%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Little Arkansas Treaty http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Arkansas Treaty</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3316--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3316.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=lD0qXZ-D" width="600" height="805" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/mrs-john-prowers" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Mrs. John Prowers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Walking Woman, also known as Amache, was the daughter of Southern Cheyenne leader Lone Bear, who was killed in the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. Amache, who later married Colorado rancher John Prowers, was one of several Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians who were promised reparations for the massacre in the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3318--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3318.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/little-raven"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Little-Arkansas-Treaty-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=af1euXaY" width="600" height="847" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/little-raven" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Little Raven</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Little Raven led an Arapaho band on the Front Range of Colorado during the mid-nineteenth century. His people were among several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands slaughtered by US troops during the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864. He signed the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865, hoping that his people would receive the promised reparations for the massacre. To this date, the descendants of the massacre victims have not received what was promised.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:37:19-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:37" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty" data-a2a-title="Little Arkansas Treaty"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flittle-arkansas-treaty&amp;title=Little%20Arkansas%20Treaty"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Little Arkansas Treaty refers to a pair of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> signed between the US and Indigenous nations in Kansas in mid-October 1865: one with the <strong>Southern Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Southern Cheyenne </strong>nations and one with the <strong>Comanche</strong> and<strong> Kiowa</strong>. Of the two, the treaty signed on October 14 with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, was the most significant within Colorado because it removed the two Indigenous nations to a new reservation in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) and offered them reparations for the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of the previous year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Little Arkansas Treaty remains contested today, as the Interior Department apparently mismanaged funds allocated for the reparations. Descendants of those killed in the Sand Creek Massacre have been fighting for these lost reparations throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In February 1861, just two weeks after the US government established <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne signed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>. Representatives of both nations agreed to forfeit their bands’ land in northern Colorado and live on a reservation in eastern Colorado. Despite the treaty, episodes of white-Indigenous violence still occurred, so in September 1864, the Southern Cheyenne leader <strong>Black Kettle</strong>, among others, visited <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to make a peace agreement with territorial governor <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In late November 1864, a group of several hundred Cheyenne and Arapaho, including Black Kettle’s band, camped at Sand Creek near Fort Lyon, along the boundary of the reservation. Believing themselves to be under the protection of the fort, the men left to hunt <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> one morning and came back to a horrific scene—US troops under Colonel <strong>John Chivington</strong> had attacked the camp, slaughtering at least 230 women, children, and elders.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cheyenne and Arapaho retaliated over the next several months, burning ranches and other white settlements, including the town of <strong>Julesburg</strong>. After a lengthy investigation, the US government condemned the Sand Creek Massacre and decided to offer reparations to the afflicted parties in exchange for peace. In addition, with the end of the <strong>Civil War</strong> in 1865, the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho from Colorado was part of the government’s renewed focus on pacifying the indigenous population of the American West to make way for <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a>, <strong>railroads</strong>, mines, and cities.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Meeting on the Little Arkansas</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To accomplish the joint goals of reparations and removal, the United States sent a treaty delegation—led by Colonel Henry Leavenworth and including Colorado notables <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a>—to the banks of the Little Arkansas River, where they arrived on October 4, 1865. There the party waited until several Cheyenne and Arapaho bands arrived on October 11, with their numbers eventually totaling more than 4,000. Among them were Black Kettle’s Cheyenne and <strong>Little Raven</strong>’s Arapaho—both of whom had been at Sand Creek—as well as five other Cheyenne bands and six other Arapaho bands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho was concluded on October 14. In addition to calling for an end to hostilities between the parties, the treaty established a small reservation for both Indigenous nations in what is now western Oklahoma. However, the government had already removed other Native peoples to that area and would have to move them again to make space for the newcomers. Until then, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were allowed to “reside upon and range at pleasure throughout … that part of the country they claim as originally theirs, which lies between the Arkansas and Platte Rivers.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> listed at twenty dollars per person for forty years, the Little Arkansas Treaty included reparations for the “gross and wanton outrages” of the Sand Creek Massacre. These included monetary reparations, as well as grants of 640 acres within the old 1861 reservation to members of affected families, including the Bent children and the extended family of <strong>John Prowers</strong> and his Cheyenne wife, <strong>Amache</strong>. The treaty also promised 320-acre grants within the new reservation to the leaders of bands killed at Sand Creek, including Black Kettle, and 160-acre grants to “each other person of said bands made a widow, or who lost a parent,” in the massacre.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho—which was later amended to include a small number of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>—a second treaty was signed with leaders from the Comanche and Kiowa nations on October 18.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The American delegates at the Little Arkansas council were eager to acknowledge and make amends for the tragedy at Sand Creek, but the US government did not follow up on those promises. For one thing, the treaty’s promises to the Indigenous nations, while wholly justified, went beyond what was typical at the time and would incur costs that still had to be approved by the Senate. Samuel Kingman, an American observer at the council, noted that the Cheyenne-Arapaho treaty was “very liberal in its terms to the Indians, probably more so than will be sanctioned by the [S]enate.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Still, in 1866 Congress appropriated $39,050 to cover the specific reparations outlined in the treaty. It is not known whether this amount would have been sufficient, but it did not matter; instead of issuing that money to the individuals listed in the treaty, the Interior Department gave some of the money to the tribes and, according to a modern legal assessment, “returned the rest” to the Treasury as “surplus.” The promised land grants did not materialize, either. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> of 1867, which the government saw as a replacement for the Little Arkansas Treaty, did not address the missing Sand Creek reparations. By 1869 most of the Cheyenne and Arapaho had left Colorado for their new reservation in Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Descendants of the Sand Creek Massacre victims have long sought to reclaim the reparations listed in the Little Arkansas Treaty. Congress considered bills to pay out reparations in 1949, 1957, and 1965, but none passed. In 2013 Homer Flute, Robert Simpson, Jr., and Dorothy Wood—all members of the <strong>Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Trust</strong>—filed a lawsuit against the federal government to recoup the lost reparations. A district court dismissed the case, agreeing with US attorneys who argued that the government was no longer responsible for the reparations. The descendants’ lawyers had argued that a recent law did, in fact, allow their case to be heard, and they appealed to the US Tenth Circuit Court. In 2015, however, the appellate court affirmed the dismissal. In 2016 the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case, resulting in yet another denial of justice for one of the worst atrocities in American history.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-history" hreflang="en">indigenous history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-indians" hreflang="en">colorado indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-little-arkansas" hreflang="en">treaty of little arkansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-prowers" hreflang="en">john prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kit-carson" hreflang="en">kit carson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaty-fort-wise" hreflang="en">Treaty of Fort Wise</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Avalon Project, “<a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/char65.asp">Treaty With the Cheyenne and Arapaho; October 14, 1865</a>,” Yale Law School, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Berry, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/government-seeks-to-end-claims-from-1864-s-sand-creek-massacre">Government Seeks to End Claims From 1864’s Sand Creek Massacre</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, October 10, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>FindLaw, “<a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-10th-circuit/1721456.html">Flute v. United States</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>First People, “<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheComancheAndKiowa1865.html">Treaty With the Comanche and Kiowa, October 18, 1865</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gorski, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/07/11/sand-creek-massacre-descendants-sue-federal-government-for-reparations/">Sand Creek Massacre Descendants Sue Federal Government for Reparations</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, July 11, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kansas State Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.kancoll.org/khq/1932/32_5_kingman.htm">Diary of Samuel A. Kingman at Indian Treaty in 1865</a>,” originally published in <em>Kansas Historical Society </em>1, no. 5 (November 1932).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alexander Sokolosky, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1337&amp;context=olr">Rebuilding Trust? The Sand Creek Massacre and the Federal-Tribal Trust Relationship in <em>Flute v. United States</em></a>,” <em>Oklahoma Law Review </em>70, no. 4 (2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>DocsTeach, “<a href="https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/treaty-of-little-arkansas-river-october-14-1865-ratified-indian-treaties-341-14-stat-703-between-the-us-and-arapahoe-and-cheyenne-indians-black-kettle-band-granting-lands-in-reparation-for-the-sand-cr">Treaty of Little Arkansas River, October 14, 1865 …</a> ,” National Archives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Konnie LeMay, “<a href="https://ictnews.org/archive/what-led-to-the-sand-creek-massacre-check-out-this-timeline">What Led to the Sand Creek Massacre? Check Out This Timeline</a>,” <em>Indian Country Today</em>, November 28, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:37:19 +0000 yongli 3266 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Bent's Forts http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s Forts</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1329--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1329.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bents-old-fort"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7748.jpg?itok=xO9-0jcV" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bents-old-fort" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s Old Fort</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Inside Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7711.jpg?itok=7_mqN0MH" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plaza, Bent&#039;s Old Fort Historic Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the plaza within Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site. In the 1830s and '40s, Native Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanos met in the plaza to conduct trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1331--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1331.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bents-new-fort-plan"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bents%20New%20Fort%20sketch%20mapwkey_0.jpg?itok=lU1dbetW" width="1090" height="1152" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bents-new-fort-plan" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s New Fort Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1849 a decline in the bison hide trade forced William Bent to close his original trading post and open a new one farther down the Arkansas River. This sketch by archaeologist Michelle A. Slaughter outlines the layout of the new fort (click for larger image).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1328--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1328.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/richard-carrillo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RichardCarrillo%20%281%29.jpg?itok=sUUHSBnl" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/richard-carrillo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Richard Carrillo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Richard Carrillo explains excavation results at Bent’s New Fort. At the time of his death in 2014, Carrillo was the preeminent Southeastern Colorado archaeologist and historian and was working on a project at Bent’s New Fort.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-06T10:52:40-06:00" title="Friday, May 6, 2016 - 10:52" class="datetime">Fri, 05/06/2016 - 10:52</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts" data-a2a-title="Bent&#039;s Forts"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbents-forts&amp;title=Bent%27s%20Forts"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century, when the western United States was in a seemingly unending state of flux as people competed for dominance over the land and its resources, three men moved to what would eventually become southeastern Colorado and there established a trading and commercial empire. The Bents—brothers William, Charles, and <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>—arrived in the area in the late 1820s, and established two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> that were essential in the eventual establishment of permanent communities in the region.</p> <p>The Bents’ empire mixed the American influence of St. Louis and Westport, Missouri, with the existing Spanish and French Canadian influences and traditions in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and Nuche (<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) also controlled territory in southeastern Colorado and influenced the region’s cultural medley. As the Bents increased their economic domain, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> peoples made increasing inroads into the plains bounded by the Rockies on the west, the Platte Rivers to the north, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> to the south.</p> <p>Perhaps anticipating the value of the small, but competitive tribes who came to the region to capitalize on the wild horse trade, in 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the esteemed Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman bore four children: Mary, Robert, George, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William continued with Cheyenne tradition and married her sister Yellow Woman, who gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. At some point Yellow Woman left, so William married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men and voyageurs was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire with the construction of Bent’s Old Fort (Fort William), 1832–34. They pioneered the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>, and by the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of bison hides, along with other animal hides, for consumption in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a pivotal point on the border of US Territory and the Mexican nation, which gained independence from Spain in 1821.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a focal point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a haven for local trappers and traders until it was misused by General Stephen Watts Kearny’s Army of the West during the Mexican-American War in 1846. Kearny intended Bent’s Fort as a rallying point for preparation of the invasion of New Mexico, northern Mexico, and the expedition to California in support of Americans already living there. This did not sit well with William Bent, and in 1849 it is debated whether or not Bent actually blew up or destroyed his old fort before abandoning it. Being a consummate businessman, Bent would hardly have expended the many barrels of black powder necessary to raze the thick-walled adobe fort. Perhaps he only planted explosives enough to ruin fireplaces, cooking rooms, the well, the blacksmith’s shop, and anything else that might be of value to the federal government. A second theory is that the cholera epidemic that year may have also influenced Bent’s decision to abandon the fort.</p> <p>In 1853, photographer Solomon Nunes Carvalho mentions that “all the material saved from the fort was removed to Mr. Bent’s house, on Big Timber.” In the 1860s, a portion of the fort was renovated by the Missouri Stage Company and served as a stage stop for various companies, including Barlow and Sanderson, until the 1880s.</p> <p>In 1853, William again took to building a so-called New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas River. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, which was situated near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly, according to early travelers and diarists. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to frequent the area as well. Some estimated that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. The New Fort established a place for negotiation and resupply for the government and its agents. It established a destination for the building of the cut-off military road from the Smoky Hill River to the Arkansas River in 1853–56. It saw the tribes gather for their annual<a href="/article/indian-annuities"> <strong>annuities</strong></a> and saw many major and minor councils held between the tribes and with the government representatives.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans rise from Sumner’s Solomon River expedition against the Cheyennes to Chivington’s atrocious attack at <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>. It also found itself as a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. On the other hand, it served as a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/carrillo-richard" hreflang="und">Carrillo, Richard</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/slaughter-michelle" hreflang="und">Slaughter, Michelle A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort-0" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-old-fort" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s old fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-new-fort" hreflang="en">Bent&#039;s New Fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort-history" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s fort history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/owl-woman" hreflang="en">Owl Woman</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mistanta" hreflang="en">mistanta</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ceran-st-vrain" hreflang="en">Ceran St. Vrain</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison" hreflang="en">bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-post" hreflang="en">trading post</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otero-county" hreflang="en">otero county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-junta" hreflang="en">La Junta</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Richard F. Carrillo, <em>The Results of the University of Colorado–Colorado Springs 1994 and 1995 Historical Archaeology Field Schools at Boggsville Historic Site (5BN363): An Early 1860s Village in Southeastern Colorado, Bent County, Colorado</em>, ed. Thomas J. Wynn, prepared for the Pioneer Historical Society of Bent County, Las Animas, Colorado and the State Historical Fund, Colorado Historical Society, Denver (Denver: History Colorado, 1997).</p> <p>Solomon Nunes Carvalho, <em>Incidents of Travel and Adventure in the Far West with Colonel Frémont’s Last Expedition</em> (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2004).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent</em>, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968).</p> <p>David Lavender, <em>Bent’s Fort</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1954).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/beol/index.htm">Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site</a>,” last modified November 18, 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/safe/learn/historyculture/bents-new-fort.htm">Bent’s New Fort</a>,” last modified November 27, 2015.</p> <p>State Historical Society of Colorado, <em>Bent’s Old Fort</em> (Denver: State Historical Society of Colorado, 1979).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Bents_Old_Fort.docx">Bent's Forts Teacher Resource Set - Word&nbsp;</a></p> <p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Bents_Old_Fort.pdf">Bent's Forts Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>In the late 1820s, three brothers, William, Charles, and George Bent, built two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a>. These posts were located near what is today <strong>La Junta</strong>, Colorado. American, French Canadian, Spanish, and American Indian cultures mixed together in this southeastern Colorado region. The trading posts were important in starting lasting communities in this region.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> joined the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), the daughter of White Thunder. Owl Woman had four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died, William married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie.</p> <p>By the early 1830s, the trading business of the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, was growing. They built Bent’s Old Fort, also called Fort William from 1832 to 1834. By the mid-1840s the Bents were trading many thousands of buffalo and other hides to people living in the eastern United States. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>. </strong>It was a major trade route on the border of the US and Mexico. Bent’s Old Fort was a main point on the Santa Fé Trail for sixteen years before it was destroyed.</p> <p>In 1853, William built a New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” area of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there. It was located near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who visited the fort often.</p> <p>From 1853 to 1867, those living at Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans grow. But, it also was a place for military and civilians who tried to keep the peace between the government and the tribes. Bent’s two forts played an important part in developing southeastern Colorado.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century three brothers moved to what would become southeastern Colorado.&nbsp; There, they created a trading and commercial empire. William, Charles, and George Bent built two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> in southeastern Colorado that were key in the beginnings of permanent communities in the region. The Bents’ empire mixed Americans with the existing Spanish and French-Canadian influences and traditions in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> also controlled territory in the region and helped shape the southeastern Colorado’s cultural mixture.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the respected Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman had four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William, in keeping with Cheyenne tradition, married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. William then married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire. They built Bent’s Old Fort, also called Fort William, from 1832 to 1834. They started the buffalo hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. By the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of buffalo hides, along with other animal hides, to people living in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a key point on the border of the United States and Mexico.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a central point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a shelter for local trappers and traders until General <strong>Stephen Watts </strong><strong>Kearny</strong>’s Army of the West tried&nbsp; to use it as a base during the Mexican-American War in 1846. The fur trade was in decline by this time, and in 1849 the fort was destroyed. There are several theories about the destruction of the fort, but it is not known for sure what happened.</p> <p>In 1853, William again started building a so-called Bent’s New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, located near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to visit the area as well. Some thought it likely that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. Bent’s New Fort became a place for compromise and resupply for the government and its agents.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans increase. It served as a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. But it also became a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century, three men moved to what would eventually become southeastern Colorado and established a trading and commercial empire. The Bents—brothers William, Charles, and George—arrived in the area in the late 1820s, and established two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> that were essential in the eventual establishment of permanent communities in the region.</p> <p>The Bents’ empire mixed the American influence of St. Louis and Westport, Missouri, with the existing Spanish and French Canadian influences in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> also controlled territory in southeastern Colorado and influenced the region’s cultural mix. As the Bents increased their economic power, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> peoples made increasing inroads into the plains bounded by the Rockies on the west, the Platte Rivers to the north, and the <strong>Arkansas River</strong> to the south.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the esteemed Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman bore four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William, in keeping with Cheyenne tradition, married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. At some point Yellow Woman left, so William married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire with the construction of Bent’s Old Fort (Fort William), 1832–34. They pioneered the buffalo hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>, and by the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of buffalo hides, along with other animal hides, for consumption in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a pivotal point on the border between the United States and Mexico.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a focal point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a haven for local trappers and traders until General <strong>Stephen Watts </strong><strong>Kearny</strong>’s Army of the West misused it during the Mexican-American War in 1846. Kearny intended Bent’s Fort as a rallying point for preparation of the invasion of New Mexico (northern Mexico) and the expedition to California in support of Americans already living there. This did not sit well with William Bent, who was a lifelong friend of the Indians. The fur trade was in decline by that time, and in 1849 it was debated whether or not Bent actually blew up his old fort before abandoning it. A second theory is that the cholera epidemic that year may have also influenced Bent’s decision to abandon the fort.</p> <p>In 1853 photographer Solomon Nunes Carvalho mentioned that “all the material saved from the fort was removed to Mr. Bent’s house, on Big Timber.” In the 1860s, a portion of the fort was renovated by the Missouri Stage Company and served as a stage stop for various companies, including Barlow and Sanderson, until the 1880s.</p> <p>In 1853, William again took to building a so-called New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, which was situated near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly, according to early travelers and diarists. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to frequent the area as well. Some estimated that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. The New Fort established a place for negotiation and resupply for the government and its agents. It established a destination for the building of the cut-off military road from the Smoky Hill River to the Arkansas River in 1853–56.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the rising conflict between whites and Native Americans from Sumner’s Solomon River expedition against the Cheyenne to Chivington’s atrocious attack at <strong>Sand Creek</strong>. It was also a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. On the other hand, it served as a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 06 May 2016 16:52:40 +0000 Nick Johnson 1327 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org