%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Montezuma County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1519--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1519.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/montezuma-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/MontezumaCounty_0.jpg?itok=3rYlvBkh" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/montezuma-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Montezuma County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Montezuma County, home of Mesa Verde National Park, was established in 1889.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-27T15:03:09-06:00" title="Monday, June 27, 2016 - 15:03" class="datetime">Mon, 06/27/2016 - 15:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/montezuma-county" data-a2a-title="Montezuma County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmontezuma-county&amp;title=Montezuma%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Montezuma County, famous for the ancient Native American ruins at <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde</strong></a>, is the  southwesternmost county in Colorado. The county covers 2,040 square miles of the <strong>Colorado Plateau</strong>, and has the distinction of bordering Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is known as the <strong>Four Corners </strong>region, where the boundaries of four states intersect. Montezuma County is surrounded by three different San Juan Counties: <a href="/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan County</strong></a>, Colorado to the northeast; San Juan County, New Mexico to the south; and San Juan County, Utah to the west. <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores County</strong></a>, Colorado, lies along its northern border and <a href="/article/la-plata-county"><strong>La Plata County</strong></a> along its eastern. The county’s southwest corner touches Apache County, Arizona.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the county was established in 1889, the ruins within its borders were thought to be of Aztec origin. Thus, Montezuma County is named after the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II, and its county seat, <strong>Cortez</strong>, is named after the Spanish conquistador who vanquished him. Most of the county’s ancient Native American ruins are located in Mesa Verde National Park in the southeast and <strong>Canyons of the Ancients National Monument </strong>in the west. In addition, <a href="/article/hovenweep-national-monument"><strong>Hovenweep National Monument</strong></a> lies just over the county’s western border in Utah.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> and its capital, <strong>Towaoc</strong>, are located in southern Montezuma County. Towaoc—a word that means “just fine”—has a population of 1,087; Native Americans make up 11 percent of the county’s 25,772 residents. Cortez has a population of 8,482 and sits in central Montezuma County at the juncture of US Routes 491 and 160 and State Highway 145. Other notable towns include <strong>Mancos</strong> (pop. 1,336), along US 160 northeast of Mesa Verde, and <strong>Dolores</strong> (pop. 936), along Colorado 145 at the southern end of McPhee Reservoir. State Highway 184 connects Mancos and Dolores and meets US 491 just south of the unincorporated area of Lewis. The <strong>Dolores River</strong> flows into the county from the northeast, alongside Colorado 145 and through the San Juan National Forest.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 2,200 years ago, the Mesa Verde region was inhabited by the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> ancestors of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> who would leave their edificial legacy on the cliff sides. By the end of the sixth century AD the descendants of those Paleo-Indians, known to archaeologists as Basketmakers on account of their proficiency at that craft, began to settle on top of the mesa. Already part-time farmers, they found fertile soils on the southern flanks of the flattop where they could grow maize and other crops. They also began exploring the mesa’s many deep canyons, and found suitable shelter in stone pockets created by the freezing and thawing of the rocks and by water percolating through the mesa’s sandstone cap.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although life on top of a 7,000-foot mesa without steel tools and other later technology must have been difficult, it was probably easier than anywhere else these Basketmakers had lived since they stayed. They built primitive dwellings called pithouses, and by the ninth century these had evolved into flat-roofed, multiple-room structures built on top of the mesa, their walls anchored by stone slabs and held together by a thick mud mortar.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the tenth century these Ancestral Puebloans had converted the earlier pithouse design into their famous sandstone <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a>—the large, one-room ceremonial structures typical of many Puebloan archaeological sites throughout Colorado and the Southwest. Ancestral Puebloans did not transfer these structural designs to the famous cliff sides until about the mid-thirteenth century, when some event—climatic, cultural, or likely both—prompted the hasty construction of houses and kivas in the canyon alcoves.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mesa Verde’s most famous and most photographed structure, the <a href="/article/cliff-palace"><strong>Cliff Palace</strong></a>, was finished sometime between 1260 and 1280, before a twenty-five-year drought decimated the food supply and possibly prompted the mass exodus from the mesa. By 1300 the Ancestral Puebloans had disappeared from the region. Although the drought certainly played a large role in the abandonment, it is still not entirely clear what combination of events in the late thirteenth century forced the Ancestral Puebloans to leave Mesa Verde.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Nuche</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Nuche, or Ute people, were present in the Four Corners region by 1300, and by 1500 southwest Colorado was occupied by a band of Utes called the Weenuche: the “long time ago people.” Although the Weenuche came to be the most dominant group, other groups of Utes—such as the Muache and Capote—as well as Navajo and Southern Paiute people also frequented the Four Corners area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Utes lived off the natural resources of Colorado’s mountains and river valleys, hunting <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>deer</strong></a>, jackrabbit, and other game. They also gathered a wide assortment of wild berries and roots, including the versatile yucca root. In the summer they followed game high into the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>, and in the winter they followed the animals back to the shelter of the lower river valleys, such as the Dolores.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Spanish Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early seventeenth century, the northern frontier of New Spain pressed up against the lands of the Weenuche and other Utes in southwestern Colorado. The Nuche relationship with the Spaniards was one of alternate raiding and trading. As early as 1640 they had acquired horses from their European neighbors to the south. Horses allowed the Utes, who were already accustomed to ranging across vast territories, to cover even more ground in search of trade or larger populations of game such as buffalo. The horse also increased the value of river valleys, as Ute ponies could find ample forage there in winter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Official <strong>Spanish exploration</strong> of the Montezuma County area began with the expedition of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-mar%C3%ADa-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in 1765. Rivera’s mission was to have the Utes guide him to the Colorado River—then known as the Río del Tizón—and investigate rumors of silver deposits in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1765 Rivera’s expedition reached the Dolores River near present-day Dolores, but Nuche there warned him not to proceed any farther until the fall, when cooler weather prevailed. Rivera’s group headed back to New Mexico. In the fall Rivera again crossed the Montezuma County area on his way to the Dolores River.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rivera’s expedition carved out a route for future traders and explorers. In July 1776, the Spanish friars Silvestre Escalante and Francisco Domínguez were dispatched to find an overland passage from Santa Fé to Monterey, California. After following Rivera’s old route through present-day <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta</strong></a>, La Plata, Montezuma, <a href="/article/dolores-county"><strong>Dolores</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/san-miguel-county"><strong>San Miguel</strong></a> Counties, Dominguez and Escalante pushed northeast into the <a href="/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Valley and then northwest into Utah. In October a punishing blizzard forced them back to Santa Fé.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They had not found passage to Monterey, but Domínguez and Escalante had pushed farther into western Colorado than any other Spanish explorer. They were also the first Europeans to document the Mesa Verde region in 1776.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Explorers, Farmers, and Ranchers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Montezuma County area belonged to Mexico after it won independence from Spain in 1821, but was ceded to the United States after the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1859 an American expedition led by Captain <strong>John Macomb</strong> left Santa Fé and crossed the northern part of present-day Montezuma County. Macomb sought to map a railroad or wagon route through southwest Colorado, but found the terrain too difficult for practical construction of either. His expedition was the last official US military exploration of southwest Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The years after 1876 saw increased migration of Hispano ranchers and farmers from New Mexico into present-day Montezuma County. Most of these migrants opposed the opening of Ute lands to Americans, as they feared it would increase Anglo dominance of the area. Colorado historian William Wyckoff notes that “many Ute babies had Hispano baptismal godparents, and relations between the two groups were cordial.” The continued presence of Anglo-American, Hispano, and Native Americans led to the development of a rich cultural mosaic that persists to the present.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government brokered a <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty with Utes</strong></a> in 1868 that left the Native Americans a huge reservation encompassing nearly the entire western third of Colorado. But against the wishes of both the government and the Utes, prospectors soon filtered into the San Juans northeast of present-day Montezuma County. A few successful strikes in the mountains in the early 1870s led to the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> in 1873.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the Ute leader <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> agreed to cede the San Juan Mountains, including the eastern part of present-day Montezuma County, to the United States. The agreement also established the <strong>Southern Ute Indian Reservation</strong> south of the ceded territory for the Weenuche, Capote, and Muache Utes. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act </strong></a>of 1887 directed that reservation land be allotted to individual tribal members, but many Weenuches rejected the idea of allotment and preferred one large reservation. To that end, in 1895 the government established the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> out of the western edge of the Southern Ute Reservation. Weenuche Utes began settling the reservation in 1897, and they gained federal recognition as the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe in 1915.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tension between whites and Utes in Montezuma County persisted despite the reservations. One common source of conflict was the tendency of white ranchers’ herds to stray onto the reservation. In addition, the federal government proved unreliable in furnishing supplies promised to the Utes in earlier treaties, so some Utes left the reservation to hunt. White ranchers often accused Utes of killing their cattle and committing other crimes. These tensions sometimes resulted in violence, such as when Utes killed at least a dozen ranchers in the spring of 1881, or when whites murdered a group of Utes at a campsite along <a href="/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek</strong></a> in 1885. That same year Weenuches burned the Genthner home on Totten Lake, near Cortez, and killed the family patriarch, though his wife and six children survived. Sporadic violence continued until the last major conflict in 1915, which left several Utes and members of a joint Anglo-American-Mexican posse dead.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these conflicts, Utes and non-native residents managed to coexist peacefully in Montezuma County after the turn of the century. In the first third of the twentieth century, many Utes found employment as cowboys or farmers. Today, the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe hosts guided tours of their homeland for visitors.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Establishment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first permanent white residents in Montezuma County were miners who explored the Mancos Valley on the heels of the Brunot Agreement. In 1873 a small and bankrupt <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> party consisting of Almarion Root, Alex K. Fleming, Robert Jones, and Henry Lightner found a deposit that would become the site of the Comstock Mine in the La Plata Mountains. The party was fortunate to run into Captain John Moss, who was scouting Colorado mining ventures for wealthy San Francisco bankers. Moss took some samples from the Root party’s find, which impressed his California sponsor.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Moss returned from San Francisco with his own party in July, finding and naming the Montezuma Valley. By July 1874, Moss had found an agreeable settlement site on the fertile lands of the Mancos Valley, and he decided to set up a town that could support mining operations in the mountains. The town of Mancos was incorporated in 1894. More white settlers arrived in the Mancos community over the next few years, and in 1877 the first settlers arrived in the Dolores River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County was carved from the western portion of La Plata County in 1889. A little more than a year later, the Rio Grande &amp; Southern Railroad connected Mancos and Dolores, providing an important boost to the county economy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1886 the town of Cortez was laid out by M. J. Mack, an engineer for the Montezuma Valley Water Supply Company. Construction on the town’s main <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditch, which took water from the Dolores River, continued into 1887; in the meantime, the town’s first residents had to haul in their own barrels of water on wagons. On July 4, 1890, the first flowing water supplied the town’s few residences via a forty-foot flume.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the late nineteenth century, ranching was the dominant economic activity in Montezuma County; nearly every homesteader had a cattle herd, and there were thousands of cattle ranging across the river valleys. Ranchers had also driven Native Americans off of grassy flattops such as Mesa Verde; in 1888 rancher <a href="/article/richard-wetherill"><strong>Richard Wetherill</strong></a> discovered the Cliff Palace while chasing some of his herd.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Montezuma County’s ranching economy faded in the early twentieth century, however, as the amount of irrigated farmland increased and the creation of national parks and forest reserves reduced the amount of available grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of mining activities began in the mountains east of Mancos in the late nineteenth century and continued into the twentieth. The Sundown Mine, the area’s first high-paying mine, was established in 1894; in 1898 Montezuma County mines produced an estimated $15,000 worth of gold.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it never stopped, mining tapered off at the beginning of the twentieth century, only to experience a revival in the 1930s. In 1933 Charles Starr and his sons, Raymond and Howard, found a rich gold deposit east of Mancos. They opened the Red Arrow Mine, and its first shipment produced about $6,000 worth of gold. The mine was closed during World War II but was reopened after the war and remains in production today.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In mid-February 1936, an <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> wiped out a mining camp east of Mancos belonging to the Hesperus Mining Company, killing six and destroying company property worth $75,000. The event remains the deadliest avalanche in county history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the turn of the century, the county’s economy began a transition from ranching to farming. The amount of irrigated land increased from 2,122 acres in 1889 to 27,176 acres in 1909, while the number of farms grew from 261 in 1900 to 1,004 in 1910. Apple and peach orchards sprang up to the north and west of Cortez, in Lebanon and McElmo Canyon. McElmo Canyon peaches even took home awards at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cortez continued to grow in the early twentieth century. In 1908 the Clifton Hotel burned down, and owner Johnny Brown and his wife rebuilt it as the Brown Palace Hotel, which still operates today. By 1910 the town had 565 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Construction of the county’s first major road, a highway that ran from Durango to Mancos, began in 1913 and was complete by 1919. By the 1920s Montezuma County had a population of about 7,000 and boasted more than 40,000 acres of irrigated land. Its agricultural bounty included alfalfa, corn, wheat, pears, cherries, apples, peaches, sheep, and cattle for beef and dairy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To prevent the exploitation of timber and grass reserves, President Theodore Roosevelt created the San Juan Forest Reserve—along with many other reserves in Colorado—in 1905. The government also created Mesa Verde National Park in 1906, Hovenweep National Monument in 1919, and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/yucca-house-national-monument"><strong> Yucca House National Monument</strong></a> in 1923, bringing more of the county’s land under federal management. Mesa Verde National Park was expanded in 1911 via a land exchange with the Weenuche so it would include more of the famous cliff dwellings. County farmers largely supported the creation of new federal lands because it preserved their water supply; ranchers, however, viciously opposed these developments because they curtailed the amount of grazing land.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the rest of the country, Montezuma County suffered during the <strong>Great Depression</strong> (1929–39), as production of nearly every agricultural commodity dropped sharply. After <strong>World War II</strong>, the county’s farms rebounded, and the economy added the new pillars of tourism and energy extraction. Spurred on by the uptick in automobile ownership, the number of visitors to Mesa Verde National Park more than tripled between 1941 and 1953. Major oil strikes west of Pleasant View in 1948 and in nearby Aneth, Utah, in 1956 turned Cortez into a prominent supply center for the oil industry. <a href="/article/uranium-mining"><strong>Uranium</strong></a> prospecting also funneled money into Cortez during the 1950s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The local oil and uranium industries spurred significant development in Cortez. The city got a new hospital in 1948. Main Street was paved in 1951, followed by several other streets in 1953–54. Two new elementary schools were added in 1950 and 1955. The first commercial planes arrived in the 1950s, and the first broadcast from the new local radio station, KVFC, hit the airwaves in 1955. With the energy industries fueling development, Cortez’s population grew from 2,680 in 1950 to 6,764 1960, an increase of more than 150 percent.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The energy boom of the 1950s went bust in the 1960s, and Montezuma County became even more dependent on tourism. In 1992, the state designated Montezuma County as one of its Enterprise Zones—economically underdeveloped areas where businesses can receive tax breaks just for setting up shop. This allowed Montezuma County businesses to claim more than $7 million in tax credits and create 1,677 jobs between 1992 and 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, the federal <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> began building McPhee Reservoir on the Dolores River. When the project was completed in 1995, it irrigated an additional 35,000 acres, 7,500 of which lay on the Ute Mountain reservation. The reservoir also provides Towaoc, Cortez, and Dolores with a long-term water supply.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The federal government established Canyons of the Ancients National Monument in western Montezuma County in 2000, which brought the amount of land under federal management to about one-third of the county’s total. Tourism remains the main driver of the county economy, although the market value of its agricultural products has increased in recent years.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county" hreflang="en">montezuma county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/montezuma-county-history" hreflang="en">montezuma county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mancos" hreflang="en">mancos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cortez" hreflang="en">cortez</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde-national-park" hreflang="en">Mesa Verde National Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/richard-wetherill" hreflang="en">Richard Wetherill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cliff-dwelling" hreflang="en">cliff dwelling</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiva" hreflang="en">kiva</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/four-corners" hreflang="en">four corners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plateau" hreflang="en">colorado plateau</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mesa-verde" hreflang="en">mesa verde</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Phil Carson, <em>Across the Northern Frontier: Spanish Explorations in Colorado </em>(Boulder, CO: Johnson Printing, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/Montezuma_County_Performance_Report_2013.pdf">2013 Development Report: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado, “<a href="https://www.scan.org/uploads/2011_CEDS_montezuma.pdf">Montezuma County Economic Development Strategy Update 2011</a>,” 2011.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ira S. Freeman, <em>A History of Montezuma County</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Publishing, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathon C. Horn, “<a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/co/nm/canm/CANM_Documents.Par.87163.File.dat/Ancients%20Report.pdf">Landscape-Level History of the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Montezuma and Dolores Counties, Colorado</a>” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rose Houk and Faith Marcovecchio, eds., <em>Mesa Verde National Park: The First 100 Years</em>, Mesa Verde Museum Association (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Montezuma County, Colorado” (Grand Junction, CO: Winfield’s Press, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paul M. O’Rourke, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co4.Par.36501.File.dat/orourke.pdf"><em>Frontier in Transition: A History of Southwestern Colorado</em></a> (Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jill Seyfarth,  “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/CLG_Survey_Cortez2012.pdf">Historic Buildings Survey: Montezuma Avenue, Cortez, Colorado 2012</a>,” (Durango, CO: Cultural Resource Planning, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Montezuma County, Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/nm/canm.html">Canyons of the Ancients National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.cortezco.gov/">City of Cortez</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/discover-four-corners-region-things-do">Discover the Four Corners Region: Things to Do</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://scan.org/">Economic Development District of Southwest Colorado</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/hove/index.htm">Hovenweep National Monument</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm">Mesa Verde National Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://montezumacounty.org/web/">Montezuma County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.mancoscolorado.com/">Town of Mancos</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://www.utemountaintribalpark.info/">Ute Mountain Tribal Park</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 27 Jun 2016 21:03:09 +0000 yongli 1518 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indian Agencies and Agents http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indian Agencies and Agents</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1217--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1217.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-19367_0.jpg?itok=-vvK5tKD" width="1000" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fort-lyon-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fort Lyon, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Fort Lyon with tents outside, c. 1862-64.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1219--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1219.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-2_20009286_0.jpg?itok=O3VFhid6" width="1000" height="649" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/nuche-ute-people-ignacio" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Nuche (Ute People) in Ignacio</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute people&nbsp;at the Southern Ute Agency at Ignacio, about 1890.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1221--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1221.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Indian-Agencies_Media-3_20102505_0.jpg?itok=WTYhdzRD" width="1000" height="711" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-camp-los-pinos-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Camp, Los Pinos Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Ute encampment in the Uncompahgre Valley near the Los Pinos Agency, ca. 1878-1881.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-15T12:10:56-06:00" title="Tuesday, March 15, 2016 - 12:10" class="datetime">Tue, 03/15/2016 - 12:10</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents" data-a2a-title="Indian Agencies and Agents"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findian-agencies-and-agents&amp;title=Indian%20Agencies%20and%20Agents"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Indian Agencies were established by the US government as part of the formal relationship with Indigenous nations as it acquired lands from them. Indian Agents were individuals responsible for cultivating relationships with Indigenous people and extending government policies. As <a href="/article/indian-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> and agreements were negotiated and reservations were established, these relationships became increasingly complex and controversial.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Territorial Period</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Initial management of Indigenous affairs in what would become Colorado was a result of acquisition of Mexican territory during the Mexican-American War (1846–48). In 1846 General Stephen Watts Kearney occupied New Mexico, and government interaction with Native Americans was largely to ensure peaceful relations and regulate trade. That year, Kearney appointed<strong> Charles Bent</strong> as civilian governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for the newly acquired land. Bent’s experience with numerous Native American groups through his affiliation with <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> and with <strong>Fort St. Vrain</strong> and through his store in Taos made him a natural choice, but he spent only a few months at the post before he was killed during the Taos Revolt in January 1847.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Subsequent governors followed Bent in the role as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in New Mexico, as was the case with later territorial governors. The Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were formally organized in 1850. The Utah Territory extended eastward over the entire western third of Colorado to the <a href="/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, and the New Mexico Territory included the southern portion of Colorado east of the mountains. The Kansas and Nebraska territories were established in 1854, with the Kansas Territory covering the central portion of Colorado east of the mountains and Nebraska Territory covering northern Colorado east of the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agents were appointed to assist the territorial governors or superintendents of Indian Affairs on a somewhat regional basis that conformed to areas occupied by one or more Indigenous nations. The agents were posted to communities or forts that were in relatively close proximity to the Native American groups they were to serve. In these early years, agents often had some direct contact with the Indigenous people in their jurisdiction, with most of their time spent attempting to ascertain which groups were present, their numbers, their modes of life and habits, and their ranges, as well as controlling illicit trade by whites or <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the Utah Territory, the first agent seems to have been John Wilson, who was stationed at Fort Bridger beginning in August 1849. His wide area covered land occupied mainly by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Utes</strong></a>, <strong>Shoshones</strong>, and <strong>Paiutes</strong>. J. S. Calhoun was the first agent in New Mexico; he was posted at Santa Fe and negotiated the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of 1849</strong></a> with the Utes at Abiquiú. His jurisdiction covered lands occupied or entered by <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Navajo</strong>, Ute, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, and various Puebloan groups. In Kansas, former trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick was assigned the area of the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers by 1847 and was mostly concerned with the safety of travelers along the <a href="/article/santa-fe-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In an effort to protect emigrants traveling through the region on their way to California and Oregon, the US government signed a treaty known as the <strong><a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a></strong> with Indigeneous nations on the Great Plains in 1851. Part of the treaty assigned territories for the various Plains Indian groups. Among these, the Arapaho and Cheyenne were jointly assigned to the area east of the Rockies between the North Platte and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Rivers. <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Annuity goods</strong></a> were distributed to them at Bent’s Fort, and the agent for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/upper-arkansas-indian-agency"><strong>Upper Arkansas Agency</strong></a> was stationed there beginning in 1858. Annuity goods were useful items—such as clothing, tools, cookware, decorative items, hunting and fishing supplies, and canvases for <strong><a href="/article/tipi-0">tipi</a></strong><a href="/article/tipi"><strong>s</strong></a>—that were distributed to Indigenous people as stipulated by a signed treaty.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1855 two treaties were negotiated with two Ute bands in the New Mexico Territory. With the assistance of Lorenzo Labadi, who served as the agent for both bands at Abiquiú​, Territorial Governor David Merriwether finalized treaties with the Capote Utes on August 8, 1855, and with the Mouache Utes on September 11. Reservations were proposed for the Capote along the <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River </strong></a>and for the Mouache along the Rio Grande, both extending into present-day Colorado. Though Congress failed to ratify either treaty, the treaties were the first in a series that followed national policy of attempting to have Native American groups cede a large portion of their territories for small reservations in return for money, goods, and services.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Fort Wise/Fort Lyon Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 15, 1861, within two weeks of the establishment of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> the Cheyenne and Arapaho signed the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Fort Wise Treaty of 1861</strong></a>, which was deemed necessary because of increased conflict between the two tribes and the influx of miners and settlers to the area after the discovery of gold along the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> in 1858. Discussions with the Native Americans had been initiated in 1860. The Cheyenne and Arapaho agreed to cede most of their traditional lands for a smaller reservation that took up a considerable amount of southeastern Colorado and was bound on the north by Sand Creek and on the south by the boundary between the New Mexico and Colorado Territories. The western portion of the reservation was to be occupied by the Arapaho and the eastern portion by the Cheyenne.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the treaty and establishment of the Colorado Territory, A. G. Boone was made the agent at Fort Wise (soon renamed Fort Lyon), to be succeeded by <a href="/article/samuel-gerish-colley"><strong>Samuel G. Colley</strong></a> in 1862. The Kiowa and Comanche residing in southern Colorado were also attached to the agency at Fort Lyon, though a treaty had not been made with them. The Cheyenne and Arapaho never really occupied the reservation, mostly because the buffalo that they depended on were no longer present and only minimal improvements had been made for the agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a>, which took place on the reservation in 1864, resulted in widespread warfare. The <strong>Treaty of 1865</strong> resulted in removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado to reservation lands in Kansas and Oklahoma, and the Upper Arkansas Agency was terminated.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Middle Park and Conejos Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>With the establishment of Colorado Territory on February 10, 1861, the Colorado territorial governor became the local superintendent of Indian affairs. Two agencies were established in Colorado. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-indian-agency-0"><strong>Conejos Agency</strong></a> had already been established in 1860 in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> to administer to the Tabeguache Utes, who had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Taos Agency under <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> as early as 1856. Prior to its official establishment, the Conejos ranch of <a href="/article/lafayette-head-1825-1897-0"><strong>Lafayette Head</strong></a> had been where annuity goods for the <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Tabeguache</strong></a> and <strong>Mouache Utes</strong> were distributed beginning in 1858. Head became the first agent at the Conejos Agency. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/middle-park-indian-agency-0"><strong>Middle Park Agency</strong></a> was established in 1862 for the Grand River, Uinta, and Yampa Utes. Simeon Whiteley was appointed the first agent for the Middle Park Agency in 1862. The agency had no real headquarters, though its business was carried out at <strong>Hot Sulphur Springs</strong>, <strong>Breckenridge</strong>, <strong>Empire</strong>, and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Responsibilities for Native Americans under Treaties</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a> resulted in Colorado’s Utes ceding much of their traditional homeland, including the San Luis Valley and the most heavily mined areas in the Colorado Rockies. The eastern boundary was at 107 degrees latitude, which was mostly west of the Continental Divide. The treaty stipulated that two new agencies would be established on the reservation. The Conejos Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/los-pi%C3%B1os-indian-agency"><strong>Los Pinos Agency</strong></a> west of <strong>Cochetopa Pass</strong>, and the Middle Park Agency was replaced by the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a> along the White River in northwestern Colorado; both were established in 1869. In order to satisfy treaty stipulations, the agent became the manager of several employees—typically a farmer, blacksmith, and schoolteacher, but often including cattle herders and sawmill operators. A full complement of buildings was constructed, including residences, shops, barns, school houses, and warehouses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Employees were to teach Indigenous people their respective skills. The agent ordered and distributed annuity goods and rations, made sure the agency was well supplied; hired, fired, and managed employees; and completed arduous financial accounting tasks. In addition, he was to enforce ever-changing government policies and respond to crises between Native Americans and whites. Despite the best intentions of most of agents, they were subject to accusations of malfeasance by Indigenous people as well as encroaching whites, and to removal for political reasons.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Federal Policy and Selection of Agents</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Under President Ulysses S. Grant, Christian reformers were included in developing and implementing Native American policy. This resulted in the Board of Indian Commissioners being established in 1869 and Christian evangelism being incorporated into Indigenous policy. With these changes, tribal traditions were discouraged; the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871"><strong>treaty system was revised</strong></a> so that it was no longer a nation-to-nation agreement; monetary annuities were discouraged in favor of goods, agency improvements, and services; and Indigenous people were considered wards of the government for their protection. With proper oversight, it was thought that Native Americans could be educated in industry, civilization, and Christianity so they could eventually attain US citizenship and become self-supporting.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Indigenous people were initially to be placed on small reservations, with the goal being that when ready, they would be granted exclusive ownership of land in parcels of 160 acres or less. This was designed to teach them the values of land ownership and enable them to earn a living from their labor on their land. All of these goals were made without Indigenous input, ran contrary to Native American customs, and were demoralizing. Under the new policy, candidates for agents were to be put forward by Christian religious groups. Inadequate candidates were immediately available. For example, the initial agents for the Los Piños and White River agencies were former military officers who were available as a result of the reduction of military force following the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>. Congress rejected this approach of appointing former military officers as public servants to fill civil positions in July 1870, so the American Unitarian Union began nominating candidates as agents for the two Indian Agencies in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>White River Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>At the Middle Park Agency at White River, <strong>Daniel C. Oakes</strong>, successor to Simeon Whiteley, selected the agency location and began construction of the buildings. Lieutenant W. W. Parry, who was completely unprepared for the job, replaced Oakes in June 1869. Governor <strong>Edward M. McCook</strong> appointed several ineffective military officers as agents thereafter. More successful were agents <strong>John S. Littlefield</strong> and Edward H. Danforth, both nominated by the Unitarians and serving as agents from 1871 to 1878. Danforth was followed by <strong><a href="/article/nathan-meeker">Nathan C. Meeker</a>.</strong> Meeker was not a Unitarian but was highly religious and brought utopian ideals from the agricultural colony of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a> to the agency. After moving the agency to a new location a few miles downstream along the White River, Meeker’s rigidity and zealotry precipitated a Ute uprising known as the <strong><a href="/article/meeker-incident">Meeker Incident</a></strong> in late September 1879. Utes killed Meeker and ten others, including most of the agency’s employees, and the US troops sent to assist Meeker were defeated at the <a href="/article/battle-milk-creek"><strong>Battle of Milk Creek</strong></a>. The incident prompted the eventual removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Los Piños Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Lieutenant Calvin T. Speer was the first agent for the Los Piños Agency, beginning in 1869. He selected the agency location and initiated construction of its buildings. Speer was replaced by Unitarian Jabez Nelson Trask, the first of three Unitarian agents between 1871 and 1876. Thereafter, the agency was served by a succession of agents unaffiliated with the Unitarian Church whose rapid, near-annual turnover provided no stable leadership until the Utes associated with the agency were removed from Colorado in late 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Denver Special Agency</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A large number of Utes who were to be attached to the White River Agency refused to move to the reservation and desired to continue hunting buffalo on the plains, spending summers in North and Middle Parks, and wintering near Denver. Although attached to the Middle Park Agency, these Utes had become accustomed to visiting the agent in Denver, where they acquired goods and services from the government. Rather than force the Utes onto the reservation on the west side of the Rockies, James B. Thompson, personal secretary and brother-in-law of Governor McCook, continued the practice of supplying the Indigenous people in Denver in 1869. This practice was formalized through the establishment of the Denver Special Agency in 1870. It continued to serve the Utes through 1874, when they agreed to go to the reservation and be served by the White River Agency. After a brief reopening in 1875, the agency was permanently closed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ute Removal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Meeker Incident was the catalyst for removal of most of the Utes from western Colorado. The bands associated with the White River Agency were forced to the Uintah Reservation in Utah in late summer 1881. The Tabeguache Utes attached to the Los Piños Agency, under the leadership of <strong><a href="/article/ouray">Ouray</a>,</strong> negotiated an agreement shortly before his death in 1880 that stipulated that they would be moved to a smaller reservation, likely at the confluence of the Grand and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> Rivers in present-day <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>. With this in mind, a survey of the proposed new reservation was completed that included several townships in what is known as the Ute Principal Meridian. If the land there was found unsuitable, then other lands could be considered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Ute Commission, following the lead of member <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otto-mears"><strong>Otto Mears</strong></a>, found the land at the confluence of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers unsuitable for agricultural settlement, so decided that land at the confluence of the Green and White Rivers in Utah should be the new reservation. This land was annexed to the existing Uintah Reservation, and the reservation is now known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/.../northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray- reservation"><strong>Uintah and Ouray Reservation</strong></a>. Tabeguache Utes formerly attached to the Los Pinos Agency were forced to the new reservation in September 1881.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Ute Reservations and Agencies</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A separate <strong>Southern Ute Agency</strong> was established for the Capote, Mouache, and Weeminuche Utes in early 1877, with Francis H. Weaver as the agent. The actual agency site selected that June was on the Los Piños River, much to the consternation of the Utes, who expected it to be placed on the Navajo River. A post office at the agency was named Ignacio when it opened in 1882. When the town of Ignacio grew nearby, the post office was moved there in 1914. Indigenous people attached to the agency were formerly served at agencies in Abiquiú​ and Cimarron, New Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Ignacio</strong>, leader of the Southern Utes—as the three bands came to be known—had the foresight to distance his group from Ouray during the <a href="/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a> of 1873, when the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> were ceded to the US government. A strip of land fifteen miles wide and south of the territory ceded in the Brunot Agreement was recognized as the domain of the Southern Utes. The Southern Utes agreed to move to this reservation along the southern border of Colorado in 1880. Because they were recognized as separate from the Utes attached to the Los Piños and White River agencies, they were allowed to remain in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Under the agreement, the reservation was to be allotted to individual tribal members with the remaining land sold for the benefit of the tribe. Ignacio objected to the plan and desired to retain contiguous land for the Weeminuche band. An agreement in 1895 resulted in the allotment of the eastern portion of the reservation, still known as the <strong>Southern Ute Reservation</strong>, with its agency at Ignacio. The 374 allotments designated to the Utes in the eastern portion of the reservation amounted to about 60,000 acres of land, leaving 636,000 acres open for entry to other settlers beginning in May 1899.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The western portion was established as the <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Reservation</strong></a> for Utes who did not want to participate in the allotment program, with agency headquarters at Navajo Springs. Because of a lack of water, the agency at Navajo Springs was quickly abandoned and a new agency was constructed in about 1898 at <strong>Towaoc</strong>. Reconfiguration of <a href="/article/mesa-verde-national-park-archaeology-and-history"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a> in 1911 resulted in a land exchange that took 12,760 acres of the Ute Mountain Ute Reservation in exchange for 7,840 acres of land vacated from the original configuration of the park and 19,520 acres on the north side of Ute Mountain that extended to the south side of McElmo Canyon.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/horn-jonathon-c" hreflang="und">Horn, Jonathon C.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agency" hreflang="en">Indian Agency</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/military-posts" hreflang="en">military posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts" hreflang="en">trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/annuity-goods" hreflang="en">annuity goods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Cheyenne Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Arapaho Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-mountain-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>F. H. Abbott and James McLaughlin,<em> Letter to the Secretary of Interior, June 5, 1911</em>, Major James McLaughlin Papers on microfilm (Denver: Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, 1911).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William H. Bauer, “The Colorado Postal Encyclopedia: La Plata County, Part 1,” <em>Colorado Postal Historian</em> 20, no. 1 (2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles Bent, “Indian Tribes of New Mexico,” in <em>Information Respecting the History, Conditions and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States: Collected and Prepared under the Direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per Act of Congress of March 3d, 1847</em>, by Henry R. Schoolcraft (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo &amp; Company, 1853).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Felix R. Brunot, Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners, and Robert Campbell, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, “Letter to J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC, October 29, 1870,” in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1870</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1870).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>J. L. Collins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Santa Fe, New Mexico, “Letter to C. E. Mix, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, September 27, 1858,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, For the Year 1858</em> (Washington, DC: Wm. A. Harris, Printer, 1858).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Evans, Governor and ex officio Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to W. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, October 30, 1862,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas Fitzpatrick, Indian Agent, Upper Arkansas and Platte, Bent’s Fort, Arkansas River, “Letter to Thomas H. Harvey, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, St. Louis, Missouri, September 18, 1847,” in <em>Annual</em> <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Transmitted with the Message of the President, at the First Session of the Thirtieth Congress, 1847…1848</em> (Washington, DC: Wendell and Van Benthuysen, Printers, 1848).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Gilpin, Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Colorado Territory, Denver, “Letter to William P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, June 19, 1861,” in <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, for the Year 1862</em> (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1863).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Sonja L. Cohen, “<a href="https://www.uuworld.org/articles/history-ute-indians">Unitarians Worked to ‘Save’ Ute Indians</a>,” <em>U U World Magazine</em> 23 (Winter 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Fred A. Conetah, <em>A History of the Northern Ute People</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter Decker, <em>The Utes Must Go! American Expansion and the Removal of a People</em> (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Los_Pinos_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">Los Pinos Indian Agency (Colorado),</a>” Familysearch.org, updated March 30, 2015,</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Printing Services, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Petit, <em>Utes, the Mountain People</em> (Boulder: Johnson Printing, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/White_River_Indian_Agency_(Colorado)">White River Indian Agency (Colorado)</a>,” Familysearch.org, updated March 31, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Mar 2016 18:10:56 +0000 yongli 1216 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sapiah http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sapiah <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sapiah</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1159--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1159.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-chief-buckskin-charley"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=UgY6VG9l" width="1080" height="1496" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-chief-buckskin-charley" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Chief Buckskin Charley</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Buckskin Charlie Chief of the Southern Utes in wool coat and cap, wearing braids.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1163--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1163.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-and-wife-wee"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10033158_0.jpg?itok=BXAxsopI" width="1000" height="1266" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-and-wife-wee" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley and wife To-Wee</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Chief Buckskin Charley and wife To-wee or Tee-Wee (Emma Naylor Buck). To-wee wears a buckskin dress, concho belt, beaded necklace, large earrings and beaded moccasins. Buckskin Charley wears a cloth shirt with hair locks and beaded moccasins. He wears the Rutherford Hayes Indian Peace Medal and carries a catlinite pipe and beaded pipe bag.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1165--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1165.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/antonio-and-julian-buck"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=Ioueh8xx" width="1000" height="1505" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/antonio-and-julian-buck" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Antonio and Julian Buck</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Cabinet photo of Buckskin Charley and Emma Buck’s sons in traditional Ute dress. Antonia Buck is standing and Julian Buck is seated.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1166--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1166.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-peace-medal"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/X-33926_0.jpg?itok=fuW7MGou" width="1000" height="1283" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-peace-medal" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley with Peace Medal</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Studio portrait of Buckskin Charley in traditional dress with 4-winds cross and Rutherford Hayes Indian Peace Medal.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1169--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1169.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/three-ute-chiefs"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10047987_0.jpg?itok=rwZY8_pz" width="1000" height="1349" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/three-ute-chiefs" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Three Ute Chiefs</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Three Ute chiefs standing in front of a teepee. Seated is Chief Buckskin Charley (Moache), to his right is Chief Ignacio (Weeminuche) and to his left is Severo (Caputa). Severo and Ignacio wear Indian Police badges.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1170--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1170.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/southern-utes"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=SFMlme6r" width="1000" height="788" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/southern-utes" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Southern Utes</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Group of seven males, three females and a child in traditional Ute dress standing in front of teepees, probably near Ignacio, Colorado. Chief Buckskin Charley is fifth from left, Severo is sixth from left, and Emma Buck is eighth from left. Presumably this is Buckskin Charley’s family.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1172--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1172.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buckskin-charley-horse"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/skin-Media-7_0.jpg?itok=3b4Ak4bL" width="1000" height="1034" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buckskin-charley-horse" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buckskin Charley on horse</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Southern Ute Chief Buckskin Charley on horseback wearing overalls, boots and a western hat.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1174--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1174.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/beaded-moccasins"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Buckskin-Media-8_0.jpg?itok=u8-dLvBH" width="1000" height="1007" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/beaded-moccasins" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Beaded moccasins</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pair of beaded moccasins (ca. 1880) presumably belonging to Buckskin Charley and given as gift to Issakson family.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-01T16:41:15-07:00" title="Tuesday, March 1, 2016 - 16:41" class="datetime">Tue, 03/01/2016 - 16:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sapiah" data-a2a-title="Sapiah"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsapiah&amp;title=Sapiah"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Sapiah (1840–1936) was the preeminent chief of the Muache band of the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> beginning around 1870. He was born to a Muache father and an <strong>Apache</strong> mother, perhaps in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico. The origins of his English name, "Buckskin Charley," are obscure, and later in life he was also referred to as Charles Buck. He married Te-Wee, also known as To-Wee (Emma Naylor Buck). They had two sons: Julian and Antonio Buck.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout his long tenure as chief of the Southern Ute Tribe, Sapiah traveled to Washington, DC, numerous times, meeting seven US presidents. He was presented the Rutherford Hayes Peace Medal by President Benjamin Harrison in 1890. Sapiah and five other Native leaders were in Theodore Roosevelt’s inaugural parade. In 1905 Sapiah and his youngest son, Antonio Buck, traveled to Washington to meet with President Roosevelt.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Leader</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Even though the Nuche (Ute people) lived in disparate bands with their own leaders, throughout the late nineteenth century the US government recognized <a href="/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a>, leader of the Tabeguache band, as de facto head of all Ute people. In 1880 Ouray died of Bright's disease. His death came at a trying time for the Nuche in Colorado, especially the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Northern</strong></a> bands, whom the US government forced out of Colorado after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>With Ouray gone, it fell to Sapiah and other Ute leaders to navigate a fraught relationship with the United States. Sapiah and other chiefs, including <strong>Severo</strong> of the Capote, shared Ouray's vision of coexistence with white Americans. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1886 Sapiah, <strong>Ignacio</strong>, and the Capote chief <strong>Tapuche </strong>went to Washington, DC, with C.F. Stollsteimer, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agent</strong></a> at Ignacio. Under pressure from white colonists and on the heels of violent events like the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver-creek-massacre"><strong>Beaver Creek Massacre</strong></a>, the three chiefs agreed to leave Colorado. A proposal was made for the removal of the Utes to southeastern Utah, but the agreement was never ratified, in part due to opposition from Utah politicians. Sapiah, Severo, and most of the Southern Utes kept their people on the reservation lands near Ignacio.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1894 the issue of removing Colorado's Ute people again came to a head, with Congress deciding that the Utes should stay in the state. In 1895 Congress passed the Hunter Act. This act imposed upon the Southern Ute Reservation the terms of the <a href="/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>General Allotment Act of 1887</strong></a>, which authorized the president to survey and divide tribal land. By a vote of 153 to 148, the Southern Ute males agreed to accept the privatization of their land. The majority of the 153 were from the Muache and Capote bands, with most of the dissenting votes from the Weeminuche.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The government divided the reservation into two parts. The eastern portion was to be allocated into 80- and 160-acre parcels; the western part of the reservation was to remain unallotted, with the lands held in common by the Weeminuche. The Muache and Capote bands under Sapiah and Severo took the allotments and remained the Southern Ute Tribe under federal law, and the Weeminuche, led by Ignacio, moved to <strong>Navajo Springs</strong>, close to <strong>Towaoc</strong>, and were federally recognized as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a>. Chief Severo died in 1913, leaving Sapiah as the principal chief of the Southern Utes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Leader on the Reservation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah was one of the most enterprising and farm-oriented leaders of the Utes. He settled into farming and ranching on his 160-acre allotment and became one of the tribe’s principal owners of cattle and sheep. In this regard, he was the government's ideal example of its vision for the Utes, a role model for his people. Sapiah’s economic success, however, was due in part to agency policies that resulted in preferential treatment of male leaders, including gratuity payments, salaries for reservation police, setup of pre-allotment farms and equipment, double allotments, and by 1911 allowing tribal leaders limited control over their own bank accounts. Sapiah was considered one of the favored Utes, although he continued with relative success after gratuities were removed in the early twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah was also an advocate of youth education, as long as the children did not have to leave the reservation. Early on, Ute children were sent to Boarding Schools such as Old <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-lewis"><strong>Fort Lewis</strong></a> at Hesperus, Colorado, the "<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-junction-indian-boarding-school"><strong>Teller Institute</strong></a>" in <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>, or further away to Santa Fe or Albuquerque, New Mexico. Many children suffered and died in these places, where they were exposed to unsanitary conditions and forced to abandon their language and traditions. Chief Ignacio is said to have lost three of his children while they attended boarding school in Albuquerque.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah and his wife, Emma Buck, were active participants in the peyote rites of the <strong>Native American Church</strong>. The Sun Dance religion took a firm hold on the Southern Ute Reservation with Sapiah as its leader. In contrast, Severo and Julian Buck, Charley’s oldest son, were converts to the Presbyterian Church. At the invitation of Julian Buck, Rev. A. J. Rodríguez set up a mission school near the Ignacio Agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Forty-five years after Ouray’s death, Sapiah took the lead to recover the dead chief’s remains and have them reburied in Ouray Memorial Cemetery along the <strong>Los Pinos River</strong> in Ignacio.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sapiah died on May 8, 1936, at the age of ninety-six. He was preceded in death by his oldest son, Julian. On September 24, 1939, the Ute Chieftains Memorial Monument was dedicated in honor of four Ute Chiefs: Ouray, Sapiah, Severo, and Ignacio. After Sapiah’s death, his son Antonio Buck, Sr., the last hereditary chief of the Southern Utes, became the first elected chairman of the Southern Indian Tribe.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/charles-mona-c" hreflang="und">Charles, Mona C. </a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sapiah" hreflang="en">Sapiah</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute-indian-tribe" hreflang="en">Ute Indian Tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capote-ute" hreflang="en">Capote Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/muache-ute" hreflang="en">Muache Ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-tribe" hreflang="en">Southern Ute tribe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southern-ute-indian-reservation" hreflang="en">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dawes-act" hreflang="en">dawes act</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/allotment" hreflang="en">allotment</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous history colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-leaders-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous leaders colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-leaders-colorado" hreflang="en">indian leaders colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-ouray" hreflang="en">Chief Ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ignacio" hreflang="en">Ignacio</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Gary Courtney, “<a href="http://www.blackhawkpublishing.com/BP010102Vallecito%20Stories.htm#Early Pioneer of Vallecito">Early Pioneer of Vallecito: Chief Buckskin Charley</a>,” The Vallecito Legend, November 13, 2005.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Delaney, ed., <em>Southern Ute Lands, 1848–1899: The Creation of a Reservation</em>, Occasional Paper of the Center of Southwest Studies, No. 1, Fort Lewis College (Durango, CO: Center of Southwest Studies, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Barry M. Pritzker, <em>Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples, </em>vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frances Leon Quintana, <em>Ordeal of Change: The Southern Utes and Their Neighbors </em>(New York: Altamira Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rio Blanco County Historical Society, “<a href="http://www.meekercolorado.com/HSociety.htm">Meeker Colorado and White River Valley</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard K. Young, <em>The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bertha Pauline Dutton, <em>The Ranchería, Ute, and Southern Ute Peoples</em>, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James Jefferson, Robert W. Delaney, and Gregory C. Thompson, <em>The Southern Utes: A Tribal History</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jan Pettit, <em>Utes: The Mountain People,</em> rev. ed. (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P. David Smith, <em>Ouray:</em> <em>Chief of the Utes</em> (Ouray, CO: Wayfinder Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marshall Sprague, <em>Massacre: The Tragedy at White River </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Omer C. Stewart, <em>Ute</em> <em>Indians: Before and After White Contact </em>(Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1966).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 01 Mar 2016 23:41:15 +0000 yongli 1160 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org