%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--555--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--555.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/NordenskioldCliffPalacePhoto%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=ffo7Nzwy" width="1000" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/cliff-palace-mesa-verde-southwestern-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This photograph was taken by Gustaf Nordenskiöld during his initial investigations of the Mesa Verde region in 1891.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--970--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--970.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lowry-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lowry_pueblo3%5B1%5D_0_0.jpg?itok=omY2Vkiq" width="1000" height="634" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lowry-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lowry Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Lowry pueblo is an Ancestral Puebloan ruin with thirty-seven rooms, eight kivas, and one Great Kiva. It dates to around 1100 CE and could have had several dozen residents at its height.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1056--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1056.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/10026526_0.jpg?itok=ozVyre_3" width="1000" height="630" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/ute-encampment-denver" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ute Encampment, Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>A Ute tipi camp near Denver, 1874. Note the pegs used to secure the base of the lodge in the foreground. William Henry Jackson photograph, History Colorado collections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1298--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1298.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/White-River-Ute-Indian-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=JscUomd-" width="1000" height="657" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/white-river-ute-indian-agency" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">White River Ute Indian Agency</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The ruins of the White River Ute Indian Agency in 1879 shortly after the Meeker Incident. Courtesy of the Western History Collection, Denver Public Library, X-30699; the original is from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, December 6, 1879.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7711.jpg?itok=7_mqN0MH" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plaza, Bent&#039;s Old Fort Historic Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the plaza within Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site. In the 1830s and '40s, Native Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanos met in the plaza to conduct trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-20T11:41:25-07:00" title="Friday, January 20, 2017 - 11:41" class="datetime">Fri, 01/20/2017 - 11:41</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/walking-colorado-introduction-origins-section" data-a2a-title="Walking Colorado: An Introduction to the Origins Section"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fwalking-colorado-introduction-origins-section&amp;title=Walking%20Colorado%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Origins%20Section"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Hundreds of generations of Native American ancestors are represented in Colorado by scatters of artifacts along with the less portable evidence of shelter, the warmth of hearths, storage needs, and symbolic expression. We learn about them through archaeology and indigenous peoples’ oral traditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeologists define four broad eras in the history of Colorado and of the whole of the western United States. The most ancient is called the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, when hunting-oriented cultures embraced the challenging conditions and the sometimes-rapid changes occurring at the end of the Ice Age. This is followed by the <a href="/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a>, an era of relatively stable hunter-gatherer lifeways, represented by several cultures of semi-nomadic peoples. More radical changes characterize the transition into the <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong>,</a> when corn-based horticulture replaced foraging among a number of native peoples in the warmer parts of Colorado. Finally, the Historic period is the time frame when non-native explorers and settlers eventually displaced the native tribes in sometimes-violent encounters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Paleo-Indian (12,000–6500 BC)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>A handful of sites containing evidence for the hunting and butchering of late <strong>Ice Age</strong> animals—notably Columbian <strong>mammoths</strong>—between 13,000 and 18,000 years ago, if not earlier, have been preserved on the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> of Colorado. The evidence is generally limited to distinctively broken long bones thought to indicate marrow extraction and perhaps the use of the fragmented bones as simple tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nomadic hunters of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> culture (or cultures) had spread across the breadth of the country by 13,000 years ago. Their seemingly sudden appearance over such vast spaces begs the question of whether this represents swift migrations into previously unpopulated lands or merely the rapid spread of their lithic (stone) tool technology—most readily recognized by their iconic <a href="/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluted projectile points</strong></a>—across an already thinly occupied landscape. The issue is still hotly debated.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In a general sense, “archaeological cultures” are defined as patterned groups of artifacts and features within a given time frame and geographical territory. The Clovis culture is best known in Colorado from the <a href="/article/dent-site"><strong>Dent site</strong></a> near <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, where remains of butchered mammoths have been found. However much or little that Clovis hunters contributed to their demise, mammoths and many other large-bodied Ice Age beasts (“megafauna” such as horses, camels, and ground sloths) vanished from Colorado not long after 11,000 BC.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One of the large game species that survived the dramatic climatic changes at the end of the Ice Age was the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>. Clovis and<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong> Folsom</strong></a> hunters pursued a more massive species with longer horns, <em>Bison antiquus</em>, from which the modern bison evolved. In time, later Paleo-Indian groups developed sophisticated systems of communal bison hunting that allowed them to successfully dispatch as many as 200 animals in a single <strong>communal game drive</strong>. Some of the resulting kill and butchery sites are preserved today for archaeological study, famously so in the “River of Bone” feature at the <a href="/article/olsen-chubbuck-bison-kill-site"><strong>Olsen-Chubbuck site</strong></a> near Firstview in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cheyenne-county"><strong>Cheyenne County</strong></a>, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few Paleo-Indian sites in Colorado provide evidence of aspects of everyday life other than hunting. Best known is the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>, a repeatedly used camp of the Folsom culture now designated as a National Historic Landmark. Lindenmeier also preserves less deeply buried layers of the later Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Formative periods.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Paleo-Indian camps rarely retain evidence of lightweight shelters, sometimes only indirectly recognized by the distribution of features and surrounding discarded artifacts. But at the <a href="/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer Site</strong></a> near Gunnison, the rock foundations of more substantial wood-framed and mud-covered houses of Folsom groups have been found on a mesa top. Archaeologists believe these are winter occupations where the mesa-top setting had the advantage of being above the valley bottom where cold air pools during calm winter nights. All of Colorado’s larger parks—<strong>North</strong>, <strong>Middle</strong>, and <strong>South Parks</strong>, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>—contain significant numbers of Paleo-Indian sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few hints of the spiritual beliefs of Paleo-Indian groups also survive. In a high mountain cave in central Colorado, the bones of a man who died more than 8,000 years ago are preserved. Many traditional societies worldwide consider caves to be symbolic portals to and from the spirit world, so Paleo-Indians and later groups could have held similar beliefs. A formal burial site dating to this period, not far from the Lindenmeier site in Larimer County, was a traditional “flexed” interment of a young woman, with the legs folded and the knees drawn up toward the chest. Red ocher coated the remains, and numerous stone tools were present along with a few ornamental artifacts of animal bone and tooth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Caches of artifacts—usually of flaked stone tools—have been found in isolated Paleo-Indian contexts at the Drake and Mahaffey sites in Colorado. Exceptionally well-made projectile points manufactured from materials gathered (or traded from) distant sources are present at the <strong>Drake Cache</strong> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>. Other sites like Mahaffey in <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> contain a mixed bag of tools, tool “preforms” (incomplete tool manufacture), and minimally modified stone flakes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Changes toward more “broad spectrum” survival strategies become widespread in the succeeding Archaic period. This generalized hunter-gatherer lifeway is marked by changing styles of artifacts and features found in the archaeological record.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Archaic (6500 BC–AD 200)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For thousands of years during the Archaic period, the hunter-gatherer way of life held sway as the predominant cultural tradition among Colorado’s resident peoples. The term <em>Archaic</em> holds connotations of primitive or outdated, but Archaic peoples were the ultimate survivalists. Highly adapted to their environments, their familiarity with a huge range of natural resources enabled a critical flexibility in the face of climate, floral, and faunal changes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Most if not all Archaic populations descended from preceding Paleo-Indian cultures. But regardless of their origins, Archaic cultures in Colorado shared certain basic technologies only slightly altered from Paleo-Indian forms. Thus, artifacts of stone, bone, antler, horn, wood, and other natural materials continued to be made in the absence of any metal or manufactured glass (<strong>obsidian</strong>, a natural volcanic glass, was used to a limited degree). Ceramic containers were not yet known, nor were hamlets or villages permanently occupied. So what was different about Archaic cultures?</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The differences were more a matter of degree than of kind. Hunting weapons continued to be spears propelled by <strong>atlatls</strong>, but the stone spear tips were smaller than Paleo-Indian forms and might be notched on the lower edges or corners. Spear points and other flintknapped tools were usually made from locally available rock types rather than from distant source materials. Use of a broad range of native plant species is clear, far more so than in earlier millennia. The seeds of wild plants were milled into flour using a pair of grinding stones (the <strong>mano and metate</strong>) made of sandstone and other abrasive rocks. Large game animals continued to be hunted, but a range of smaller game such as rabbits and prairie dogs also were sought; fish and birds such as wild turkeys were taken less frequently. Snares, deadfall traps, and nets may have been used more often than spears for smaller game.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Herd hunting of bison and other large herbivores using communal game drive systems endured, but in the Archaic period the evidence for this is more abundant in the subalpine and alpine heights of the Front Range than it is on the plains or western plateaus. The <strong>Kaplan-Hoover</strong> bison kill site in Larimer County is one of the few such lower elevation sites known in Colorado for this period. Camps were established in many of the same places used by their ancestors, but the use of shallow rockshelters as camps increased markedly. A few such as <a href="/article/franktown-cave"><strong>Franktown Cave</strong></a> and <a href="/article/mantles-cave"><strong>Mantle’s Cave</strong></a> were dry enough to protect perishable artifacts of hide, feather, plant fiber, and other rarely preserved materials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rockshelter and cave walls, and open cliff faces and boulders, were sometimes adorned with <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a>. Abstract and geometric designs are common and are interpreted as the work of shamans communicating with the spirit world. Representational images of people and animals also occur, sometimes with exaggerated features. Other spiritual aspects of Archaic cultures are seen in burial sites. Usually in isolated locations outside camps, Archaic groups buried their deceased in unlined pits using the same flexed body position as in Paleo-Indian times. Likely wrapped in hide, bark, or textile robes that have not preserved, the remains were often buried with the tools of everyday life such as seed milling implements, bone awls, hunting equipment, etc. Typically short in stature, Archaic people’s lifespans were also short, on average, after calculating the mortality rate of many children in the equation. But for those fortunate enough to survive childhood, a reasonably long life could be enjoyed. At the <a href="/article/yarmony-archaeological-site"><strong>Yarmony site</strong></a> in <a href="/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a>, an elderly woman 60 years old or more was buried with two sandstone manos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Yarmony and many other Archaic camps preserve the buried foundations of houses in a variety of forms. Semi-subterranean pithouses comparable to much later Basketmaker houses of the <a href="/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> have been found in the Colorado and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison River</strong></a> basins. Similar surface-level dwellings—wood-framed and capped with an insulating layer of mud—are also known from the same areas. A few sites contain rock slab foundations. Several styles of more temporary shelters have been found, some similar to the <a href="/article/wickiups-and-other-wooden-features"><strong>wickiups</strong></a> and<strong> <a href="/article/tipi-0">tipis</a></strong> found in much younger sites.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although credible numbers are hard to come by, archaeologists believe that Archaic population levels were never very high, perhaps a few tens of thousands statewide. Higher populations would have stretched the available resources to the limit, given the need to accumulate a store of goods to survive long winters. But late in the Archaic period the transition to farming began in the American Southwest and soon spread to southern Colorado. The earliest evidence of farming in Colorado, at about 400–350 BC, is found in sites near Durango such as the <a href="/article/falls-creek-rock-shelters-archaeological-site"><strong>Falls Creek Rock shelters</strong></a>. Once farming became more widespread, a very different era dawned: the Formative period.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Formative (AD 200–1500)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The contrast between the archaeology of the Formative period and the earlier eras is striking. What transpired among the inhabitants of the region to cause such a radical shift in lifeways? It was the <em>Neolithic Revolution</em>, to use the label describing the foraging-to-farming transition in the Old World.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Agriculture focused on the domestic crop triad of corn, beans, and squash, which afforded farmers occasional surpluses for storage, trade, and tribute. All three crops have their origins in the tropics of Mexico and do not thrive in the cool nights and erratic growing seasons of the northern Southwest. Farming in Colorado, then, was risky, and some groups such as the <a href="/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> hedged their bets by hunting and gathering whenever the need arose. Others, such as the <a href="/article/plains-woodland"><strong>Plains Woodland</strong></a> peoples on the plains, only farmed on occasion and in localized areas where success was more likely. The indigenous mountain residents never farmed, although they may have traded for some of the harvest and otherwise interacted with their more sedentary neighbors. Intermarriage was undoubtedly common if the trends of recent history are any guide.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The production of ceramics, particularly cooking jars, made farming even more viable. The varieties of beans grown, today marketed by a <strong>Dove Creek</strong> company as “Anasazi beans,” are storable pinto beans that require extended cooking times. Dropping hot rocks into broths held in water-proofed baskets was the only way for Paleo-Indian and Archaic chefs to cook soups and stews, but it was not an effective method for beans. But ca. AD 500, pottery cooking-jars changed the dynamic, allowing beans to become a welcome supplement to Formative diets. Pottery was not an invention of Colorado residents but instead spread into the state from the south and east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Another innovation of the Formative period was the bow and arrow, the origins of which are mysterious. Although there are hints of its use ca. 1400–1000 BC, the bow and arrow did not become an integral part of hunters’ gear until AD 200–500. The small stone “arrowheads” diagnostic of this weapon are found in profusion, including at farming villages where people tending fields could both control pests and supplement their meat and hide supply by “garden hunting” the animals attracted to the crops.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The permanent occupation of sites that first occurred in the Formative necessitated more durable forms of housing. Pithouses were the first design solution but, eventually, slab-lined surface dwellings followed by coursed masonry construction techniques were developed by Ancestral Puebloans and by some Fremont, <a href="/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and <a href="/article/sopris-phase"><strong>Sopris</strong></a> farmers. Room shapes evolved from the round forms of ancient times to square or rectangular shapes that accommodated expansion of the house footprint. Such expansion was itself driven by the rising populations that crop surpluses made possible.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Inevitably, the growth of villages required forms of leadership not previously needed. Community-scale gatherings began to take place as a way of maintaining social cohesion and to validate the roles of leaders. The design of large spaces such as dance plazas and great <a href="/article/kivas"><strong>kivas</strong></a> (“public architecture”) are the archaeological signatures of these developments by the seventh century AD. The Ancestral Puebloans best represent the trend, as their territory was the most densely settled, but hints of social ranking are also present among the less populous Apishapa and Fremont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A unique Southwestern development was the rise of the social system centered at <a href="/article/chaco-canyon"><strong>Chaco Canyon</strong></a> in northwestern New Mexico during the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Southwestern Colorado has a number of “Chaco outliers” such as <a href="/article/chimney-rock"><strong>Chimney Rock</strong></a> and <a href="/article/lowry-ruin"><strong>Lowry Pueblo</strong></a> that display clearly Chacoan details such as <a href="/article/great-house"><strong>Great House</strong></a> architecture built with distinctive wall construction methods, but these sites contain artifacts that strongly identify the inhabitants as locals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods, there is scant evidence of violence among Colorado’s residents. However, with rising populations that clustered into more crowded homes, the Formative period witnessed increasing conflict, particularly when the crops failed, stores of food shrank, and potable water sources dwindled. In addition to violence directly seen in some skeletal remains in the Four Corners region, there are other indirect indicators of stressful times. Some <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> rock art sites depict warriors with weapons, protective shields, and the probable taking of human trophies. Other <a href="/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> were built with an eye toward defense, a choice also followed by the Apishapa in southeastern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The end of the Formative period is defined by the end of farming in Colorado ca. AD 1400–1450. When the first Spanish explorers ventured into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> basin and San Luis Valley, the only native peoples they encountered were nomadic bands of <strong>Apaches</strong>, <strong>Pawnees</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/utes"><strong>Utes</strong></a>. Archaeological evidence confirms the lack of farming throughout Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Historic (AD 1500–1900)</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Much research has been done to connect the dots between the various Formative cultures and the native groups we know today. For their part, most modern tribes have little trouble recognizing the traditional sites of their ancestors. The physical evidence of this can be less convincing to archaeologists, however.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Such is not the case with the Ancestral Puebloans (formerly Anasazi) who have clear connections with a score of modern Pueblos in New Mexico and Arizona, each with its own cultural identity and traditions. The contraction of their territory began in the late thirteenth century, resulting in the near-total depopulation of southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah within a few decades.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A very different story describes Fremont history. The Fremont core territory in central and northern Utah was vacant by AD 1350, but Fremont groups living at the geographic margins—including in northwestern Colorado—strove to maintain their way of life into the sixteenth century. But by the time that Spanish explorers traveled there two centuries later, the Fremont were gone. Well-established bands of Utes and, farther north, <strong>Shoshones</strong> held these lands. The fate of the Fremont has been the source of much debate, but no consensus has emerged.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the Colorado <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a>, the Apishapa, <a href="/article/upper-republican-and-itskari-cultures"><strong>Upper Republican</strong>, <strong>and Itskari</strong></a> peoples also had challenges maintaining their lifeways. Territorial contractions were part of their history as well, with fewer sites found through the AD 1300s and early 1400s, a period of frequent droughts. It is likely that more favorable conditions farther east drove the migrations. Both oral traditions and archaeological evidence connect these groups to the Pawnee and other Caddoan-speaking relatives. But despite their desire to reclaim their western territories once conditions improved, by the fifteenth century another foraging culture had moved into the high plains region: ancestors of the Apache.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The mountains and large portions of the Western Slope are the homeland of the Utes, but their connection to the foraging culture(s) of the Formative period is complicated by a divergence of views about that connection. Ute people today are adamant that their ancestors have always dwelled in the mountain and plateau country of Colorado and Utah. Thus, they maintain that they are the descendants of Archaic and Paleo-Indian groups in their traditional homelands. Many (but not all) archaeologists, on the other hand, interpret the evidence of artifacts, features, and linguistic patterns as indicative of a recent arrival of Ute and Shoshone ancestors in the Rocky Mountain region within the past 700–1000 years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, nearly fifty federally-recognized tribes claim historical-traditional ties to parts of Colorado. Many of these tribes appear to have little relationship to the Formative cultures described in this Encyclopedia. But at one time or another, their presence here is documented by oral traditions or by non-native explorers, trappers, traders, miners, and homesteaders who populated the state in recent centuries. Those tribes not related to the Formative period cultures came to Colorado following different paths, pushed and pulled by events occurring in sometimes-distant lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>More than 400 years ago, <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-%201590–1790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> were the first of the non-native groups to cross Colorado’s modern borders. For these tribes, the Spaniards’ arrival was a matter of great novelty, from the horses they rode to their metal armor and weapons, not to mention their odd physical appearance. More sinister was the visitors’ insistence that they abandon their religions in favor of Christianity. No less important was another Spanish import: new <a href="/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> against which the tribes had no immunity. Spanish domination of the local tribes mostly affected Pueblos but also some Apaches and <strong>Navajos</strong>. Spanish settlers needed the tribes for their resources and labor, forcibly obtained in their system of slavery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other tribes that the Spanish were unable to subdue engaged them in trade. By the 1620s, the Utes were among these trading partners. They acquired some horses in the early decades, and also sold some captive natives to Spanish slaveholders. More important, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 brought a huge number of horses into native hands, giving a major boost to the equestrian lifeways that developed in Colorado. Territorial ranges were expanded and modified, trading relationships were transformed, the size of social bands increased, and the volume of goods that could be moved from camps grew significantly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1700, as more horses were being moved northward—the Utes and Apaches being middlemen in this trade—guns were moving southward out of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> country of the Missouri River valley toward Colorado. Given the questionable quality of these muskets, horses were the more important commodity and had a deeper impact on native societies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/article/spanish-exploration-western-colorado"><strong>Spanish exploration of western Colorado</strong></a> was facilitated partly by Ute guides and partly by Spanish traders with prior experience in Ute territory. Most notable were the travels of <a href="/article/juan-antonio-maría-de-rivera"><strong>Juan de Rivera</strong></a> in the 1760s and the Dominguez-Escalante expedition of 1776, who followed well-established paths that later became known as the <a href="/article/old-spanish-national-historic-trail"><strong>Old Spanish Trail</strong></a> system. Many of the place names in western Colorado originate in this period: the Dolores, <a href="/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas</strong></a>, and Los Pinos Rivers; the La Plata Mountains; <a href="/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta County</strong></a>; <strong>Canyon Pintado</strong>; and the Escalante archaeological site, to name a few. The Spanish era in Colorado ended with Mexican independence in 1821–22, leaving only a single site representing more than a transitory presence: a fort constructed north of La Veta Pass in 1819 to monitor American activities on the border with New Spain.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Beginning of the End, or a New Beginning?</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Spanish era in the Southwest waned, the Missouri River fur trade expanded into the southern Rocky Mountains. As far as Colorado’s native tribes were concerned, the fur traders and trappers of French and American extraction were less threatening to their way of life than the Spaniards. The tribes readily participated in the fur trade, albeit <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> pelts were rarely on their list of goods to provide. They were frequent visitors to the <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> of the region, particularly to <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Old Fort</strong></a> near present-day La Junta. Ute attacks ended trading activities at <a href="/article/fort-uncompahgre"><strong>Fort Uncompahgre</strong></a> in 1844 and <a href="/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a> in 1854, while an influx of settlers focused on an agricultural life established towns in the San Luis Valley and southeastern Colorado’s Arkansas River valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Attempted settlement of the San Luis Valley came first, a northward migration from newly independent Mexico encouraged by the system of <a href="/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>Mexican Land Grants</strong></a>. Apaches and Utes, unhappy about encroachment on their hunting grounds, raided new settlements and farmsteads, most of which failed to survive. But with the American victory in the Mexican-American War of 1846, southern Colorado became US territory and the government acted quickly to end the raiding. The “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty with the Utah</strong></a>” signed in 1849 at Abiquiú, New Mexico Territory, promised <a href="/article/indian-annuities"><strong>Indian annuities</strong></a> in return for an end to the raiding and allowed for the establishment of military posts in the Ute homeland. The US government wasted little time building posts at Fort Union, New Mexico, and in 1852, <a href="/article/fort-garland"><strong>Fort Massachusetts</strong></a> in Colorado’s San Luis Valley.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few years later, in 1858, gold was discovered in Little Dry Creek in present-day Englewood, within Ute and <strong>Arapaho</strong> territory. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> was in full swing the following year, and confrontations with the flood of immigrant miners, merchants, and other settlers were inevitable, as were the losses of tribes’ homelands. The <strong>Plains Indian Wars</strong> expanded into Colorado, with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864 perpetrated on a reservation established for the Arapaho and <strong>Cheyenne</strong> only three years before, followed by a series of clashes around stage stations and homesteads. Final Colorado battles occurred at <a href="/article/beecher-island-battleground"><strong>Beecher Island</strong></a> (September 17–19, 1868) and <a href="/article/battle-summit-springs"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> (July 11, 1869).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1870 the plains of Colorado could no longer be called home by any tribe. All had been removed to reservations or federal trust lands in adjoining states. Ute and Shoshone lands in the mountains and Western Slope were likewise being whittled back during the 1860s and 1870s. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> reducing tribal lands contained similar provisions: free passage through tribal territories, allowance for the establishment of military posts and <a href="/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agencies</strong></a>, return of stolen property or goods, permission for the tribes to continue hunting, encouragement of the tribes to settle down as farmers, and the promise of Indian annuities to cover shortfalls of critical resources.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The US government failed miserably at keeping their end of such bargains for a variety of reasons, including the misguided actions of Indian agents charged with meeting treaty terms. For the Utes, the most infamous agent was <a href="/article/nathan-meeker"><strong>Nathanial Meeker</strong></a> at the <a href="/article/white-river-ute-indian-agency"><strong>White River Agency</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-%20reservation"><strong>Northern Utes</strong></a> at the agency were so dismayed—both by government failure to provide promised rations and Meeker’s demands and decisions—that the 1879 <a href="/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> resulted from their desperation and starvation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The consequences were swift in coming. Calls that “the Utes must go” culminated with the Northern Utes’ removal to Utah within two years. Reservation life was miserable, and there are clear signs that some Utes occasionally left the misery behind to revisit traditional hunting grounds in western Colorado. Recent research has found that such off-reservation activities took place into the early twentieth century. Today, only the <strong>Southern Ute</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute</strong></a> tribes have reservations within Colorado. For all the other tribes in our history, Colorado remains a key part of their vibrant social memories.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Recent decades have seen a resurgence of Native American efforts to reclaim their cultural identities via the revitalization of crafts, native languages, oral traditions, ceremonies, and, literally, by reclaiming the remains of their ancestors. Passage of the federal Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in 1990 was matched the same year by the approval of an unmarked graves amendment to Colorado’s 1973 antiquities law. But Colorado’s native peoples do not dwell in the past. “We’re still here” is a common refrain and, like all Americans, they strive for a better future.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In August 1874, two men with the Wheeler Survey ascended <strong>Blanca Peak</strong> east of the San Luis Valley. Upon reaching the 14,345-foot summit, Wheeler’s men were surprised to find out they were not the first people to reach the crest. Low stone walls surrounding a depression had been built long before they arrived. We still don’t know who built those walls, or why. To the Navajo, Blanca Peak is their Sacred Mountain of the East, one of the natural features defining their spiritual world. The constructions on its crest may be from pilgrimages made by Navajo ancestors or by other mountaineers for a different purpose. But it is emblematic of the fact that there are few places in Colorado that our native tribes did not visit at one time or another, leaving physical traces of their presence from the subtle to the spectacular. Articles in the Origins section of the <em>Encyclopedia</em> tell these stories across at least 13,000 years of human history in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history" hreflang="en">history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ancient-colorado" hreflang="en">ancient colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clovis" hreflang="en">Clovis</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleoindian" hreflang="en">paleoindian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/paleo-indian" hreflang="en">paleo-indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rock-art" hreflang="en">rock art</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/anthropology" hreflang="en">anthropology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formative-period" hreflang="en">Formative Period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaic-period" hreflang="en">archaic period</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/shoshone" hreflang="en">shoshone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spanish-exploration" hreflang="en">spanish exploration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Archaic Continuity in the Colorado Rockies: The Mountain Tradition,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William M. Bueler, <em>Roof of the Rockies: A History of Mountaineering in Colorado</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1974).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone</em>, rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> “<a href="https://pafikotagorontalo.org/">Foundation of the Sacred Mountains</a>,” Wilson Aronilth, Jr., accessed January 9, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James H. Gunnerson and Dolores A. Gunnerson, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/coop_agencies/new_documents/co2.Par.89322.File.dat/gunnerson_ethn.pdf"><em>Ethnohistory of the High Plains</em></a>, Cultural Resource Series 26 (Denver, CO: U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/crforms_edumat/pdfs/1550.pdf">Colorado Tribal Contacts</a>,” updated October 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://exhibits.historycolorado.org/ute-tribal-paths">The Utes Must Go</a>” (exhibit).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steven R. Holen and Kathleen Holen, “The Mammoth Steppe Hypothesis: The Middle Wisconsin (Oxygen Isotope Stage 3) Peopling of North America,” in <em>Paleoamerican Odyssey</em>, eds. Kelly E. Graf, Caroline V. Ketron, and Michael R. Waters (College Station: Texas A&amp;M University, 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James D. Keyser, <em>Art of the Warriors: Rock Art of the American Plains</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Björn Kurtén and Elaine Anderson, <em>Pleistocene Mammals of North America</em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jason M. LaBelle and Christopher M. Johnston, eds., “The Lithic Caches of Colorado,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 81 (Summer/Fall 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lawrence L. Loendorf, <em>Thunder and Herds: Rock Art of the High Plains</em> (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David B. Madsen and David Rhode, eds., <em>Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ann L. Magennis, Michael D. Metcalf, and Kelly J. Pool, “Early Archaic Human Burials from the Colorado Rocky Mountains: Yarmony and the Red Army Rock Shelter,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David J. Meltzer, “Pleistocene Overkill and North American Mammalian Extinctions,” <em>Annual Review of Anthropology</em> 44 (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cynthia Mosch and Patty Jo Watson, “The Ancient Explorer of Hourglass Cave,” <em>Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews</em> 5, no. 4 (1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark P. Muniz, “Exploring Technological Organization and Burial Practices at the Paleoindian Gordon Creek Site (5LR99), Colorado,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 49 (August 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma State University Library, “<a href="https://dc.library.okstate.edu/digital/collection/kapplers">Treaty with the Utah, 1849</a>,” ed. Charles J. Kappler, n.d..</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Swedlund and Duane Anderson, “Gordon Creek Woman Meets Kennewick Man: New Interpretations and Protocols Regarding the Peopling of the Americas,” <em>American Antiquity</em> 64 (October 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Waldo R. Wedel, <em>Central Plains Prehistory</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joe Ben Wheat, <em>The Olsen-Chubbuck Site: A Paleo-Indian Bison Kill</em>, Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 26 (Washington, DC: 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gordon R. Willey and Phillip Phillips, <em>Method and Theory in American Archaeology</em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>W. Raymond Wood, ed., <em>Archaeology on the Great Plains</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 20 Jan 2017 18:41:25 +0000 yongli 2188 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cottonwood Trees http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cottonwood Trees</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3517--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3517.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plains-cottonwood"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Populus_deltoides_monilifera_USDA_0.jpg?itok=eoUdN_BP" width="1090" height="656" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plains-cottonwood" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden"> Plains Cottonwood</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides monolifera), seen here along the <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southern Colorado, is among the most important tree species in Colorado. Historically, it provided food, shelter, timber, medicine, and forage for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and American immigrants alike. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-29T17:18:28-07:00" title="Friday, January 29, 2021 - 17:18" class="datetime">Fri, 01/29/2021 - 17:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees" data-a2a-title="Cottonwood Trees"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcottonwood-trees&amp;title=Cottonwood%20Trees"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>One of the most ecologically and culturally significant trees in Colorado, the plains cottonwood (<em>Populus deltoides monilifera</em>) thrives near rivers and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian</strong></a> areas throughout the state. It is one of the only tree species to grow on Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, which made it an important source of forage, fuel, timber, and medicine for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and white immigrants. The cottonwood gets its name from the millions of cotton-like seeds that female trees release each spring.</p> <h2>Description</h2> <p>Cottonwoods are tall, deciduous trees commonly found along riverbanks and other high-moisture areas, with broad leaves and dark gray bark. They thrive at altitudes of 3,500 to 6,500 feet and reach a maximum height of around 190 feet.</p> <p>Seeding and sprouting are the cottonwood’s two major avenues of reproduction. Cottonwoods are dioecious, meaning individual trees are either male or female. Females grow necklace-like strings of seedpods that release millions of white, cottony seeds into the air, typically in June. Males grow purple flowers. Like their mountain-dwelling cousins the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-trees"><strong>aspen</strong></a>, cottonwoods are members of the poplar family, but unlike the aspen, cottonwoods do not produce clone trees from a single root system. However, like other poplars, cottonwoods will readily resprout if broken or cut down—a trait that has coevolved with breaking and browsing animals such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, and <strong>horses</strong>.</p> <p>Cottonwoods live just over 100 years—a fairly short lifespan for a tree. Sometimes large branches and the inner core of the tree will die before the rest of it, contributing to its common half-dead appearance. Cottonwoods in this condition represent a hazard, as branches can break and fall at any moment.</p> <h2>Ecology</h2> <p>As the vertical sentinels of the largely horizontal plains, cottonwoods provide habitat and food for many animals, from bison to birds, squirrels, and ponies. Eagles, blue jays, magpies, and woodpeckers are among the avian species that find respite in the cottonwood’s branches. Beaver stimulate cottonwood growth by gnawing down trunks, and bison, horses, and ponies eat the tree’s bark. Smaller trees, including willow and box elder, and shrubs thrive in the shade produced by the cottonwood.</p> <h2>Indigenous Culture</h2> <p>Indigenous people who lived on the plains and in the southwest part of the state—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, and <strong>Navajo</strong>—revered the cottonwood as a source of medicine and for its many practical uses, especially forage and food for horses. Sun Dance artifacts were carved from cottonwood. Perhaps the most famous grove of cottonwoods in the state was the Big Timbers, a thick stand along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southeast Colorado. In the early 1800s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho fought the Comanche and Kiowa for control of the sacred grove, with all four nations brokering a peace in 1840. Meanwhile, an old, thick cottonwood along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a> near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> served as a Council Tree, a meeting spot for a local band of Arapaho led by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday"><strong>Teenokuhu</strong> <strong>(Friday)</strong></a>.</p> <p>In one Arapaho story, a girl named Sapana climbs a tall cottonwood into the sky itself, where she is then put to work skinning bison hides by an old man who takes the form of a porcupine. The girl is helped back to earth by a buzzard and a hawk. In return for their help, the Arapaho always left at least one bison carcass for the buzzards and hawks after their hunts.</p> <h2>Hispano Culture</h2> <p>Cottonwood trees were also a prominent part of early Hispano culture. In southern Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hispano-settlement-purgatoire-valley"><strong>Purgatoire</strong></a> valley, members of the Catholic Penitente Brotherhood carved <em>santos</em>, or holy images, into cottonwood roots and trunks. In the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, where permanent Hispano settlements began in the 1850s, cottonwood beams supported adobe buildings, including the many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/iglesia"><strong><em>iglesias</em> and <em>capillas</em></strong></a>—churches and chapels—established across the valley. The town and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>county</strong></a> of <strong>Alamosa</strong> were named after the Spanish word for cottonwood grove.</p> <h2>American Culture</h2> <p>In 1807 American explorer <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> built his <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>stockade</strong></a> in the San Luis Valley out of cottonwood logs. Other whites quickly realized the importance of cottonwoods when they began crossing the plains to Colorado during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Gold Rush of 1858–59</strong></a>. In addition to being the only fuel aside from bison droppings, cottonwoods provided shelter and food for draft animals and acted as guideposts for immigrant parties who needed to stick to the river paths, lest they become lost in the monotonous landscape of the plains. When immigrants reached the area of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, they found building materials scarce; as such, the first house in what became Denver City, on today’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer Street</strong></a>, was built of “round cottonwood logs” and “roofed with earth.”</p> <p>One of the first editions of the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>, printed on May 14, 1859, reflects white immigrants’ views of the cottonwood as part of the strikingly beautiful scenery of springtime along the eastern slope of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>:</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">The prairies are putting on their robes of green and the bright verdure of the cottonwood and alder contrasts beautifully with the dark sombre [<em>sic</em>] hue of the evergreen forests.</p> <p>White immigrants’ consumption of cottonwood groves only increased as more Americans traveled west over the ensuing decades. The depletion of this important resource, as well as the simultaneous and related decline of the bison, contributed to starving conditions among many Indigenous bands in the mid- to late nineteenth century.</p> <h2>Threats</h2> <p>Since they are water-loving trees, cottonwoods are especially susceptible to drought. Millions died during the 1930s drought that contributed to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a>, and many more could be lost in the twenty-first century as a warming <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> increases drought frequency and length. In addition, dams built since the beginning of the twentieth century have lowered flow rates in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>, Arkansas, and other rivers, leading to a decline in cottonwood reproduction.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood" hreflang="en">cottonwood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwoods" hreflang="en">cottonwoods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood-trees" hreflang="en">cottonwood trees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa" hreflang="en">alamosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa-county" hreflang="en">alamosa county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano" hreflang="en">hispano</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/iglesia" hreflang="en">iglesia</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capilla" hreflang="en">capilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/zebulon-pike" hreflang="en">zebulon pike</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/riparian" hreflang="en">riparian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rivers" hreflang="en">rivers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beaver" hreflang="en">beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horses" hreflang="en">horses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/council-tree" hreflang="en">council tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-friday" hreflang="en">chief friday</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Michael Burman and Larry Larson, “<a href="https://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pub/em-8800-cottonwood-establishment-survival-stand-characteristics">Cottonwood: Establishment, Survival and Stand Characteristics</a>,” Oregon State University Extension, March 2002.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-trees/colorados-major-tree-species/#1466529004857-b98c0fa7-79c5">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Colorado State University, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18600215.2.18&amp;srpos=11&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">First House</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, February 15, 1860.</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p> <p>Indigenouspeople.net, “<a href="http://www.indigenouspeople.net/heron.htm">The Girl Who Climbed to the Sky</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18590514.2.51&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">Local Items</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, May 14, 1859.</p> <p>Native Languages, “<a href="http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cottonwood.htm#:~:text=The%20cottonwood%20tree%20was%20sacred,cottonwood%20boughs%20in%20funeral%20rituals.">Native American Cottonwood Tree Mythology</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Joe H. Offer, “<a href="https://wou.edu/geography/files/2015/05/Offer2014CapstoneFinal.pdf">Relating Upriver Dam Creation to the Regeneration of Cottonwoods (<em>Populus deltoids </em>Subsp. <em>monilifera</em>) Within the Upper Missouri River Breaks National Monument</a>,” Capstone, Western Oregon University, 2014.</p> <p>S. K. Wier, “<a href="http://www.westernexplorers.us/PlainsCottonwood.pdf">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Western Explorers, 2014.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-forests/">Colorado Forests</a>,” Colorado State University.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2015/06/Cottonwood_Management_QuickGuide_26June2015.pdf">Cottonwood Management</a>,” Colorado State University, 2015.</p> <p>George L. Trager, “<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/463823?journalCode=ijal">’Cottonwood Tree,’ A South-Western Linguistic Trait</a>,” <em>International Journal of American Linguistics</em> 9, no. 2, 1938.</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Eastern Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Western Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sat, 30 Jan 2021 00:18:28 +0000 yongli 3515 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Medicine Lodge Treaties http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Medicine Lodge Treaties</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:40:49-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:40" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:40</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties" data-a2a-title="Medicine Lodge Treaties"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fmedicine-lodge-treaties&amp;title=Medicine%20Lodge%20Treaties"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties were a series of three <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties</strong></a> between the US government and the <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Plains Apache</strong>, Southern <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and Southern <strong>Arapaho</strong> American Indian nations, signed in October 1867 along Medicine Lodge Creek, south of Fort Larned, Kansas. By treating with multiple tribes at once, the government hoped to reestablish peace across the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> so that the transcontinental <strong>railroad</strong> could be completed without costly military campaigns. The Indian nations, suffering from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease</strong></a> outbreaks, internal political crises, and diminishing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds, sought supplies and protection from the government, even if they did not wish to give up their lands.</p> <p>The treaties at Medicine Lodge created two new reservations in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) for the above-mentioned five nations. After the treaties, the Cheyenne and Arapaho largely withdrew from Colorado’s plains and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountains</strong></a>, where they had lived since the late 1700s. The treaties also forced Indian children to attend boarding schools, a practice that became more widespread over the next eighty years. Although the treaties removed American Indians from the path of the railroad, they failed to establish peace and had disastrous effects on the lives and culture of Indigenous people on the Great Plains.</p> <p><strong>Origins</strong></p> <p>The 1860s was a period of intense conflict between whites and Plains Indians, as whites repeatedly invaded Indian homelands. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 drew gold seekers and other white immigrants to the region, while in 1862 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead</strong></a> Act and the Pacific Railroad Act spurred even more immigrants as well as construction of a transcontinental railroad across the Great Plains. These incursions diminished critical resources on the Plains, especially the bison, upon which the Plains Indians depended.</p> <p>Other political and economic developments exacerbated tensions between whites and Indians. Kansas (1861) and Nebraska (1867) both gained statehood during the decade, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> continued to grow thanks to new technology that revived its mining industry. The end of the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> in 1865 also allowed the government to divert more resources to the development and conquest of the American West.</p> <p>Indigenous nations were divided on how to respond to increased pressure from white immigrants and the US military. Some leaders, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Moketaveto</strong> (Black Kettle) and the Arapaho <strong>Hosa</strong> (Little Raven), believed that maintaining peace was necessary in the face of a superior fighting force. Others, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Tall Bull</strong> and the <strong>Cheyenne Dog Soldiers</strong>, believed that the Americans could not be trusted to preserve peace and must be violently resisted.</p> <h2>Treaties and Conflicts</h2> <p>In 1861 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> assigned the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho a reservation in eastern Colorado Territory. That changed after US cavalry slaughtered more than 200 Cheyenne and Arapaho as they camped at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre-0"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>, on the edge of the reservation, in late 1864. In 1865 the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Little Arkansas Treaty</strong></a> promised reparations for the massacre and sought to move both tribes to a reservation spanning northern Indian Territory (present Oklahoma) and southern Kansas.</p> <p>However, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers never agreed to this treaty, and tensions only increased after the US military built two new forts near important Cheyenne sites in Kansas. To intimidate the Indians into another treaty, General Winfield Scott Hancock was sent to western Kansas in the spring of 1867. When his troops arrived at a Cheyenne-Lakota camp near Fort Larned, the Indians fled, fearing another Sand Creek Massacre. Hancock, who had little experience with Indians, was insulted and ordered the abandoned camp burned. Reprisals from Indigenous nations—a series of conflicts dubbed “Hancock’s War”—finally prompted the government to send a peace commission to Fort Larned in the fall of 1867.</p> <h2>Treaty Negotiations</h2> <p>The peace commission’s goal was to “establish security for person and property along the lines of railroad now being constructed to the Pacific.” Leading the negotiations would be acting Indian affairs commissioner Nathaniel G. Taylor, Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri, General William T. Sherman, and Christian reformer Samuel F. Tappan, among others. Numbering 165 wagons, 600 men, and 1,200 horses and mules, the US government’s treaty delegation reflected a sizable investment in peace instead of warfare. For about two weeks in October 1867, the government supply train fed a camp of more than 5,000 Indians along Medicine Lodge Creek, southeast of Fort Larned.</p> <p>The government could afford to be generous because it was the most powerful player in the negotiations. The military had already established forts in the region, the tribes were fractured along lines of peace and warfare, and the bison herds were diminishing so rapidly that the tribes would likely be open to securing government <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a> to help them survive.</p> <p>The tribes shared the same difficult position, but each pursued its own objectives at the negotiations. Kiowa and Apache leaders, for instance, pointed to their peoples’ peaceful relations with Americans to lobby for annuities and to avoid being sent to reservations. Comanche leaders objected to the reservations but were willing to sign as long as the government fulfilled its promises; otherwise, as the Comanche leader Tosahwi said, they would “return with our wild brothers to live on the prairie.”</p> <p>By October 21, two agreements had been reached with bands of Apache, Comanche, and Kiowa. Several days later, the Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs arrived, signing their own treaty on October 28. The treaties created two reservations in western Indian Territory—one for the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, and one for the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne. Tribes would be allowed to hunt off the reservations, but only as long as the bison existed—a cruel caveat, as the bison were on the brink of extinction. The Indian nations<strong>.}</strong> also had to “compel their children, male and female, between the ages of six and sixteen years” to attend US boarding schools, “to insure the civilization of the tribes.”</p> <p>The treaties provided for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-agencies-and-agents"><strong>Indian agents</strong></a> who would distribute annuities, including a full set of clothes for every Indian each year, as well as more than $20,000 in additional provisions for thirty years. As a final token of goodwill, the US peace commission distributed more than $150,000 in gifts to the assembled tribes, including clothes, blankets, weapons, tools, and tobacco.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>The Medicine Lodge Treaties achieved the government’s main objective of moving the Plains Indian nations out of the way of the transcontinental railroad. However, they did not bring peace to the plains, for two main reasons: government agents and Indian leaders interpreted the treaties differently, and not all Plains Indians were represented at the Medicine Lodge council.</p> <p>For starters, the Cheyenne and Arapaho either misinterpreted or disagreed with the location of their new reservation, and so for two years they did not have one. In a letter to the interior secretary in August 1869, new Indian affairs commissioner Ely S. Parker wrote that the tribes not only “did not understand the location of the reservation,” but also “had never been upon said reserve” and “did not desire to go there.” Instead, Parker recommended another location that the Indians selected along the North Fork of the Canadian River. President Ulysses S. Grant immediately approved the new reservation.</p> <p>In addition, although the treaties provided for blacksmiths, agricultural equipment, and housing on the reservations, most Plains Indians neither wanted nor intended to use any of those resources. Most considered the reservation or agency to be a seasonal gathering place instead of a permanent home. Kiowa and Comanche, for example, continued to live off the reservation, hunting bison and taking cattle and other livestock from white settlements.</p> <p>Meanwhile, by the time of the Medicine Lodge Treaties, the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers’ strong alliance with the Lakota had made them into the region’s premier fighting force. They had no interest in a peace treaty; neither did the Kwahada band of Comanche, who still held some power on the southern plains.</p> <h2>Legacy</h2> <p>Having failed to control the Plains Indians by treaty, the government again used force. In 1869 it built Fort Sill, a military post in southern Indian Territory, in an attempt to discourage raiding. Later that year, the army decisively defeated the Dog Soldiers at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a> in northeast Colorado.</p> <p>By then, however, President Grant was pursuing a “peace policy,” preferring cultural warfare over military campaigns. Mandatory boarding-school education, as described in the Medicine Lodge Treaties, played a central role in what was in effect the government’s campaign of cultural genocide.</p> <p>While their children were sent off to schools to be stripped of their culture, American Indians saw their reservation lands further reduced under the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dawes-act-general-allotment-act"><strong>Dawes Act</strong></a> of 1887 and in the runup to the creation of the state of Oklahoma in 1907.</p> <p>Today, the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho people continue to live on the reservation established for them in the aftermath of the Medicine Lodge Treaties.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kiowa" hreflang="en">kiowa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/medicine-lodge-treaty" hreflang="en">medicine lodge treaty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/kansas" hreflang="en">kansas</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ulysses-s-grant-0" hreflang="en">ulysses s grant</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian" hreflang="en">american indian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/native-american" hreflang="en">native american</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/treaties" hreflang="en">treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">cheyenne dog soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakota" hreflang="en">lakota</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/little-raven" hreflang="en">Little Raven</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/homestead" hreflang="en">homestead</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-statutes-at-large/about-this-collection/40th-congress/session-1/c40s1ch32.pdf">An Act to Establish Peace With Certain Hostile Indian Tribes</a>,” 40th Congress, Sess. I, Ch. 32, July 20, 1867.</p> <p>Lorraine Boissoneault, “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-1867-medicine-lodge-treaty-changed-plains-indian-tribes-forever-180965357/">How the 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty Changed the Plains Indian Tribes Forever</a>,” <em>Smithsonian Magazine</em>, October 23, 2017.</p> <p>Colorado Virtual Library, “<a href="https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/digital-colorado/colorado-histories/beginnings/chief-little-raven-peacemaker/">Chief Little Raven: Peacemaker</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210752/page/1">The Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 25, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>“<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuGmR_p8bgcC&amp;pg=PA251&amp;lpg=PA251&amp;dq=DEPARTMENT+OF+THE+INTERIOR,+Office+of+Indian+Affairs,+June+19,+1869&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=zmcW4o-TmH&amp;sig=ACfU3U1pWsiz3JcvA9YF7uAQ3dh6J_XxFw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiTx-H4vb3mAhVNa80KHQgzDxMQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&amp;q=DEPARTMENT%20OF%20THE%20INTERIOR%2C%20Office%20of%20Indian%20Affairs%2C%20June%2019%2C%201869&amp;f=false">Indian Territory: Cheyenne and Arapaho Reserve</a>,” letters dated June 19 and August 10, 1869, in <em>Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1878 </em>(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1878).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/hancocks-war.htm">Hancock’s War</a>,” updated April 22, 2019.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/fols/learn/historyculture/medicine-lodge-treaty.htm">Medicine Lodge Treaty</a>,” updated December 17, 2018.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.kansasmemory.org/item/210757/page/1">The Peace Commission: Second Session of the Grand Council</a>,” <em>Missouri Democrat</em>, October 28, 1867 (via Kansas Historical Society).</p> <p>Jacki Thompson Rand, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=ME005">Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867)</a>,”<em> Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, n.d.</p> <p>&nbsp; “<a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101078161559&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=1">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Tribes of Indians</a>,” October 28, 1867.</p> <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p> <p>Kerry R. Oman, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3353&amp;context=greatplainsquarterly">The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867–1868</a>,” <em>Great Plains Quarterly </em>22 (winter 2002).</p> <p>“<a href="https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4080">Speaking From Medicine Lodge: Two Native American Opinions on Removal, White Culture, and Government Relations</a>,” The History Engine.</p> <p>Elliott West, “<a href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/ap-us-history/period-6?modal=/history-resources/essays/american-indians-and-transcontinental-railroad">American Indians and the Transcontinental Railroad</a>,” AP US History Study Guide (Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:40:49 +0000 yongli 3267 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Indigenous Treaties in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Indigenous Treaties in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3789--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3789.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/land-taken-conquest-colorado-1861-80"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IndLandCessions_CO_0.jpg?itok=YbKiL_zI" width="1090" height="841" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/land-taken-conquest-colorado-1861-80" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Land Taken In Conquest of Colorado, 1861-80</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Map showing the boundaries and dates of land taken from Indigenous nations via a series of <a href="/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado"><strong>treaties </strong></a>and agreements, 1861-80. A black "R" indicates the year the land was designated as a reservation for one or more Indigenous nations. The only Indigenous reservations in Colorado today are the <strong>Southern Ute Tribe</strong> and <a href="/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe"><strong>Ute Mountain Ute Tribe</strong></a> reservations, formed in the state's southwest corner in 1880.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T11:31:52-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 11:31" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 11:31</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indigenous-treaties-colorado" data-a2a-title="Indigenous Treaties in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Findigenous-treaties-colorado&amp;title=Indigenous%20Treaties%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Treaties with Indigenous people&nbsp;played a major role in the conquest and formation of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>. Backed by the constant threat&nbsp;of military force, the series of treaties and agreements signed between the federal government and various Indigenous groups&nbsp;between&nbsp;1849 and&nbsp;1880 separated Indigenous people from their land,&nbsp;allowing&nbsp;for the American&nbsp;development of the state. The government rarely delivered on promises made in treaties, meaning that many&nbsp;resulted not only in&nbsp;dispossession and&nbsp;displacement, but also starvation, desperation,&nbsp;cultural erasure, and death among&nbsp;Indigenous nations.</p> <h2>What Is a Treaty?</h2> <p>Merriam-Webster’s dictionary defines a <em>treaty</em> as a “contract in writing between two or more political authorities,” implying equal power relationships between the parties. In the context of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the US National Archives defines Indigenous&nbsp;treaties as “agreements between individual <em>sovereign</em> Indigenous nations and the US,” again indicating that each signer recognized the other as a self-governing entity. This was akin to the United States’ treaties with other nations; for example, the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War in 1783 was as much about Britain recognizing the United States’ <em>sovereignty­</em> as it was about ending the war.<br> <br> An additional feature of a treaty is that it does not take immediate effect once signed; instead, it must be approved by some authoritative body of the respective nations, such as Congress or Parliament. However, the United States generally did not think treaties had to be approved by Indigenous governing bodies.</p> <h2>History of Indigenous Treaties</h2> <p>The US government’s first treaty with an&nbsp;Indigenous&nbsp;nation was made with the Delaware during the Revolutionary War and was ratified by Congress in 1778. After the war, President George Washington set the precedent of continuing to deal with Indigenous people&nbsp;as sovereign nations using the treaty-making authority provided to the president in the Constitution. In 1832, when the state of Georgia sought to expel the Cherokee, the Supreme Court upheld Indigenous sovereignty when it ruled that the Cherokee Nation was “a distinct community occupying its own territory.” Then-president Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, but future presidents followed it, dispatching dozens of treaty commissions into Indigenous&nbsp;territories over the ensuing decades.</p> <p>Throughout the nineteenth century, however, many politicians and capitalists seriously challenged the idea that Indigenous people belonged to independent nations. They argued that Native Americans were backward people standing in the way of national expansion and progress. These attitudes were often reflected in treaty language, such as when the government ordered the Ute people&nbsp;to stop “their roving and rambling ways” in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-abiqui%C3%BA"><strong>Treaty of Abiquiú</strong></a>, or when the Cheyenne and Arapaho were asked to allow the construction of railroads across their land in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a>.</p> <p>Congress finally nullified Indigenous sovereignty in 1871 via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871-0"><strong>Indian Appropriations Act</strong></a>. Thereafter, the government no longer signed “treaties” with Indigenous nations—only “agreements,” which held far less legal and diplomatic weight, since they were not acknowledged to be made by equal parties. Indigenous Americans regained a measure of autonomy in 1934 under the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-reorganization-act-indian-new-deal"><strong>Indian Reorganization Act</strong></a>, but today many tribes still consider nineteenth-century treaties to be legally binding and are working to reclaim unfulfilled rights and promises made in those treaties.</p> <h2>Treaties in Colorado</h2> <p>The need for treaties in what became Colorado arose from the US government’s desire to protect whites traveling west and secure a peaceful environment for them in newly acquired territories. For instance, the 1849 Treaty of Abiquiú, the government’s first treaty with the Ute people, was part of a larger effort to pacify the provisional territory of New Mexico, which had been acquired as a result of the <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> (1846–48).</p> <p>In 1850, when New Mexico Territory was established, most of present-day Colorado was occupied by three Indigenous Nations: the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> in the mountains and canyonlands, and the <strong>Arapaho </strong>and<strong> Cheyenne</strong> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>. The territory of these three groups overlapped, especially their hunting or wintering sites along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. Bands of <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Lakota</strong>, and <strong>Kiowa </strong>also lived and hunted within the present boundaries of the state.</p> <p>At the same time, thousands of whites were crossing what is now northern Colorado in wagon trains bound for Oregon or California. They had to respect the sovereignty of the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who often let wagon trains pass in exchange for food or gifts. As immigration increased, however, whites began competing for the same resources—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, timber, grass—as Indigenous people, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>disease outbreaks</strong></a> decimated&nbsp;Indigenous&nbsp;populations. In response, some Indigenous people began attacking wagon trains, and the US government acted to protect them. The resulting Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, acknowledged Native American&nbsp;sovereignty along the wagon routes and promised annuities to offset Indigenous people's diminishing food base—as long as&nbsp;they gave travelers free passage across their lands.</p> <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought even more whites to the region, further straining the resource base of local Indigenous people. The establishment and growth of Colorado Territory during the 1860s and 1870s produced a series of conflicts between whites and Indigenous people that were only briefly abated by new treaties and agreements, each of which took more land from the state’s original inhabitants; discussion of these conflicts follow.</p> <p><strong>Treaties and Agreements with Indigenous Nations of Colorado, 1849–80</strong></p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1849 – Treaty of Abiquiú brokers temporary peace between whites and Ute bands in the San Luis Valley.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1851 – Treaty of Fort Laramie protects Cheyenne and Arapaho sovereignty along westward wagon roads in northern Colorado in exchange for allowing US citizens and government to travel and build forts on Indigenous land.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1861 – Colorado Territory established; <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> ends government-recognized sovereignty of Cheyenne and Arapaho, creating a reservation for them in eastern Colorado.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1863 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>Conejos Treaty</strong></a> sees the Tabeguache band of Utes relinquish claims to the Front Range of the Rockies and Middle Park. Government designates Ouray as de facto leader of all Utes.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1865 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/little-arkansas-treaty"><strong>Little Arkansas Treaty</strong></a> offers reparations for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> of 1864 and reserves the right of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to hunt in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley in western Kansas and southeast Colorado.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1867 – <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaties</strong></a> remove the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Plains Nations to so-called Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1868 – <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Ute Treaty of 1868</strong></a> creates a consolidated reservation for all of Colorado’s Ute bands on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1871 – Indian Appropriations Act ends treaty making with Indigenous nations.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1873 – <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/brunot-agreement"><strong>Brunot Agreement</strong></a>, the first nontreaty accord between the government and the Utes, cedes the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> to the United States. The southern Ute bands are given their own reservation.</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">1880 – After the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-incident"><strong>Meeker Incident</strong></a> of 1879, US government forces northern Ute bands to sign an agreement removing them from the state; southern Ute bands remain on their reservation in southwest Colorado.</p> <h2>Themes</h2> <p>Treaties made with Colorado's Indigenous people bear the same hallmarks of the US government’s other treaties with Native Americans, including the elevation of “peace chiefs” over “war chiefs” within Indigenous societies; forced assimilation (cultural genocide); and unfulfilled promises such as “perpetual peace” (Treaty of Abiquiú), permanent land tenure, and material welfare.<br> <br> The US Congress had to approve Indigenous treaties, but councils and other parallel bodies within Indigenous&nbsp;nations were not granted the same right. Instead, the US government often ignored internal Indigenous politics and chose certain leaders as de facto representatives of their people. When these chosen leaders signed a treaty, the US government took it as an indication that the entire Indigenous nation agreed to the treaty terms, which was often not the case. This discrepancy produced confusion on both sides and dissent within Indigenous nations.</p> <p>In particular, treaties often pitted Indigenous leaders who preferred peace (“peace chiefs”) against those who favored armed resistance (“war chiefs”). Peace chiefs typically became wealthier and earned more prestige among their people, while war chiefs were vilified&nbsp;in the white press and hunted by the US military for defending their ancestral lands. For example, among the Southern Cheyenne of Colorado, <strong>Black Kettle</strong> emerged as a prominent “peace chief,” while the “war chief” <strong>Tall Bull</strong> led his Dog Soldiers on a prolonged campaign against the US military.</p> <p>A similar dynamic played out among the Ute people of western Colorado, with <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ouray"><strong>Ouray</strong></a> being one of the most lauded “peace chiefs” in US history, while <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorow"><strong>Colorow</strong></a> was seen as a “war chief.” As a result, Colorow attracted fewer followers and was despised by many whites. The division between “peace chiefs” and “war chiefs” was poorly understood by US military and political leaders, which often led to atrocities,&nbsp;such as the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864.</p> <p>In addition, by offering agricultural tools or Western education and medicine, most government treaties reflected, at best, a profound misunderstanding of Indigenous culture and, at worst, outright contempt for it. The presumption that Indigenous people&nbsp;would eventually want to live like whites was one of the reasons most treaties failed to bring about the peace and mutual benefit they aspired to.</p> <p>Although many Indigenous nations were initially willing to sign treaties, the US government’s abdication or violation of those treaties produced a mutual distrust that often gave way to outright hostility to the treaty process. The government had a habit of framing every treaty with an Indigenous nation as permanent, only to come back to the same nation with more demands later on. The treaties of Abiquiú and Fort Laramie, for example, were heralded as diplomatic watersheds that would ensure lasting peace between the parties. Their failure to do so hardly stopped government officials from proffering similar optimism about future treaties. Ute leaders who signed the Treaty of 1868 received silver peace medals during a visit to Washington, DC; twelve years later, however, the military forced a large population of&nbsp;Utes out of the state.</p> <p>Ultimately, the superior force of the US military gave the government considerable leverage during treaty negotiations; Indigenous leaders often faced the impossible choice of giving up ancestral lands or being killed. Colorado's Indigenous agreements and treaties can thus be seen as testaments to the extraordinary resiliency and pragmatism of Indigenous people.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-treaties" hreflang="en">indian treaties</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indigenous-people-colorado" hreflang="en">indigenous people colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-treaties-colorado" hreflang="en">indian treaties colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indians" hreflang="en">american indians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/american-indian-history" hreflang="en">american indian history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indians-colorado" hreflang="en">indians colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jicarilla" hreflang="en">jicarilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ouray" hreflang="en">ouray</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/friday" hreflang="en">friday</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sand-creek-massacre" hreflang="en">Sand Creek Massacre</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territory" hreflang="en">Colorado Territory</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agent" hreflang="en">Indian Agent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-agencies" hreflang="en">indian agencies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-reservations-colorado" hreflang="en">indian reservations colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorow" hreflang="en">colorow</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-kettle" hreflang="en">black kettle</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne-dog-soldiers" hreflang="en">cheyenne dog soldiers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-sovereignty" hreflang="en">indian sovereignty</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-congress" hreflang="en">us congress</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Loretta Fowler, <em>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p> <p>Richard Harless, “<a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/">Native American Policy</a>,” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, n.d.</p> <p>Mark G. Hirsch, “<a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/1871-end-indian-treaty-making">1871: The End of Indian Treaty-Making</a>,” <em>American Indian Magazine</em> 15, no. 2 (Summer/Fall 2014).</p> <p>Merriam-Webster, “<a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty">treaty</a>,” updated January 8, 2020.</p> <p>National Archives, “<a href="https://www.archives.gov/research/native-americans/treaties">American Indian Treaties</a>,” updated October 4, 2016.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>State Historical Society of North Dakota, “<a href="https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-1-changing-landscapes/topic-4-reservation-boundaries/section-2-treaty-fort-laramie-1851">Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://utulsa.edu/academics/academic-calendar/schedule-of-courses/">Treaty Between the United States of America and the Utah Tribe of Indians</a>,” December 30, 1849.</p> <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p> <p><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 YS 515 (1832).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Loretta Fowler, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AR002">Arapaho, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John H. Moore, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH030">Cheyenne, Southern</a>,” <em>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</em>, Oklahoma Historical Society.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Oklahoma Historical Society, “<a href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval">Removal of Tribes to Oklahoma</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kerry R. Oman, “<a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3353&amp;context=greatplainsquarterly">The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867–1868</a>,” <em>Great Plains Quarterly </em>22 (Winter 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://indians.org/articles/plains-indians.html">Plains Indians</a>,” Indians.org, American Indian Heritage Foundation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=363524">Treaty With the Utah-Tabeguache Band, 1863</a>,” in <em>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties </em>Vol. II (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1904).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Treaties/TreatyWithTheUte1868.html">Treaty With the Ute, March 2, 1868</a>,” FirstPeoples.us, n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 17:31:52 +0000 yongli 3265 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org