after the Spanish conquistador who vanquished him. Most of the county’s ancient Native American ruins are located in Mesa Verde National Park in the southeast and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument </strong>in the west. In addition, <a href="/article/hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a> lies just over the county’s western border in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> and its capital, <strong>Towaoc</strong>, are located in southern Montezuma County. Towaoc—a word that means “just fine”—has a population of 1,087; Native Americans make up 11 percent of the county’s 25,772 residents. Cortez has a population of 8,482 and sits in central Montezuma County at the juncture of US Routes 491 and 160 and State Highway 145. Other notable towns include <strong>Mancos</strong> (pop. 1,336), along US 160 northeast of Mesa Verde, and <strong>Dolores</strong> (pop. 936), along Colorado 145 at the southern end of McPhee Reservoir. State Highway 184 connects Mancos and Dolores and meets US 491 just south of the unincorporated area of Lewis. The <strong>Dolores River</strong> flows into the county from the northeast, alongside Colorado 145 and through the San Juan National Forest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 2,200 years ago, the Mesa Verde region was inhabited by the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> ancestors of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who would leave their edificial legacy on the cliff sides. By the end of the sixth century AD the descendants of those Paleo-Indians, known to archaeologists as Basketmakers on account of their proficiency at that craft, began to settle on top of the mesa. Already part-time farmers, they found fertile soils on the southern flanks of the flattop where they could grow maize and other crops. They also began exploring the mesa’s many deep canyons, and found suitable shelter in stone pockets created by the freezing and thawing of the rocks and by water percolating through the mesa’s sandstone cap.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although life on top of a 7,000-foot mesa without steel tools and other later technology must have been difficult, it was probably easier than anywhere else these Basketmakers had lived since they stayed. They built primitive dwellings called pithouses, and by the ninth century these had evolved into flat-roofed, multiple-room structures built on top of the mesa, their walls anchored by stone slabs and held together by a thick mud mortar.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the tenth century these Ancestral Puebloans had converted the earlier pithouse design into their famous sandstone <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>—the large, one-room ceremonial structures typical of many Puebloan archaeological sites throughout Colorado and the Southwest. Ancestral Puebloans did not transfer these structural designs to the famous cliff sides until about the mid-thirteenth century, when some event—climatic, cultural, or likely both—prompted the hasty construction of houses and kivas in the canyon alcoves.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde’s most famous and most photographed structure, the <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, was finished sometime between 1260 and 1280, before a twenty-five-year drought decimated the food supply and possibly prompted the mass exodus from the mesa. By 1300 the Ancestral Puebloans had disappeared from the region. Although the drought certainly played a large role in the abandonment, it is still not entirely clear what combination of events in the late thirteenth century forced the Ancestral Puebloans to leave Mesa Verde.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Nuche</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Nuche, or Ute people, were present in the Four Corners region by 1300, and by 1500 southwest Colorado was occupied by a band of Utes called the Weenuche: the “long time ago people.” Although the Weenuche came to be the most dominant group, other groups of Utes—such as the Muache and Capote—as well as Navajo and Southern Paiute people also frequented the Four Corners area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes lived off the natural resources of Colorado’s mountains and river valleys, hunting <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a>, jackrabbit, and other game. They also gathered a wide assortment of wild berries and roots, including the versatile yucca root. In the summer they followed game high into the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>, and in the winter they followed the animals back to the shelter of the lower river valleys, such as the Dolores.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early seventeenth century, the northern frontier of New Spain pressed up against the lands of the Weenuche and other Utes in southwestern Colorado. The Nuche relationship with the Spaniards was one of alternate raiding and trading. As early as 1640 they had acquired horses from their European neighbors to the south. Horses allowed the Utes, who were already accustomed to ranging across vast territories, to cover even more ground in search of trade or larger populations of game such as buffalo. The horse also increased the value of river valleys, as Ute ponies could find ample forage there in winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Official <strong>Spanish exploration</strong> of the Montezuma County area began with the expedition of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in 1765. Rivera’s mission was to have the Utes guide him to the Colorado River—then known as the Río del Tizón—and investigate rumors of silver deposits in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1765 Rivera’s expedition reached the Dolores River near present-day Dolores, but Nuche there warned him not to proceed any farther until the fall, when cooler weather prevailed. Rivera’s group headed back to New Mexico. In the fall Rivera again crossed the Montezuma County area on his way to the Dolores River.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rivera’s expedition carved out a route for future traders and explorers. In July 1776, the Spanish friars Silvestre Escalante and Francisco Domínguez were dispatched to find an overland passage from Santa Fé to Monterey, California. After following Rivera’s old route through present-day <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta</strong></a>, La Plata, Montezuma, <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel</strong></a> Counties, Dominguez and Escalante pushed northeast into the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Valley and then northwest into Utah. In October a punishing blizzard forced them back to Santa Fé.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They had not found passage to Monterey, but Domínguez and Escalante had pushed farther into western Colorado than any other Spanish explorer. They were also the first Europeans to document the Mesa Verde region in 1776.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explorers, Farmers, and Ranchers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Montezuma County area belonged to Mexico after it won independence from Spain in 1821, but was ceded to the United States after the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1859 an American expedition led by Captain <strong>John Macomb</strong> left Santa Fé and crossed the northern part of present-day Montezuma County. Macomb sought to map a railroad or wagon route through southwest Colorado, but found the terrain too difficult for practical construction of either. His expedition was the last official US military exploration of southwest Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The years after 1876 saw increased migration of Hispano ranchers and farmers from New Mexico into present-day Montezuma County. Most of these migrants opposed the opening of Ute lands to Americans, as they feared it would increase Anglo dominance of the area. Colorado historian William Wyckoff notes that “many Ute babies had Hispano baptismal godparents, and relations between the two groups were cordial.” The continued presence of Anglo-American, Hispano, and Native Americans led to the development of a rich cultural mosaic that persists to the present.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government brokered a <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty with Utes</strong></a> in 1868 that left the Native Americans a huge reservation encompassing nearly the entire western third of Colorado. But against the wishes of both the government and the Utes, prospectors soon filtered into the San Juans northeast of present-day Montezuma County. A few successful strikes in the mountains in the early 1870s led to the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the Ute leader <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> agreed to cede the San Juan Mountains, including the eastern part of present-day Montezuma County, to the United States. The agreement also established the <strong>Southern Ute Indian Reservation</strong> south of the ceded territory for the Weenuche, Capote, and Muache Utes. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act </strong></a>of 1887 directed that reservation land be allotted to individual tribal members, but many Weenuches rejected the idea of allotment and preferred one large reservation. To that end, in 1895 the government established the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> out of the western edge of the Southern Ute Reservation. Weenuche Utes began settling the reservation in 1897, and they gained federal recognition as the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tension between whites and Utes in Montezuma County persisted despite the reservations. One common source of conflict was the tendency of white ranchers’ herds to stray onto the reservation. In addition, the federal government proved unreliable in furnishing supplies promised to the Utes in earlier treaties, so some Utes left the reservation to hunt. White ranchers often accused Utes of killing their cattle and committing other crimes. These tensions sometimes resulted in violence, such as when Utes killed at least a dozen ranchers in the spring of 1881, or when whites murdered a group of Utes at a campsite along <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek</strong></a> in 1885. That same year Weenuches burned the Genthner home on Totten Lake, near Cortez, and killed the family patriarch, though his wife and six children survived. Sporadic violence continued until the last major conflict in 1915, which left several Utes and members of a joint Anglo-American-Mexican posse dead.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these conflicts, Utes and non-native residents managed to coexist peacefully in Montezuma County after the turn of the century. In the first third of the twentieth century, many Utes found employment as cowboys or farmers. Today, the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe hosts guided tours of their homeland for visitors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Establishment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first permanent white residents in Montezuma County were miners who explored the Mancos Valley on the heels of the Brunot Agreement. In 1873 a small and bankrupt <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> party consisting of Almarion Root, Alex K. Fleming, Robert Jones, and Henry Lightner found a deposit that would become the site of the Comstock Mine in the La Plata Mountains. The party was fortunate to run into Captain John Moss, who was scouting Colorado mining ventures for wealthy San Francisco bankers. Moss took some samples from the Root party’s find, which impressed his California sponsor.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Moss returned from San Francisco with his own party in July, finding and naming the Montezuma Valley. By July 1874, Moss had found an agreeable settlement site on the fertile lands of the Mancos Valley, and he decided to set up a town that could support mining operations in the mountains. The town of Mancos was incorporated in 1894. More white settlers arrived in the Mancos community over the next few years, and in 1877 the first settlers arrived in the Dolores River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County was carved from the western portion of La Plata County in 1889. A little more than a year later, the Rio Grande &amp; Southern Railroad connected Mancos and Dolores, providing an important boost to the county economy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1886 the town of Cortez was laid out by M. J. Mack, an engineer for the Montezuma Valley Water Supply Company. Construction on the town’s main <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditch, which took water from the Dolores River, continued into 1887; in the meantime, the town’s first residents had to haul in their own barrels of water on wagons. On July 4, 1890, the first flowing water supplied the town’s few residences via a forty-foot flume.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late nineteenth century, ranching was the dominant economic activity in Montezuma County; nearly every homesteader had a cattle herd, and there were thousands of cattle ranging across the river valleys. Ranchers had also driven Native Americans off of grassy flattops such as Mesa Verde; in 1888 rancher <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> discovered the Cliff Palace while chasing some of his herd.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County’s ranching economy faded in the early twentieth century, however, as the amount of irrigated farmland increased and the creation of national parks and forest reserves reduced the amount of available grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of mining activities began in the mountains east of Mancos in the late nineteenth century and continued into the twentieth. The Sundown Mine, the area’s first high-paying mine, was established in 1894; in 1898 Montezuma County mines produced an estimated $15,000 worth of gold.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it never stopped, mining tapered off at the beginning of the twentieth century, only to experience a revival in the 1930s. In 1933 Charles Starr and his sons, Raymond and Howard, found a rich gold deposit east of Mancos. They opened the Red Arrow Mine, and its first shipment produced about $6,000 worth of gold. The mine was closed during World War II but was reopened after the war and remains in production today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In mid-February 1936, an <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> wiped out a mining camp east of Mancos belonging to the Hesperus Mining Company, killing six and destroying company property worth $75,000. The event remains the deadliest avalanche in county history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the turn of the century, the county’s economy began a transition from ranching to farming. The amount of irrigated land increased from 2,122 acres in 1889 to 27,176 acres in 1909, while the number of farms grew from 261 in 1900 to 1,004 in 1910. Apple and peach orchards sprang up to the north and west of Cortez, in Lebanon and McElmo Canyon. McElmo Canyon peaches even took home awards at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cortez continued to grow in the early twentieth century. In 1908 the Clifton Hotel burned down, and owner Johnny Brown and his wife rebuilt it as the Brown Palace Hotel, which still operates today. By 1910 the town had 565 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Construction of the county’s first major road, a highway that ran from Durango to Mancos, began in 1913 and was complete by 1919. By the 1920s Montezuma County had a population of about 7,000 and boasted more than 40,000 acres of irrigated land. Its agricultural bounty included alfalfa, corn, wheat, pears, cherries, apples, peaches, sheep, and cattle for beef and dairy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To prevent the exploitation of timber and grass reserves, President Theodore Roosevelt created the San Juan Forest Reserve—along with many other reserves in Colorado—in 1905. The government also created Mesa Verde National Park in 1906, Hovenweep National Monument in 1919, and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument"><strong> Yucca House National Monument</strong></a> in 1923, bringing more of the county’s land under federal management. Mesa Verde National Park was expanded in 1911 via a land exchange with the Weenuche so it would include more of the famous cliff dwellings. County farmers largely supported the creation of new federal lands because it preserved their water supply; ranchers, however, viciously opposed these developments because they curtailed the amount of grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the rest of the country, Montezuma County suffered during the <strong>Great Depression</strong> (1929–39), as production of nearly every agricultural commodity dropped sharply. After <strong>World War II</strong>, the county’s farms rebounded, and the economy added the new pillars of tourism and energy extraction. Spurred on by the uptick in automobile ownership, the number of visitors to Mesa Verde National Park more than tripled between 1941 and 1953. Major oil strikes west of Pleasant View in 1948 and in nearby Aneth, Utah, in 1956 turned Cortez into a prominent supply center for the oil industry. <a href="/article/uranium-mining"><strong>Uranium</strong></a> prospecting also funneled money into Cortez during the 1950s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The local oil and uranium industries spurred significant development in Cortez. The city got a new hospital in 1948. Main Street was paved in 1951, followed by several other streets in 1953–54. Two new elementary schools were added in 1950 and 1955. The first commercial planes arrived in the 1950s, and the first broadcast from the new local radio station, KVFC, hit the airwaves in 1955. With the energy industries fueling development, Cortez’s population grew from 2,680 in 1950 to 6,764 1960, an increase of more than 150 percent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The energy boom of the 1950s went bust in the 1960s, and Montezuma County became even more dependent on tourism. In 1992, the state designated Montezuma County as one of its Enterprise Zones—economically underdeveloped areas where businesses can receive tax breaks just for setting up shop. This allowed Montezuma County businesses to claim more than $7 million in tax credits and create 1,677 jobs between 1992 and 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, the federal <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> began building McPhee Reservoir on the Dolores River. When the project was completed in 1995, it irrigated an additional 35,000 acres, 7,500 of which lay on the Ute Mountain reservation. The reservoir also provides Towaoc, Cortez, and Dolores with a long-term water supply.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The federal government established Canyons of the Ancients National Monument in western Montezuma County in 2000, which brought the amount of land under federal management to about one-third of the county’s total. Tourism remains the main driver of the county economy, although the market value of its agricultural products has increased in recent years.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county-history" hreflang="en">montezuma county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mancos" hreflang="en">mancos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cortez" hreflang="en">cortez</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwelling" hreflang="en">cliff dwelling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiva" hreflang="en">kiva</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/four-corners" hreflang="en">four corners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plateau" hreflang="en">colorado plateau</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Phil Carson, <em>Across the Northern Frontier: Spanish Explorations in Colorado </em>(Boulder, CO: Johnson Printing, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/Montezuma_County_Performance_Report_2013.pdf">2013 Development Report: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/2011_CEDS_montezuma.pdf">Montezuma County Economic Development Strategy Update 2011</a>,” 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ira S. Freeman, <em>A History of Montezuma County</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathon C. Horn, “<a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/co/nm/canm/CANM_Documents.Par.87163.File.dat/Ancients%20Report.pdf">Landscape-Level History of the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Montezuma and Dolores Counties, Colorado</a>” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rose Houk and Faith Marcovecchio, eds., <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years</em>, Mesa Verde Museum Association (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Montezuma County, Colorado” (Grand Junction, CO: Winfield’s Press, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul M. O’Rourke, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co4.Par.36501.File.dat/orourke.pdf"><em>Frontier in Transition: A History of Southwestern Colorado</em></a> (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jill Seyfarth,  “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/CLG_Survey_Cortez2012.pdf">Historic Buildings Survey: Montezuma Avenue, Cortez, Colorado 2012</a>,” (Durango, CO: Cultural Resource Planning, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.cortezco.gov/">City of Cortez</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/discover-four-corners-region-things-do">Discover the Four Corners Region: Things to Do</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://scan.org/">Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://montezumacounty.org/web/">Montezuma County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.mancoscolorado.com/">Town of Mancos</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.utemountaintribalpark.info/">Ute Mountain Tribal Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 27 Jun 2016 21:03:09 +0000 yongli 1518 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1354--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1354.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_Bonito_Aerial%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=NVZtimPq" width="912" height="684" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Aerial view of Pueblo Bonito, one of the most distinctive great houses in Chaco Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-09T14:21:06-06:00" title="Monday, May 9, 2016 - 14:21" class="datetime">Mon, 05/09/2016 - 14:21</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region" data-a2a-title="Ancestral Puebloans of the Four Corners Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region&amp;title=Ancestral%20Puebloans%20of%20the%20Four%20Corners%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Formerly labeled Anasazi, the Ancestral Puebloan culture is the most widely known of the ancient cultures of Colorado. The people who built the <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great houses</strong></a> of <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> were subsistence farmers of corn, beans, and squash. The structures of this culture date to between ca. 350 BC and AD 1300 and are found throughout southwestern Colorado and other adjacent states of the Four Corners region. The great southward migration from this region by AD 1300 marks the end of the Ancestral Puebloan occupation in southwestern Colorado. The sites and histories of this ancestral culture are still valued today in song and prayer by the Pueblo peoples now residing in New Mexico and Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> refers to both the ancient cultural tradition and the peoples once found in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest. It is one of three major cultural traditions defined by archaeologists in the four southwestern states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah). The other two traditions are the Hohokam and Mogollon, neither of which extends into Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Archaeology and Terminology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early investigators such as <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> and Alfred V. Kidder referred to what we now call the Ancestral Pueblo tradition as the <em>Anasazi</em>. Although many early researchers drew inspiration from the historic Pueblos in their interpretations of the architecture and practices of the Ancestral Pueblo, they did not always make a clear link between this ancient culture and historic Pueblo peoples. They drew upon the Navajo workmen who helped them with some of their investigations and who called these ancient people <em>ʾ</em><em>anaasází</em>, translated as “old people,” “enemy ancestors,” or “ancient non-Navajos.” As archaeologists have increasingly associated many aspects of this ancient cultural tradition with the modern Pueblos, the term <em>Ancestral Pueblo</em> has gradually replaced <em>Anasazi</em> in archaeological literature as a more appropriate term.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The two branches of the Ancestral Pueblo tradition discussed in this summary—Mesa Verde and Chaco—are distinguishable from one another by differences in their pottery styles, architecture, and settlements, but they also shared a great deal in common.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The cultural diversity we see in the past is similar to modern Pueblo culture, which encompasses seven distinct languages and twenty-one pueblos, each under separate governance. They share a richly interwoven past. When Spanish conquistadors encountered the Pueblo groups in the sixteenth century, they found at least 50,000 to 60,000 people in approximately seventy-five Pueblo villages in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. Over the last 125 years, historians, archaeologists, and Pueblo tribal authorities have worked to untangle Ancestral Puebloan history to better understand how this tradition has shaped the customs and ways of life of modern Pueblo people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>All Pueblo culture shares in common an agricultural heritage focused on the cultivation of maize (corn) and a sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyle centered on large village communities, or pueblos. The roots of this culture date back more than two millennia, to the very beginnings of agriculture and settled life in the northern Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture in the Northern Southwest (350 BC–AD 575<strong>)</strong></h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The environment of the Four Corners made hunting and gathering difficult. The semiarid and arid upland landscape of the <strong>Colorado Plateau </strong>and Southern Rocky Mountains had patches of wild resources that were not reliable subsistence sources. In good years, the piñon nut harvest could be remarkable and large game such as <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>, pronghorn, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/bighorn-sheep">bighorn sheep</a></strong> offered fine hunting opportunities at certain times and locales throughout the year. But these resources, even when teamed with the wild grasses, berries, and other native plants of the area, necessitated a mobile lifestyle and tremendous seasonal flexibility. Consequently, the population was restricted to small groups that used particular areas seasonally. Climatic shifts also limited human occupation in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 2100 to 1200 BC, increasingly reliable summer precipitation and the introduction of maize from the south allowed for early horticulture. The first corn was not well adapted to the short growing seasons and dry <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a>, and the resulting corncobs were only an inch or two long. It would take 1,000–1,500 years before maize varieties were developed or introduced that could be successfully grown across a wide area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the transition from a limited horticulture and seminomadic lifeway to a more dedicated and sedentary agricultural lifeway was slow, small farming communities emerged in the late <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> to early <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods and the population began to increase steadily. In general, this early farming culture is still referred to as <strong>Basketmaker</strong> because basketry and woven goods remained the mainstays of storage, cooking, and serving vessels.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between about 350–200 BC and AD 300–350, there was a notable increase in multi-season and multi-household residential sites in certain regions. Evidence at these sites shows that the inhabitants were more dependent on maize cultivation, supplemented by localized hunting and gathering. These early farmers invested energy in more substantial and weatherproof pithouses and large, secure cists for food storage. The trash heaps, or middens, at these early residential sites indicate the inhabitants were at least semisedentary, residing at a single location for more than half a year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southern half of the Ancestral Pueblo area in New Mexico and Arizona is a source of innovation and many changes in the period between AD 200 and 600. The earliest Basketmaker brown ware pottery originates here and serves as a model for the first pottery in the Mesa Verde region. The original development and most widespread use of large community structures called great <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> also occurred in the south. Finally, beans, which offered a critical dietary pairing with maize, were more widely distributed in the south in early Basketmaker times. The south offered a historically secure and possibly more resilient locale for early agriculture, and at least half of the early farming populations in the Mesa Verde region likely could trace their origins to south of the San Juan River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Pueblos and <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great Houses</strong></a> (AD 575–900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The adoption of maize agriculture and the increasing use of beans and squash to achieve a more balanced diet helped to trigger a population increase, a demographic transition that characterizes many early agricultural societies. With decreased mobility, mothers can have and sustain more children and larger households are economically useful and viable.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 600 the population south of the San Juan River had increased significantly, and immigrant populations began to move into the Mesa Verde region once again. The central part of this region holds evidence of early habitations built during the span of AD 575–700. <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>Tree-ring</strong></a> and pollen records suggest that for much of the seventh century climatic conditions for farming would have been good in this region, and the immigrants were moving into a landscape rich in natural and wild resources. By AD 725–750, there were at least 4,500 people spread across the whole Mesa Verde region, from Elk Ridge north of Blanding, Utah, to the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a> valley near <strong>Durango</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The settlements of the mid-seventh century were most commonly single-household or paired-household hamlets. Small villages of eight to ten pithouses are known, but these were exceptional. Equally rare were great kivas, immense pit structures that could be from ten to twenty meters in diameter. <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>Rock art</strong></a> that dates to this period appears to portray community gatherings at great kivas and suggests the grand scale of these ritual events.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 750, the first small room blocks that would have housed two to four individual families are evident, foreshadowing a significant transformation in how settlements will be organized. Within a single generation after this architectural change, the first large villages with ten to twenty or more households emerge. Some of the earliest villages in the Ancestral Pueblo area occur in eastern and western Mesa Verde by about AD 775.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The period between AD 775 and 875 saw significant demographic shifts across the whole Ancestral Pueblo area, continued population growth, and a concentration of population in the central Mesa Verde region when compared to other Pueblo regions. Migration from the peripheries to the center of the Mesa Verde region, along with natural reproduction, concentrated as many 12,000 people into clusters of compact villages by AD 875. A mix of styles in the architecture, pottery, basketry, and organization of these villages suggests diversity within the regional population.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The largest villages and the concentration of population in the Mesa Verde region lasted only two to three generations. After a demographic peak at approximately AD 860, the population began to decrease by 880, and by the middle of the next century, there were no more than 2,500 people in the core area of the Mesa Verde region. Social and environmental turmoil appear to have been accelerated by several extended periods of drought and shortened growing seasons, and three centuries of expanding human populations had taken a toll on the region’s natural resources, wild game, and clean water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, we see evidence of the failure of key sociopolitical organizations suggested by the ritual burning of specific community structures and patterned acts of ritual violence against particular individuals in villages with early great houses. Particular structures, which previously had been the center of community feasts and ritual events, were deliberately burned down when they were depopulated. The focus on specific structures and particular individuals suggests these were deliberate, internal acts. Apparently, the social “glue” and alliances within these community centers came apart under the stresses of the late ninth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Once again, the various Pueblo groups—with their particular histories, evolving languages, and increasingly interwoven traditions—chose to leave their communities in this region and head either west and southwest or south and southeast. It appears that out of the dust and ideas of these ninth-century Mesa Verde villages emerged the even greater houses of Chaco Canyon of the tenth and eleventh centuries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Chaco World (AD 900–1125)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the tenth century the center of the Ancestral Pueblo world moved south of the San Juan River once again. The developments following the depopulation of the early Pueblo villages that resulted in the emergence of a southern great house system are still poorly understood. Current explanations argue that the large influx of people from the northern villages, combined with the germ of what was learned from the failure of the first great house experiments, gave rise to an organizational model in which great houses were placed at the center of a more dispersed rural community instead of within villages. Great houses were situated on prominent places within a landscape, and smaller residences were built around it. Between AD 900 and 1000, a great house system of over twenty-five communities appeared south of the San Juan, and throughout the period of AD 1020–1125. Chaco Canyon was the undisputed center of this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Chaco system influenced and at least partially united—if not dominated—much of the northern Southwest for at least a century. This is one of many elements of Ancestral Puebloan history that helps us understand the extraordinarily entangled histories of the modern Pueblos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the century of the Chaco system’s florescence, the great houses in Chaco Canyon became truly monumental, rising four or five stories and having precisely laid masonry, massive walls, and striking symmetries. The reach of this system stretched from the <a href="/article/far-view-sites"><strong>Far View Group</strong></a> of sites at Mesa Verde National Park and <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock National Monument</strong></a> in the far north to the Andrews and Casamero sites near Grants, New Mexico, in the south. By AD 1125–1150, there may have been as many as 200 great houses aligned with or emulating this system.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chaco’s century of prominence coincided with a regional population increase. Population rebounded in Mesa Verde and other regions that had seen significant population loss in the tenth century. We are still uncertain about the extent to which these outlying regions were connected to Chaco Canyon, but it is clear that many outlying great houses were built in the same fashion as the great houses of the canyon. By the mid-to-late 1000s, there was a clear and strong connection between Chaco Canyon and particular groups of sites, such as the Aztec complex of sites in New Mexico, just south of Durango along the Animas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Chaco’s Decline and the Last Migration from the North (AD 1125–1300)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Southwest suffered one of the most severe droughts of the last millennium between AD 1130 and 1180. It is a period associated with a significant increase in violence, decreased population, and regional reorganization. Construction in Chaco Canyon all but ceased, and both its influence and population moved to other regions. It is uncertain whether the drought was the primary cause of Chaco’s dramatic decline or was simply one more factor bringing down a system that had become too top-heavy and costly for its adherents. Whatever the causes, Chaco’s decline was quick and decisive.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the north, centers of influence emerged around Aztec—at the periphery of both the Chaco and Mesa Verde regional systems—and around several large Mesa Verde community centers, such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo and the Goodman Point–Shields Pueblo. The turbulence and violence of the late twelfth century subsided in the Mesa Verde region as Aztec’s leadership faltered and power struggles became more localized and smaller in scale. However, there still appears to have been a widespread perception of risk that may have propelled a growing number of people to seek refuge in large villages. The settlement pattern shifted from small villages on mesa tops close to farm fields to canyon rims closer to water and defensive positions. This shift resulted in significant increases in both the population and size of the largest villages, as outlying populations converged in the central Mesa Verde region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Community architecture and religious practices also changed. Great houses were no longer constructed but in some areas were replaced by villages with multi-walled structures. Multi-walled structures are uncommon in the western Mesa Verde region and not found in the late Pueblo villages of <a href="/.../hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a>. This absence is especially evident at western sites such as <strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong> that had large great houses only a century earlier.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After AD 1225 some villages, such as Yellow Jacket, became larger than the others. Village clusters became more tightly packed and competition for suitable agricultural land, trade partnerships, and access to wild resources and water appears to have intensified. The more competitive social landscape after AD 1250 is marked by a dramatic rise in the number of towers and walls dating to this period.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Population in the core of the Mesa Verde region appears to have peaked between AD 1225 and 1260 at an estimated 26,000, with certainly more than 30,000 people across the whole region. Soon thereafter, people began to leave. Emigration accelerated markedly once it began, and the collapse of settlements on the peripheries, such as those at Hovenweep, must have contributed to the chaos. People within or adjacent to what is now Mesa Verde National Park used the protection afforded by cliff dwellings and the advantage of nearby agricultural lands to hold on longer than many other settlements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some of the first sites investigated by the Wetherills and <a href="/article/gustaf-nordenski%C3%B6ld-and-mesa-verde-region"><strong>Gustaf</strong> <strong>Nordenskiöld</strong></a>, such as <a href="/article/spruce-tree-house"><strong>Spruce Tree House</strong></a> and <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, may have been among the last communities to depopulate. The entire region was largely depopulated by AD 1290, only thirty or forty years after it had reached its highest population. Many of the most defining characteristics of Mesa Verde architecture, pottery, social organization, and material culture were left behind. Where did these Ancestral Puebloans go? Subtle clues within the material culture of later sites, along with histories of the Pueblos, have helped experts identify the places where these migrants settled. People from the western communities largely moved into what is now Arizona and forged new relationships and identities with the Hopi. Central and eastern Mesa Verde groups appear to have had connections with groups in northern New Mexico such as the Keresan Pueblos (e.g., Acoma, <a href="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya"><strong>S</strong></a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-santa-ana–tamaya">anta Ana/Tamaya</a></strong>, or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zia-pueblo"><strong>Zia</strong></a>) and Tewa Pueblos (e.g., Ohkay Owingeh, San Ildefonso, and Santa Clara).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Interestingly, one of the very last occupied sites, <strong>Yucca House</strong>, is likely mentioned in T19 Pueblos of New Mexico ewa oral history as being a place of the ancestors. It is also the only late Mesa Verde village where a portion of its layout is built in a style not commonly seen until fourteenth-century pueblos of northern New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no single reason explains the final Mesa Verde migration, it is clear that social and political strife, the threat of violence, religious upheaval, and disruptions of interaction and trade networks all predate the most severe droughts of this period. The droughts must have been the final blow, especially with the promise of slightly better conditions to the south. Whether non-Pueblo groups—such as the <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> or Athapaskans—forced the Ancestral Pueblo people to leave the Mesa Verde region is an old hypothesis that still has some adherents, but today there is little archaeological evidence that these groups constituted a significant presence in the Mesa Verde region in AD 1280, when the last Puebloans were leaving.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the depopulation of the Chaco, Mesa Verde, and other even more northerly regions and the establishment of the historically known pueblos of the Rio Grande and Little Colorado regions, the history of the Ancestral Pueblo becomes the “deep history” that is now remembered in the oral traditions of the modern Pueblo and researched by archaeologists and historians. These historic Pueblo groups built even larger villages and a more populous civilization, but structures of Mesa Verde and Chaco, as well as the lessons they offer, continue to intrigue us.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-archaeology" hreflang="en">colorado archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southwest-archaeology" hreflang="en">Southwest archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hovenweep-hovenweep-national-monument-national-monuments-colorado-canyons-ancients-national" hreflang="en">hovenweep hovenweep national monument national monuments colorado canyons of the ancients national monument southwest colorado four corners region hiking southwest colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chimney-rock-archaeological-area" hreflang="en">chimney rock archaeological area</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. G. Matson, <em>The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul F. Reed, <em>Chaco’s Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after A.D. 1100</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark D. Varien, Scott G. Ortman, Timothy A. Kohler, Donna M. Glowacki, and C. David Johnson, “Historical Ecology in the Mesa Verde Region: Results from the Village EcoDynamics Project,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 72 (April 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John A. Ware, <em>A Pueblo Social History: Kinship, Sodality, and Community in the Northern Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, 2012).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/azru/index.htm">Aztec Ruins, National Monument, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a>,” US Bureau of Land Management, last modified May 28, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/chcu/index.htm">Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 3, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.chimneyrockco.org/">Chimney Rock National Monument, Colorado</a>,” Chimney Rock Interpretive Association, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Linda S. Cordell and Maxine E. McBrinn, <em>Archaeology of the Southwest</em>, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado, Utah</a>,” National Park Service, last modified December 1, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/index.htm">Learn About the Park</a>,” Mesa Verde National Park, National Park Service, last modified November 25, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen H. Lekson, <em>A History of the Ancient Southwest</em> (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://indianpueblo.org/pueblos-pigments-and-prominence-the-murals-of-ipcc/">The 19 Pueblos of New Mexico</a>,” Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>In Search of Chaco</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/fo/ahc/who_were_the_anasazi.html">Who Were the Anasazi</a>?,” Anasazi Heritage Center, US Bureau of Land Management, last modified August 2, 2012.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 09 May 2016 20:21:06 +0000 yongli 1353 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Yucca House National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1311--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1311.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Yucca-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=NE1Hfvsp" width="1000" height="631" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/jacksons-view-upper-house-aztec-spring" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jackson&#039;s View of the Upper House at &quot;Aztec Spring&quot;</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>William H. Jackson's famous photo taken in 1874 is one of the earliest known images of the Yucca House site, showing more extensive standing walls than now exist. The view is to the southeast with Mesa Verde in the background and Capt. John T. Moss standing in front of a wall near the center.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1312--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1312.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_0343_2_0.jpg?itok=KelZ2fJJ" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/yucca-house-national-monument" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Yucca House National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View from the Upper House looking east at the Lower House</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1313--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1313.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/yucca_house_past_3-D_0.jpg?itok=b3UpYb6x" width="1000" height="666" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cyber-montage-yucca-house-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cyber-Montage of Yucca House Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This "virtual reality" reconstruction of Yucca House by Dennis R. Holloway, Architect, looks east with the Mesa Verde escarpment in the background. It is based on mapping by Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and photography by Adriel Heisey.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-02T15:29:48-06:00" title="Monday, May 2, 2016 - 15:29" class="datetime">Mon, 05/02/2016 - 15:29</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Yucca House National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fyucca-house-national-monument&amp;title=Yucca%20House%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Yucca House National Monument was established to protect and preserve a large <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong> </a>village south of <strong>Cortez</strong> in the southwestern corner of Colorado. Yucca House is an important Ancestral Pueblo village based on its size, unique configurations, and prominent, highly visible location in the Montezuma Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Location</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The monument is situated along the western edge of the Montezuma Valley on the lower, eastern slope of <strong>Ute Mountain</strong>, at an elevation of approximately 5,800 feet and with an average rainfall of 11–15 inches and average frost-free period of 100 to 135 days. This area is geologically diverse with access to Mancos Shale, igneous rock cobbles (diorite), both Dakota and Point Lookout sandstones, and gravel and alluvium terraces. All these geological materials were used in the construction of Yucca House.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Description and Importance</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Yucca House has two distinct architectural complexes: the Lower House and the West Complex (also called the Upper House by Holmes in 1878). The Lower House is an L-shaped, rectangular room block containing eight first-story rooms and possibly second-story rooms given the amount of rubble. South of the L-shaped room block is a plaza that is defined by a low masonry enclosing wall on the west and south, and an earthen berm along the southeast edge. In the middle of the plaza is a great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kiva</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The West Complex is a D- or horseshoe-shaped pueblo bisected by a spring that includes the Upper House, a prominent building with two enclosed kivas. This layout is strikingly similar to that of Sand Canyon Pueblo and other late Pueblo III period (post-AD 1200) villages. The West Complex contains multiple room blocks, as many as 100 kivas, several towers, a great kiva, and a circular bi-walled structure. Based on the number of kivas, there are probably 450 to 600 rooms. Most of the residential architecture is north of the spring and Upper House, and the public architecture is on the south side.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A critical issue for understanding its regional significance is determining when Ancestral Pueblo people constructed and lived in the village. Yucca House has long been thought of as a Chacoan <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>great house</strong></a> due to the distinctiveness of the Upper House, which has architectural characteristics typical of great houses. However, the limited data available points to Yucca House being a Pueblo III period village (AD 1150–1290) with a strong post-1250s occupation. There are only three <a href="/article/tree-ring-dating-0"><strong>tree-ring dates</strong></a> for the site and they all come from the southeast corner of the Upper House. These samples, collected by Al Lancaster, date to the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Much of the data regarding chronology comes from the West Complex, and there is little data about the construction, occupation, and use of the Lower House. Thus, until further testing is done, we do not know if the Lower House was built during the Pueblo II period or earlier, and then used until the late AD 1200s, or if it was exclusively built and occupied during the Pueblo III period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>History of the Monument</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On August 19, 1892, Henry [Harry] Van Kleek purchased Aztec Springs from George W. Stafford, likely because he wanted the reliable water source for ranching and was intrigued by the large Pueblo site as a potential tourist destination. Jesse Walter Fewkes, an early archaeologist who worked at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, visited the site in 1918 and was so impressed with its size and preservation that he convinced Van Kleek to deed a 9.6 acre parcel that included most of Yucca House to the government on July 2, 1919. Because of the significance of Yucca House as an intact example of a valley pueblo, President Woodrow Wilson declared it a National Monument, issuing Presidential Proclamation No. 1549 on December 19, 1919. It was at this time that the name of the site was changed from Aztec Springs to Yucca House. This was Fewkes’ suggestion, on account of its location on the slopes of Ute Mountain, which is referred to by the Ute and other local groups as the “mountain with lots of yucca growing on it.” Fewkes noted that Yucca Mountain is a place name that Tewa Pueblo people used to refer to this area and that they also consider Yucca House an ancestral village.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since 1919, Yucca House National Monument has been managed by Mesa Verde National Park. In May 1990, the monument was expanded to thirty-four acres when Hallie Ismay donated an additional twenty-four acres to provide access to Yucca House from the south and to preserve several sites on the ridge near the main village. Among these sites is Snider’s Well, which is situated on a gravel topped ridge of Mancos Shale that runs south from Yucca House. Snider’s Well is an isolated <strong>Chacoan</strong> period kiva containing a mass burial that was excavated by the <strong>Wetherills</strong> during the spring and early summer of 1894. Recent survey on adjacent lands has determined there were a series of several isolated kivas along this same ridge.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaeological Research at Yucca House</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Relatively little formal archaeological investigation has occurred at Yucca House. Although <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-henry-jackson"><strong>W. H. Jackson</strong></a> was the first to describe the site as part of the 1874 <strong>Hayden Expedition</strong>, it was W. H. Holmes who drew the first sketch map of Yucca House when he returned to the site the following year. Fewkes also published a description and a schematic map (not to scale) in his Bureau of American Ethnology report. In 1964, Al Schroeder and Al Lancaster conducted the only archaeological testing and stabilization at Yucca House to date. Schroeder excavated five test trenches to the north of the Upper House in the West Complex, which uncovered structures with both adobe and masonry wall construction, and a portion of a room with a flagstone floor. Lancaster excavated in the Lower House where he tested the great kiva and did limited excavation and stabilization of the north wall of the Lower House room block.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Bob Powers and his colleagues included Yucca House in their inventory of Chacoan outliers in the northern Southwest. Most recently, in 2000, Donna Glowacki directed the Yucca House Mapping Project, a joint effort between Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and Mesa Verde National Park to produce the first detailed and systematic map of the site, conduct an analysis of surface pottery, and use remote sensing, resistivity, and magnetometry to map sub-surface features. Although we now have a better sense of layout and spatial relationships among the architectural features at Yucca House, we still know relatively little about the length of the Yucca House occupation, the role of public architecture in the village, and the extent of social interaction and other relationships with nearby large villages.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/glowacki-donna-m" hreflang="und">Glowacki, Donna M. </a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/blackburn-fred-m" hreflang="und">Blackburn, Fred M. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-puebloan-culture" hreflang="en">Ancestral Puebloan culture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-house-architecture" hreflang="en">great house architecture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sniders-well" hreflang="en">Snider&#039;s Well</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-stage" hreflang="en">Formative stage</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Fred M. Blackburn, <em>The Wetherills: Friends of Mesa Verde</em> (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Whitman Cross, <em>The Laccolithic Mountain Groups of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona</em>, Department of Interior, US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1895).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, Letter to Mr. Albright Regarding the Origins of the Name Yucca House, letter on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1919.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jesse W. Fewkes, <em>Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers</em>, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 70 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1919).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Donna M. Glowacki, “Yucca House (5MT5006) Mapping Project Report,” unpublished manuscript on file, Mesa Verde National Park and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO, 2001.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Holmes, <em>A Notice of the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Examined During the Summer of 1875</em>, extracted from Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. II, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Jackson, “Report of W. H. Jackson on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado,” in <em>Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Embracing Colorado and Parts of Adjacent Territories; Being a Report of Progress of the Exploration for the Year 1874</em>, F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William D. Lipe and Mark D. Varien, “Pueblo III (A.D. 1150–1300),” in <em>Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Southern Colorado River Basin</em>, eds. William D. Lipe, Mark D. Varien, and R. H. Wilshusen (Denver: Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert C. McBride and Diane E. McBride, “Cultural Resource Survey of the Bernard and Nancy Karwick Property, Montezuma County, Colorado: A Study of the Greater Yucca House Community,” unpublished paper submitted to History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frank McNitt, <em>Richard Wetherill: Anasazi, Pioneer Explorer of the Southwestern Ruins </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde National Park, “Management Plan, Statement for Management, Yucca House National Monument,” unpublished report on file, Mesa Verde National Park, 1987.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert P. Powers, William B. Gillespie, and Stephen H. Lekson, <em>The Outlier Survey: A Regional View of Settlement in the San Juan Basin</em>, Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service (Albuquerque: US Department of the Interior, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Douglas Ramsey, A. Price, and D. Curtis, “Preliminary Information from the Cortez Soil Survey Area,” United States Department of Agriculture (Cortez, CO: Soil Conservation Service, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Donna M. Glowacki, <em>Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde </em>(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis R. Holloway, “<a href="http://www.dennisrhollowayarchitect.com/YuccaHouse.html">Yucca House, Four Corners Ancestral Puebloan, A.D. 1150-1300, near Towaoc, Colorado</a>,” 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yuho/index.htm">Yucca House National Monument, Colorado</a>,” National Park Service, last modified November 17, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 02 May 2016 21:29:48 +0000 yongli 1308 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Mesa Verde National Park http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mesa Verde National Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--614--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--614.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-kiva"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/A_Kiva%2C_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_%283455928466%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=-Y5t2dsF" width="1000" height="678" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-kiva" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace Kiva</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Kivas were used by many Puebloan for religious rituals and other ceremonies. The kivas at Mesa Verde are mostly round, subterranean rooms , although there are some kivas built above the ground while others differ architecturally.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--615--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--615.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-canyon"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Cliff_Canyon%2C_Mesa_Verde_National_Park_%284848757684%29%5B1%5D_0.jpg?itok=iGiURdSq" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-canyon" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Canyon</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cliff Canyon in Mesa Verde National Park is home to the Cliff House Sandstone, which can be seen in two cliffs beneath the broad, green mesa. Canyons such as this allowed for Puebloans to build their dwellings in the stone itself.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-21T11:50:51-06:00" title="Friday, August 21, 2015 - 11:50" class="datetime">Fri, 08/21/2015 - 11:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park" data-a2a-title="Mesa Verde National Park"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmesa-verde-national-park&amp;title=Mesa%20Verde%20National%20Park"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Mesa Verde National Park was established on June 29, 1906. It&nbsp;is the largest of the National Park Service parcels protecting cultural resources in Colorado, with nearly 5,000 documented sites, including about 600 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a>. A majority of the sites are associated with <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Pueblo</strong></a> cultures and date to different time periods, ranging from AD 580 to 1290. Although the park offers some of the best-preserved examples of late Basketmaker to pre-1300 Pueblo sites, in many ways both the sites and the setting of Mesa Verde are atypical when compared with other contemporary sites in the surrounding central Mesa Verde region.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LlquWhdDlxQ" width="640"></iframe></p> <h2>Early Settlement</h2> <p>Mesa Verde, Spanish for “green mesa,” earned its name because of its relatively lush cover of piñon and juniper forest. The mesa’s higher-than-average elevation (6,000–8,570 feet above sea level), dependable precipitation (16.4 inches per year), fertile mantle of loamy soil, slight tilt to the south, and many associated drainages and springs made it an excellent setting for corn farmers who moved to the central Mesa Verde region from the south just before AD 600. Interestingly, there is little evidence of early Basketmaker or <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> period settlements within the park, which suggests that the rather uniform environmental setting required by dedicated corn farmers did not match the more diverse needs of hunter-gatherers or incipient farmers who depended on hunting and gathering for a significant amount of their daily caloric intake.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><iframe allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/exIQa8Ydvg8" width="640"></iframe></p> <p>The earliest well-established construction date for a small farming hamlet on Mesa Verde proper (i.e., Mesa Verde National Park, in contrast to the much more expansive Mesa Verde region) is approximately AD 580–90. Settlements and population increased rapidly over the next two centuries, so the population estimate for the entire mesa is 750 people between AD 725 and 800. Whereas the earliest farming settlements consist of one to two pithouses with less substantial outside storage features and shade structures, by the 750s the first small pueblos, with two to three households and a single associated pit structure, are evident. Archaeologists have recognized potentially large ninth-century villages in surveys of the mesa; however, these early Pueblo sites are relatively under-researched compared with other areas of the Mesa Verde region.</p> <h2>Depopulation, Revival, and Raids</h2> <p>Mesa Verde proper and much of the area north of the San Juan River lost significant numbers of people in the tenth century, and the reasons for and scale of this depopulation are just now being debated. By 1020, Mesa Verde’s population appears to have rebounded, with the initial increase much more rapid than elsewhere in the region. <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco</strong></a> era <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House </strong></a>communities, such as the fortress-like <strong><a href="/article/far-view-sites">Far View</a>&nbsp;</strong>complex, developed on the mesa, but researchers are still uncertain about the extent to which people living in the Mesa Verde region were connected to Chaco Canyon, the great cultural center seventy-five miles to the south.</p> <p>Chaco Canyon’s decline by 1125–50 coincided with one of the most severe drought intervals of the last thousand years, between 1130 and 1180, and the combined pressure of crop failures and regional upheaval rippled all the way north to Mesa Verde. A series of violent clashes date to this period, and there is evidence of significant conflict at sites close to the mesa. A variety of evidence supports the interpretation that the people of the Totah region, centered at the Great House complex Aztec approximately thirty-five miles southwest of the mesa, were the likely raiders. By the early 1200s stability had returned, and the population of the Mesa Verde region was increasingly drawn into large, walled villages in canyon-head settings or smaller settlements built into difficult-to-reach canyon-wall recesses.</p> <h2>Cliff Structures</h2> <p>The best-known sites associated with the park are those dating to 1220–90. These sites are built into the natural alcoves of the <strong>Cliff House Sandstone</strong> in the western half of the national park. The largest two or three of these sites are estimated to have had approximately 100 to 200 rooms in use at their peak. They are magnificent examples of Pueblo architecture, but they are significantly smaller than many of the large later villages of 200 rooms to more than 600 rooms found at the canyon edges of the farmlands north of <strong>Cortez</strong>. Because of the mesa’s restricted agricultural lands, the total population of Mesa Verde rarely accounted for more than one-fifth to one-tenth of the regional population.</p> <p>By the 1260s, unsettled times returned. A complex mix of environmental stressors, intra-site conflicts, and internal challenges to traditional cultural practices made smaller settlements less safe and farming increasingly risky. Present models suggest that areas close to where present-day Pueblo groups are found in New Mexico and Arizona would have been potentially less risky and more attractive, which may have contributed to the rapid Ancestral Pueblo depopulation of the Mesa Verde region over a twenty-year period. By 1290 even the well-protected communities of Mesa Verde proper, with their relatively rich mesa-top lands and somewhat isolated setting, succumbed to the turbulent conditions of the region.</p> <h2>Utes and Other Native Americans</h2> <p>Between 1400 and 1500, telltale material signs of <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> and possibly Athapaskan (present-day <strong>Apache</strong> and <strong>Navajo</strong>) use of the area are evident. Both groups originally shared a lifeway centered on hunting, gathering, and only limited use of domesticated crops. As the Navajo intensified their use of crops such as corn, their settlements became more fixed on the landscape in the sixteenth century. In addition, the Spanish entradas and occupation of the Rio Grande Valley in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries introduced horses and other potential trade goods into the regional economy.</p> <p>These changes allowed groups such as the Ute to play an increasingly dominant role in the northern Southwest as mobile raiders and traders. By 1750 they were largely in control of the Mesa Verde region. In the nineteenth century, they were often the brokers for early US explorers and immigrants. They, along with the Navajo, were the guides for the first US explorers in the area. The resulting reports accelerated popular curiosity about the cliff dwellers and ultimately led to the creation of Mesa Verde National Park.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwellers-mesa-verde" hreflang="en">cliff dwellers mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-colorado" hreflang="en">mesa verde colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-history" hreflang="en">mesa verde history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anasazi-pueblo" hreflang="en">anasazi pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-americans-colorado" hreflang="en">native americans colorado</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Timothy A. Kohler and Mark D. Varien, <em>Emergence and Collapse of Early Villages: Models of Central Mesa Verde Archaeology</em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).</p> <p>Timothy A. Kohler, Mark D. Varien, and Aaron M. Wright, eds., <em>Leaving Mesa Verde: Peril and Change in the Thirteenth-Century Southwest</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010).</p> <p>David Grant Noble, <em>The Mesa Verde World</em> (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 2006).</p> <p>Scott G. Ortman, <em>Winds from the North: Tewa Origins and Historical Anthropology</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2012).</p> <p>Arthur Rohn, <em>Mug House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado</em> (Washington, DC: Archeological Research Series 7-D, National Park Service, 1971).</p> <p>Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison, eds., <em>Crucible of Pueblos: The Early Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest</em> (Los Angeles: University of California, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">National Park Service</a></p> <p>Judith Reynolds and David Reynolds, <em>Nordenskiöld of Mesa Verde</em> (Self-published: Xlibris, 2006).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 21 Aug 2015 17:50:51 +0000 yongli 584 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--555--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--555.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/NordenskioldCliffPalacePhoto%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=ffo7Nzwy" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photograph was taken by Gustaf Nordenskiöld during his initial investigations of the Mesa Verde region in 1891.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-08-20T09:34:37-06:00" title="Thursday, August 20, 2015 - 09:34" class="datetime">Thu, 08/20/2015 - 09:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region" data-a2a-title="Gustaf Nordenskiöld and the Mesa Verde Region"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgustaf-nordenskiold-and-mesa-verde-region&amp;title=Gustaf%20Nordenski%C3%B6ld%20and%20the%20Mesa%20Verde%20Region"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In 1891 the young Swedish scientist Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1868–95) arrived in Colorado, seeking both a cure for his <a href="/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tuberculosis</strong></a> and a look at the wonders of the West. His experiences over the next two years set in motion a series of events that would ultimately lead to the passage of the first federal law protecting cultural resources in 1906 and the creation of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> later that same year. Nordenskiöld’s book (1893) on his work in the Mesa Verde region and his observations of the historic Pueblos remains a milestone in the early archaeological research on this region.</p> <h2>Archaeological Investigations</h2> <p>Soon after his arrival in <strong>Durango</strong> in the summer of 1891, Nordenskiöld traveled to <strong>Mancos</strong> and began exploring local <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> with the <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Wetherill</strong></a> family, the ranchers with whom he lodged. His experiences so inspired him that he spent a month excavating and surveying sites, with special focus on those&nbsp;sheltered by the overhanging cliffs of Wetherill and Chapin Mesas in what is now Mesa Verde National Park. Nordenskiöld had been trained as a natural scientist and been taught to be a careful observer of everything from geology to butterflies. His observations about the Mesa Verde region included descriptions of the region’s flora, fauna, and geography, as well as the sites and associated artifacts that were his primary focus.</p> <p>Nordenskiöld’s investigations in the Southwest accelerated archaeological practice and laid a foundation for our current preservation ethic. His extensive photographic documentation of archaeological sites and the materials he collected, along with his detailed descriptions of his finds, brought new discipline to the relatively young field of archaeology. His hired hands were deeply impressed by the rigor and scientific aims of his methods. This experience informed subsequent excavations and collections by the Wetherill brothers, especially Richard Wetherill, at Mesa Verde, Grand Gulch, and <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a>.&nbsp;Nordenskiöld’s well-illustrated and thorough research report was published in both Swedish and English in 1893 and remains in print today. It endures as a valued resource on Mesa Verde archaeology and its early development.</p> <h2>Fate of the Artifacts and Legacy</h2> <p>In September 1891, Nordenskiöld attempted to ship his artifact collection back to Europe but was delayed in Durango and temporarily arrested on charges that he had illegally excavated the artifacts. The artifacts were impounded for the next month until the court ruled that no law had been broken. The publicity surrounding this episode and the increasingly wholesale excavation of sites throughout the region over the next decade led to the enactment of the <a href="/article/antiquities-act"><strong>Antiquities Act</strong></a> in 1906 and, thereafter, to the establishment of a national park to protect Mesa Verde. The collections from Nordenskiöld’s 1891 investigations ultimately ended up at the Finnish national museum in Helsinki, where they remained for more than a century before the Finnish government agreed in 2019 to return many of the artifacts—including some human remains and funerary objects—to native tribes in the region.</p> <p>Nordenskiöld’s scientific contributions and his indirect but significant role in historic preservation legislation are all the more remarkable given that he died only four years after his visit to Mesa Verde, at age twenty-six.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wilshusen-richard-h" hreflang="und">Wilshusen, Richard H. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold" hreflang="en">Gustaf Nordenskiold</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-archaeology" hreflang="en">mesa verde archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gustaf-nordenskiold-mesa-verde" hreflang="en">gustaf nordenskiold mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancestral-pueblo" hreflang="en">Ancestral Pueblo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gustav Nordenskiöld, <em>The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</em> (Stockholm: P. A Norstedt and Söner, 1893).</p> <p><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Kevin Simpson,&nbsp;</span><a class="ext" href="https://coloradosun.com/2019/10/10/mesa-verde-remains-nordenskiold/" style="color: rgb(0, 144, 235); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;" title=" (external link)">"More Than a Century Ago, a European Visitor Took More Than 600 Native American Remains and Artifacts From Colorado's Mesa Verde,"</a><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">&nbsp;</span><em style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">Colorado Sun</em><span style="color: rgb(59, 59, 59); font-family: Lato, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20.02px;">, October 10, 2019.</span></p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Mesa Verde Museum Association, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006).</p> <p>Judith Reynolds and David Reynolds, <em>Nordenskiöld of Mesa Verde</em> (Self-published: Xlibris, 2006).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002).</p> <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>Women to the Rescue: Creating Mesa Verde National Park</em>, Andrew Gulliford, ed. (Durango, CO: Durango Herald Small Press, 2005).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 20 Aug 2015 15:34:37 +0000 yongli 553 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org