%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Rocky Mountains http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rocky Mountains</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3278--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3278.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/view-rocky-mountains-mt-evans"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_20160703_145640005_HDR_0.jpg?itok=o1IsLImv" width="1090" height="613" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/view-rocky-mountains-mt-evans" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">View of Rocky Mountains from Mt. Evans</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado's central <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, as seen from the top of <strong>Mt. Evans</strong> (14,265 feet).</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3259--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3259.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/map-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/1920px-Colorado_geographic_map-en.svg__0.png?itok=yTWgYF2l" width="1090" height="929" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/map-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Map of Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"> Mountain ranges of the Colorado Rockies</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3038--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3038.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/buffalo-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Steamboat_20180916_0001_0.jpg?itok=0iouP0XA" width="1090" height="728" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/buffalo-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Buffalo Pass </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This approximately 15-mile stretch of scenic dirt road crosses the diverse habitats within the Park Range of the Rocky Mountains. It rises from sagebrush and gamble oak habitat to lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and spruce-fir dominated forests. The elevation ranges from 6,700 feet in Steamboat Springs to 10,400 feet at Summit Lake Camp Ground. This road offers spectacular views of the Yampa and North Park valleys below, multiple alpine lakes within walking distance, access to the Mount Zirkel Wilderness, multiple disperse camping sites and Summit Lake Campground with restroom facilities. Additionally, there are numerous hiking, horseback and motorized vehicle trails to suite a range of outdoor activity needs.</p> <p><a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/regions/Rocky_Mountain/BuffaloPass/index.shtml">Source: USDA Forest Service - Rocky Mountain Region Viewing Area Buffalo Pass</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1252--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1252.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/i-70-near-genesee-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/I-70_GeneseePark_0_0.jpg?itok=QSEnWazP" width="1090" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/i-70-near-genesee-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">I-70 near Genesee Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The construction of Interstate 70 across Colorado's Rocky Mountains was one of the greatest engineering feats in US history and was essential to the growth of tourism in the high country.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-08T16:18:06-06:00" title="Monday, June 8, 2020 - 16:18" class="datetime">Mon, 06/08/2020 - 16:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains" data-a2a-title="Rocky Mountains"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Frocky-mountains&amp;title=Rocky%20Mountains"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Colorado Rocky Mountains are the highest portion of the 1,900-mile Rocky Mountain chain that stretches from northern British Columbia, Canada, to southern New Mexico. Colorado contains 78 of the 100 highest peaks in the chain, including the 30 tallest. The mountains are the state’s iconic feature and the primary attraction for the 82.4 million people who visited in 2017. Those visitors spent a record $19.7 billion and placed Colorado ninth on the list of tourist-attracting states.</p><div style="left:-37845960385px;position:absolute;"><p>The Rocky Mountains in Colorado, with their breathtaking scenery and outdoor recreational opportunities, are a magnet for tourists from around the world. Among these visitors are a growing number of online casino enthusiasts seeking both adventure and entertainment. Nestled amidst the majestic peaks and lush forests, online casino players find a unique blend of excitement and relaxation. After a day of hiking or skiing, they retreat to their accommodations, where they can indulge in the thrill of online gambling at casinos, about which you can find more when you <a href="https://gamblingorb-gr.com/kazino-me-pragmatika-chrimata/betriot/">read review here</a>. With a simple click of a button, they can access a virtual world of slot machines, poker tables, and roulette wheels, all from the comfort of their mountain retreat. The allure of the Rocky Mountains extends beyond its natural beauty; it offers a perfect backdrop for online casino enthusiasts to immerse themselves in their favorite games. Whether it's the adrenaline rush of a high-stakes bet or the anticipation of hitting the jackpot, the mountains provide an ideal setting for players to experience the excitement of online gambling.</p></div><p>The Colorado Rockies are spread across several distinct ranges, the main ones being the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front</strong></a>, <strong>Sawatch</strong>, <strong>Park-Gore</strong>, <strong>Mosquito-Tenmile</strong>, <strong>Sangre de Cristo</strong>, <strong>Wet</strong>, <strong>Elk, White River</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan</strong></a> Ranges. At 14,440 feet,<strong> Mount Elbert</strong>, in the Sawatch Range, is the highest peak in both the state and the Rockies. Most mountain ranges rise along plate tectonic boundaries and are supported by an unusually thick crust called a crustal root; however, Colorado’s Rockies are unique because they formed far from plate boundaries and lack a crustal root.</p><h2>Colorado Before the Rockies</h2><p>Geologists use the term <em>orogeny</em> to refer to mountain-building episodes. The terrain that includes northern Colorado was added to the North American continent about 1.7 billion years ago during a continental collision called the Yavapai Orogeny. The state’s southern part was added in a similar collision, the Mazatzal Orogeny, about 100 million years later. Between the welding of Colorado to North America and the rise of today’s Rockies, two important geologic events occurred: the building of the <strong>Ancestral Rocky Mountains</strong> about 300 million years ago and the submergence of Colorado beneath the <strong>Western Interior Seaway</strong> between about 100 million and 70 million years ago.</p><div style="display:none;">In the midst of the breathtaking Rocky Mountains, Canadian gambling enthusiasts have some unexpected news: a $5 deposit casino. Just as the Rocky Mountains rise majestically, stretching from the northern reaches of western Canada to the rugged terrain of New Mexico, so do these innovative gaming platforms span the entire digital landscape, offering affordable and accessible entertainment to players across the region. Just like the diverse landscapes of the Rocky Mountains, from dense forests to towering peaks, <a href="https://realcasinoscanada.com/5-minimum-deposit-casinos">5$ deposit casino Canada</a> offer a wide range of gaming options to suit every taste and budget. Whether players are looking for the thrill of spinning the reels on slot machines or the strategic challenge of table games like blackjack and roulette, these casinos provide an exciting and entertaining experience for everyone. Set against the backdrop of the spectacular Rocky Mountains, these digital gaming platforms are a testament to the ingenuity and innovation of the Canadian gaming industry, inviting players to embark on an exciting adventure where the stakes are high and the rewards are endless.</div><p>The Ancestral Rockies consisted of two main mountain ranges. One, known to geologists as Uncompahgria, stood approximately where today’s <strong>Uncompahgre Plateau</strong> rises in western Colorado. The other, Frontrangia, stood in the same place as today’s Front Range. Whereas today’s Rocky Mountains rise above the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and Colorado Plateau, Uncompahgria and Frontrangia were mountainous islands that rose from a tropical sea, as Colorado then stood near the equator. Rock eroded from the ranges was deposited along the islands’ coasts and filled the shallow sea in between, where today’s Elk and Sawatch Ranges stand. These layers of conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone rock form much of the state’s most iconic scenery, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>’s <strong>Flatirons</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/red-rocks-park-and-amphitheatre"><strong>Red Rocks Amphitheater</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/roxborough-state-park-archaeological-district"><strong>Roxborough State Park</strong></a>, Balanced Rock at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>’ <strong>Garden of the Gods</strong>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>’s <strong>Maroon Bells</strong>.</p><p>By 150 million years ago, the Ancestral Rockies were eroded down to sea level, and the state was a vast, low-elevation plain reminiscent of Mississippi and Louisiana today. Lazy, meandering rivers that crossed the plain deposited shale and sandstone that make up today’s <strong>Morrison Formation</strong>, which is famous for its rich trove of dinosaur fossils. Many famous Jurassic dinosaur species, including Stegosaurus and Apatosaurus, were first discovered in Colorado’s Morrison Formation.</p><p>About 100 million years ago, the sea level rose, submerging the North American mid-continent. Rivers and erosion from the surrounding land deposited beach sand in Colorado along the flanks of the Western Interior Seaway. Later burial and cementation of that beach sand formed the erosion-resistant <strong>Dakota Sandstone</strong>, which forms an important petroleum reservoir in the <strong>Denver Basin</strong>, one of the nation’s most productive petroleum provinces.</p><p>Colorado continued to sink for roughly the next 30 million years, eventually falling below sea level. The marine mud that accumulated in that shallow sea composes several important rock formations, the thickest being the <strong>Pierre Shale</strong>, which exceeds 8,500 feet thick north of Boulder, and its western Colorado equivalent, the <strong>Mancos Shale</strong>. These shale units contain swelling clay, which presents a major engineering challenge because its movement cracks foundations and heaves pavement.</p><p>As the seaway drained from the state between 70 million and 68 million years ago, it left behind beach sand. The <strong>Fox Hills Sandstone</strong> records the last time Colorado stood at sea level. During the rise of the modern Rocky Mountains, the Fox Hills Sandstone and all older rock layers were tilted down eastward east of the Rockies and down westward west of the mountains. The soft Pierre and Mancos Shale eroded away quickly, as did the equally soft Morrison Formation. That left the erosion-resistant Dakota Sandstone, which was sandwiched in between, to stand as a prominent hogback that marks the foot of the Rocky Mountains. East of the Rockies it forms the famous Dakota Hogback. A roadcut through the hogback marks where <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> enters the Rockies near <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a> and impressive dinosaur footprints cover the Dakota Sandstone at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dinosaur-ridge"><strong>Dinosaur Ridge</strong></a>, just south of the cut. West of the Rockies, the Dakota Sandstone and adjacent rock layers form the <strong>Grand Hogback</strong>, a dramatic ridge that runs south-southeast from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/meeker-0"><strong>Meeker</strong></a> to <strong>New Castle</strong>.</p><p>While the Rocky Mountains of Colorado boast of their natural majesty, Canadian online casinos offer an equally thrilling experience with an attractive offer: 150 free spins for just $1 <a style="color:#494354;" href="https://casinosters.ca/150-free-spins-for-1/">click here</a>. Traveling through the virtual landscape of slot machines and blackjack tables, players can admire the geological wonders that stretch from northern British Columbia to southern New Mexico. The allure of the Rocky Mountains mirrors the excitement of the spinning reels - both promise an unprecedented adventure. In our digital age, borders blur as seamlessly as the horizon stretching across the Rocky Mountains. The combination of Canadian online gaming and the rugged beauty of the Rockies symbolizes the fusion of modern convenience and timeless majesty. As players engage in their gaming adventures, they are reminded of the vast expanse of the Rocky Mountain chain, where peaks pierce the sky and valleys whisper stories of ancient civilizations. The offer of 150 free spins for $1 serves as a gateway to exploration, whether it's conquering virtual mountain peaks or traveling through the breathtaking landscapes that define the heart of North America.</p><h2>Raising the Rockies</h2><p>The rock layers that accumulated in the Western Interior Seaway allow geologists to confidently reconstruct the state’s pre–Rocky Mountain history, but the modern Rockies offer little such evidence. Experts continue to disagree about how and when today’s mountains were built. Three attributes make the Colorado Rockies one of the world’s most puzzling mountain ranges: first, they stand far from a tectonic plate boundary; second, they lack a crustal root; and third, the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau stand high above sea level despite experiencing minimal folding and faulting. The presence of these high provinces next to the Rockies is unique among world mountain ranges.</p><p>Despite these difficulties, geologists agree that a mountain-building event known as the Laramide Orogeny, which occurred between about 70 million and 45 million years ago, raised Colorado’s mountain ranges. Most also agree that a second, later uplift must have occurred. When and why that second uplift happened are still debated.</p><p>Almost all modern Colorado mountain ranges have <em>thrust faults</em> at their bases. Thrust faults occur when the crust is compressed, which happens when tectonic plates converge. Movement on a thrust fault stacks one slab of rock atop another. That stacking forms mountains. During the Laramide Orogeny, a plate consisting of oceanic material was converging with continental North America off the coast of California. Geologists call such oceanic-continental convergences <em>subduction</em> zones; the plate that possesses oceanic crust is denser than the continental plate, so it dives, or <em>subducts</em>, deep into Earth’s mantle (the layer below the Earth’s crust).</p><p>Normally mountain ranges rise next to subduction zones, but the oceanic plate’s angle of descent dictates exactly how far from the plate boundary compression will be felt. Before 80 million years ago, the oceanic plate converging with continental North America descended at a “normal” angle of about 40–50 degrees. That angle caused compression near the plate boundary, which formed California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. But after 80 million years ago, the plate’s descent angle became nearly flat, explaining why volcanoes in the Sierra Nevada went extinct just before the start of thrust-fault activity in Colorado.</p><h2>Explaining the Second Uplift</h2><p>Flat-slab subduction can explain why Colorado’s mountains rose far from a plate boundary, but it doesn’t explain the range’s lack of a crustal root or the high elevation of the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau. The best explanation for those attributes is that the mantle beneath the Rockies is unusually warm. When Colorado’s deep mantle warmed, it expanded and pushed up the overlying crust, lifting the Colorado Rockies as well as the adjacent Great Plains and Colorado Plateau. That warm mantle is also the reason Colorado has so many hot springs.</p><p>Geophysicist Gordon Eaton has called this heat-induced swelling the Alvarado Ridge. The Great Plains and the Colorado Plateau form the eastern and western parts of the Alvarado Ridge, respectively. The older Laramide Rocky Mountains sit atop the ridge, which explains why Colorado’s mountains are so much higher than the rest of the Rocky Mountain chain.</p><h2>When Did the Mantle Warm Up?</h2><p>While geophysicists have documented the warmth of the mantle beneath the Colorado Rockies, they have been unable to deduce <em>when</em> the mantle warmed up. The when and the why of that mantle heating and the associated second uplift event are the subject of current disagreement and research.</p><p>About 38 million years ago, soon after the Laramide Orogeny ended, Colorado erupted in a volcanic episode of giant proportions that lasted until about 24 million years ago; geologists call this episode the Ignimbrite Flare-up. The biggest single volcano ever identified on Earth, the <strong>La Garita Caldera</strong>, is found in Colorado’s San Juan Mountains. It is one of fifteen giant caldera volcanoes in the San Juans, and more big Ignimbrite Flare-up volcanoes or their eroded remnants form peaks in the Elk, West Elk, Sawatch, and Front Ranges. Geologists are not sure what caused this massive volcanic event, but one idea is that the subducting plate that triggered the Laramide Orogeny’s thrust faults also delivered water to Colorado’s subsurface mantle. The addition of water lowers the rock’s melting temperature, which could explain the volcanic activity Regardless, it is clear that a lot of heat would be necessary to produce such large magma volumes; therefore, many geologists believe the mantle warm-up and raising of the Alvarado Ridge occurred about 38–24 million years ago, in conjunction with the Ignimbrite Flare-up.</p><p>Later activity also helps explain the raising of the Alvarado Ridge. About 28 million years ago, just as the Ignimbrite Flare-up was winding down, the Colorado Rockies were stretched and split along the north-south trending <strong>Rio Grande Rift</strong>. The upper <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley, from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>, lies along this rift, as does the <strong>Rio Grande River</strong>’s southward path along the axis of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. The Rio Grande Rift’s crustal stretching is similar to the stretching that formed today’s famous East African Rift Valley. Such stretching thins the crust, bringing hot mantle closer to the surface, which in turn causes thermal expansion and associated surface uplift. For that reason, many geologists think the Alvarado Ridge rose about 28 million years ago, simultaneous with formation of the Rio Grande Rift.</p><p>Other geologists hypothesize that today’s Colorado Rockies rose to their current height within the last 5 million years. Their primary evidence is that before 5 million years ago, sand and gravel were accumulating across the western Great Plains, producing the Ogallala Formation, the rock unit that forms the important <strong>Ogallala Aquifer</strong>. Sometime after 5 million years ago, the Ogallala Formation was tilted up to the west and the Arkansas and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> Rivers began to erode it. Both the tilting and the erosion might indicate that the Alvarado Ridge rose in the more recent geological past.</p><h2>The Rockies During the Pleistocene Ice Age</h2><p>The modern Rockies might have risen 40, 28, or 5 million years ago. Whenever it was, the newly risen mountains were almost certainly gently rolling uplands; they lacked the steep cliffs and spectacular, deep valleys that make today’s mountains so impressive. The mountains did not achieve their current grandeur until big glaciers sculpted them during the Pleistocene Ice Ages, which began about 2.5 million years ago.</p><p>Periodic changes in Earth’s orbit, called the Milankovitch Cycles, govern the amount of radiation we receive from the sun. About every 100,000 years, the planet cools by about 5 degrees Celsius, which is enough to cause large glaciers to form. Those glacial intervals alternate with interglacial intervals, when the Earth receives more sunlight and the glaciers melt away. The Earth has been in an interglacial interval for about the last 10,000 years, and the peak of the most recent glacial interval was about 20,000 years agowere. Colorado’s mountains were covered by ice caps, and glaciers stretched as long as thirty-five miles down mountain valleys.&nbsp;</p><p>The scouring action of those glaciers deepened the valleys and steepened the ridges and mountain faces, turning the formerly rolling upland into today’s rugged landscape. Calling cards of Colorado’s past glaciers include U-shaped mountain valleys, such as the box canyon where <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> sits, as well as chains of alpine lakes and the craggy nature of many alpine ridges and peaks. Without the combination of the Laramide Orogeny, the post-Laramide uplift of the Alvarado Ridge, and the sculpting action of the Pleistocene glaciers, Colorado would not boast the mountain landscape that brings pleasure to so many locals and visitors today.</p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/abbott-lon" hreflang="und">Abbott, Lon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formation-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">formation of rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mountains" hreflang="en">mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-mountains" hreflang="en">colorado mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">colorado rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geography" hreflang="en">Geography</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hot-springs" hreflang="en">hot springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/red-rocks" hreflang="en">Red Rocks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/morrison-formation" hreflang="en">Morrison Formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dakota-sandstone" hreflang="en">Dakota sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ogallala-aquifer" hreflang="en">ogallala aquifer</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Lon Abbott and Terri Cook, <em>Geology Underfoot Along Colorado’s Front Range</em> (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 2012).</p><p>Gordon Eaton, “Epeirogeny in the Southern Rocky Mountains: Evidence and Origin,” <em>Geosphere</em> 4 (2008).</p><p>Eugene Humphreys et al., “How Laramide-Age Hydration of North American Lithosphere by the Farallon Slab Controlled Subsequent Activity in the Western United States,” <em>International Geology Review </em>45 (2003).</p><p>Margaret McMillan, Chris Angevine, and Paul Heller, “Postdepositional Tilt of the Miocene-Pliocene Ogallala Group on the Western Great Plains: Evidence of Late Cenozoic Uplift of the Rocky Mountains,” <em>Geology</em> 30 (2002).</p><p>Peter Molnar and Phillip England, “Late Cenozoic Uplift of Mountain Ranges and Global Climate Change: Chicken or Egg?” <em>Nature</em> 346 (1990).</p><p>Donald Trimble, “Cenozoic Tectonic History of the Great Plains Contrasted With That of the Southern Rocky Mountains: A Synthesis,” <em>Mountain Geologist</em> 17 (1980).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.cliffshade.com/colorado/index.htm">Colorado Geology Photojournals</a>.</p><p><a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/geology/">Colorado Geological Survey</a>.</p><p><a href="https://igp.colorado.edu/library/">Interactive Geology Project</a>.</p><p>Vincent Matthews,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22Messages%20in%20Stone:%20Colorado%E2%80%99s%20Colorful%20Geology,%22"><em>Messages in Stone: Colorado’s Colorful Geology</em></a>, 2nd ed. (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2009).</p><p>John McPhee, <em>Rising From the Plains</em> (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Jun 2020 22:18:06 +0000 yongli 3258 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-03-18T22:34:26-06:00" title="Wednesday, March 18, 2020 - 22:34" class="datetime">Wed, 03/18/2020 - 22:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites" data-a2a-title="Sand Wash Basin Tool Stone Sites"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsand-wash-basin-tool-stone-sites&amp;title=Sand%20Wash%20Basin%20Tool%20Stone%20Sites"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p align="left">Located northwest of Craig in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/moffat-county"><strong>Moffat County</strong></a>, the Sand Wash Basin is an area of Bridger Formation rock outcrops that prehistoric peoples mined extensively as a source for stones to make tools with. Bridger Formation chert is typically light to dark brown, though some of the chert in the basin is referred to as “tiger chert” because of its distinct alternating light and dark brown banding. Tiger cherts have been found across Colorado and in both Utah and Wyoming. The distinct patterning of tiger chert has allowed archaeologists to trace the movement of prehistoric people in and out of northwestern Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Geology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">The Sand Wash Basin is the southern portion of the Green River Basin system in Wyoming, which is an Eocene-aged lake system that drained south into the Piceance Basin of Colorado and the Uinta Basin of Utah. Deposits in the Sand Wash Basin are sedimentary and contain many fossils, including well-preserved vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant fossils. Because of high silica content in the region’s geology, the Sand Wash Basin contains layers of chert bedrock, chert nodules, petrified wood, and fossilized stromatolites that lend themselves to striped banding.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">There are different varieties of chert tool-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado"><strong>stone quarries</strong></a> in the Sand Wash Basin. The basin’s center contains bedrock layers of chert. The basin’s perimeter contains more nodules of petrified wood and stromatolites that are available as eroded gravel deposits and isolated clusters. Whether quarried from layers of chert bedrock or collected from erosional deposits, all the stone material in the basin was usable for tool blanks and is typically identified as Bridger Formation chert.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2 align="left">Archaeology</h2>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">In 1976 Richard Stucky did an archaeological survey of the Sand Wash Basin. Stucky noted that the basin’s Bridger Formation cherts had a long history of use and can be associated with the bison-hunting <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> populations of 13,000 years ago as well as later <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>, and historical groups, including the Shoshone and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a>. In some places in the basin one can still see the large quantities of stone that were quarried and tested by prehistoric inhabitants of the area. One additional piece of evidence for a long period of use of the basin’s cherts comes from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/boulder-artifacts"><strong>Mahaffy cache</strong></a> site in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, with its impressive tiger chert artifacts. Stucky suggested that prehistoric families camped around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin while mining resources in the middle of it, which was supported by a subsequent archaeological study in 2010. Stucky’s work resulted in a collection of pristine materials now housed at the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-museum-nature-science-0"><strong>Denver Museum of Nature and Science</strong></a>, including a fourteen-centimeter-long cold-worked copper knife found at the Cathedral Butte site, which is similar to knives found in Oklahoma and the Great Lakes region.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation chert artifacts have been found in archaeological sites in neighboring states, such as the John Gale Cache in Wyoming and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-culture"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> villages in western Colorado and Utah, and archaeologists are studying their chemical structure to connect these artifacts to specific quarries in the Sand Wash Basin. Interestingly, heating the Bridger Formation chert in a fire alters its structure and makes it easier to shape into a tool. While this can create sharper tools, it can also crack the chert and make it more brittle. The heat-treating of cherts has been shown to occur more often around the periphery of the Sand Wash Basin than in the heart of the Sand Wash Basin, though it is unknown how heat-treating alters the ability of scientists to source the Bridger Formation chert to specific quarries.</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Bridger Formation cherts from the Sand Wash Basin help archaeologists understand the way prehistoric families lived and moved through Colorado over the last 13,000 years. Beyond that strong archaeological value, tiger chert artifacts can be beautiful examples of prehistoric craftsmanship. Thus, in addition to being utilitarian tools that now serve as markers of trade and antiquity, they were likely admired and appreciated for their striking visual characteristics as much in the past as they are today.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/landt-matthew" hreflang="und">Landt, Matthew</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bridger-formation" hreflang="en">Bridger formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_1" id="_ENREF_1">H. P. Buchheim, L. R. Brand, and H. T. Goodwin, “Lacustrine to fluvial floodplain deposition in the Eocene Bridger Formation,” <em>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</em> 162 (September 2000).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Neil Hauser, “Sourcing Bridger Chert With Laser Breakdown Spectroscopy, Technical report, Advanced Technical Solutions for Archaeology and Anthropology, Centennial, Colorado” (Montrose, CO: Alpine Archaeological Consultants, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_3" id="_ENREF_3">Brian R. Ingalls and Lisa E. Park, “Biotic and Taphonomic Response to Lake-Level Fluctuations in the Greater Green River Basin (Eocene), Wyoming,” <em>Palaios</em> 25 (May 2010).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt, “Class III Survey of Select Areas in Sand Wash Basin, Moffat County, Colorado, Technical report, Alpine Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Montrose, Colorado” (Craig: Vermillion Chapter, Colorado Archaeological Society, and Bureau of Land Management, Little Snake Field Office, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Matthew J. Landt and Robyn Watkins Morris, “Lithic Procurement in the Sand Wash Basin of Northwestern Colorado: How Unpredictability Highlights Adaptations,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 63 (February 2018).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Byron Loosle, “The Acquisition of Nonlocal Lithic Material by the Uinta Fremont,” <em>Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology</em> 22, no. 2 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_4" id="_ENREF_4">James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains</em>, ed. George C. Frison (San Diego: Academic Press, 1991).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left">Mark E. Miller, Michael D. Stafford, and George W. Brox, “The John Gale Site Biface Cache,” <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 36 (February 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_5" id="_ENREF_5">Paul C. Murphey and David Daitch, “</a><a href="https://publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2009/02/63538.pdf">Paleontological Overview of Oil Shale and Tar Sands Areas in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming</a>,” Technical report for US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, December 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"> </p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_6" id="_ENREF_6">M. Elliot Smith, Alan R. Carroll, and Brad S. Singer, “Synoptic Reconstruction of a Major Ancient Lake System: Eocene Green River Formation, Western United States,” GSA Bulletin 120 (January–February 2008).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p align="left"><a name="_ENREF_7" id="_ENREF_7">Richard K. Stucky, et al., “Magnetic Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Mammalian Faunas of the Early Uintan Washakie Formation, Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado,” in <em>The Terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene Transition in North America</em>, ed. Donald R. Prothero (New York: Cambridge University Press,1996).</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a name="_ENREF_8" id="_ENREF_8">Richard Keith Stucky, “Archaeological Survey of the Sand Wash Basin, Northwestern Colorado” (MA thesis, University of Colorado–Boulder, 1977).</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Claire Cleveland, “<a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/03/16/gunnison-county-effectively-shutting-down-public-life-to-fight-covid-19/">Gunnison County Effectively Shutting Down Public Life To Fight COVID-19</a>,” Colorado Public Radio, March 16, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shaun Yuan, “<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/17/in-china-life-returning-to-normal-as-coronavirus-outbreak-slows">In China, life returning to normal as coronavirus outbreak slows</a>,” <em>Al Jazeera</em>, March 17, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 19 Mar 2020 04:34:26 +0000 yongli 3196 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Barger Gulch Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Barger Gulch Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:28:06-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:28" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/barger-gulch-site" data-a2a-title="Barger Gulch Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbarger-gulch-site&amp;title=Barger%20Gulch%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>There are few places in western North America richer in <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> archaeology than <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Middle Park</strong></a>, the valley that forms the headwaters of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> in <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand County</strong></a>. Within Middle Park, the Barger Gulch area preserves an impressive amount of evidence from early humans, with sites dating from roughly 12,900 to 10,000 years ago. Barger Gulch is a small, spring-fed tributary of the Colorado River, flowing south to north, draining an area east of Junction Butte, and joining the Colorado River about four miles east of <strong>Kremmling</strong>. In all, eleven Paleo-Indian localities have been documented along this drainage. Artifacts in the Barger Gulch area span the Paleo-Indian period with one exception— no <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> archaeology has yet been found in Middle Park, though <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a>, the period that follows Clovis, is abundant.</p> <h2>Natural History</h2> <p>If you were to visit the Barger Gulch area today, you would find it to be a nondescript and fairly uninviting area. The high, flat surface that begins on the margins of the Colorado River Valley and slowly slopes upward to the south is covered with a sea of <a href="/article/sagebrush"><strong>sagebrush</strong></a> and grass with an occasional isolated <a href="/article/conifers"><strong>juniper or Douglas fir</strong></a> on north-facing slopes. It is one of the driest parts of Middle Park. Barger Gulch has a modest flow and has cut deeply through Miocene Troublesome Formation bedrock. As inhospitable as the place appears today, the archaeology suggests that it was a good place to live more than 10,000 years ago because people in that period returned to the area time and again. One of the attractions comes straight from the bedrock—Troublesome Formation chert, used to make stone tools.</p> <p>During the Miocene, approximately 20 to 5 million years ago, the valley of Middle Park was filling with sediments, and one major source of sedimentation was volcanism. Some of the ashy sediments that filled the basin later were transformed into a fine-grained silicate rock called chert, ideal for the manufacture of stone tools. Large amounts of Troublesome Formation chert, also known as Kremmling Chert, can be found in the Barger Gulch area, and all of the nearby archaeological localities are dominated by this material. Chert was one clear attraction.</p> <h2>Ancient Camp</h2> <p>The most intensively studied part of the Barger Gulch site is called Locality B, a large Folsom campsite dating to around 12,760 years ago. Locality B is remarkable for its large numbers of chipped stone artifacts, with an assemblage totaling more than 75,000 pieces. The types of nonlocal lithic raw materials recovered show that people moved into Barger Gulch from areas east and west of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>.</p> <p>Paleo-Indian peoples are renowned for the distances they moved in their seasonal rounds, but occasionally, and likely seasonally, they settled down in one spot for an extended duration of time. Barger Gulch is one of a handful of sites that show this less mobile side of early Paleo-Indian life. In the winter, large mammals are snowed out of high-elevation regions, and their density in winter grazing areas in valley bottoms increases dramatically. Current evidence suggests that the Barger Gulch site represents one or multiple cold-season occupations by Folsom hunter-gatherers, who probably camped in the valley bottom for several weeks to take advantage of <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds wintering in Middle Park. During the winter, Folsom hunter-gatherers camping in the Barger Gulch area would have had easy access to water, stone, wood, and large game.</p> <h2>Research Findings</h2> <p>Because the Barger Gulch site has a relatively high density of artifacts and well-preserved spatial patterning, archaeologists have used it to examine several poorly studied aspects of human lifeways at the end of the last Ice Age in the Rocky Mountains. The site preserves at least four hearth features, three of which sat within households. This allows for studies of the differences in the use of interior and exterior space. For example, it was found that early-stage flintknapping—the removal of large flakes from the outer portions of chert nodules—mostly took place in exterior spaces. Later-stage knapping, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fluted-points-0"><strong>fluting of projectile points</strong></a> and resharpening of tools, occurred inside. There is also evidence for artifacts produced by novice flintknappers at the site, most likely children.</p> <p>The Barger Gulch site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/surovell-todd" hreflang="und">Surovell, Todd A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/folsom" hreflang="en">Folsom</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-folsom-sites" hreflang="en">colorado folsom sites</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-county" hreflang="en">Grand County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/troublesome-formation" hreflang="en">Troublesome formation</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Marcel Kornfeld, <em>The First Rocky Mountaineers: Coloradans Before Colorado</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2013).</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack, “Folsom Hearth-Centered Use of Space at Barger Gulch, Locality B,” in <em>Frontiers in Colorado Paleoindian Archaeology: From the Dent Site to the Rocky Mountains</em>, ed. Robert H. Brunswig and Bonnie L. Pitblado (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2007).</p> <p>Nicole M. Waguespack and Todd A. Surovell, “A Simple Method for Identifying Households Using Lithic Assemblages: A Case Study From a Folsom Campsite in Middle Park, Colorado,” in <em>Lithics in the West: Using Lithic Analysis to Solve Archaeological Problems in Western North America</em>, ed. Douglas H. MacDonald, William Andrefsky Jr., and Pei-Lia Yu (Missoula: University of Montana Press, 2014).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, “<a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">Colorado Stratigraphy: Main Strat Chart</a>,” updated October 30, 2018.</p> <p>Todd A. Surovell, <em>Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology</em>: <em>Cases From Paleoindian Archaeology</em> (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:28:06 +0000 yongli 3122 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Lyons Sandstone http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lyons-sandstone <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lyons Sandstone</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3335--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3335.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/garden-gods-park"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Lyons-Sandstone-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=HpUg9sxb" width="1090" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/garden-gods-park" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Garden of the Gods Park</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Garden of the Gods Park in El Paso County preserves some of the most scenic outcrops of Lyons sandstone on the Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2609--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2609.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/garden-gods"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Colorao_Springs_20170521_0111_0.jpg?itok=wSNNLCzZ" width="1090" height="673" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/garden-gods" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Garden of the Gods</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Garden of the Gods is a public park located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, US. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1971. Address: 1805 N 30th St, Colorado Springs, CO 80904</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T15:23:33-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 15:23" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 15:23</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lyons-sandstone" data-a2a-title="Lyons Sandstone"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Flyons-sandstone&amp;title=Lyons%20Sandstone"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Named for the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> town whose historic quarries made it famous, the <strong>Lyons</strong> Sandstone formation is a Permian age rock layer in the foothills of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> from the Wyoming border to south of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>. It is the primary formation in the scenic red rock outcrops at <strong>Garden of the Gods Park</strong> near Colorado Springs.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient Uses</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>People have made use of the well-cemented sandstones of the Lyons formation for thousands of years, beginning at least 6,500 years ago in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic period</strong></a>. Because the sandstone usually occurs in flat layers of varying thickness, such as flagstone, it was a popular raw material among American Indians for seed-milling slabs called metates and the handheld counterparts called manos. These artifacts have been found throughout the Front Range region from the open plains to near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, many miles from the outcrops where the material was gathered. Although the milling of wild plant seeds into flour was the primary function of these tools, corn grinding was added in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative period</strong></a> after 200 CE. In addition, small pieces of sandstone were used as a kind of natural sandpaper for abrading and smoothing work. The sandstone was quarried from many locations between <strong>Manitou Springs</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Historic Quarrying</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In more recent times, the quarries around the town of Lyons constituted a major source of Lyons sandstone. <strong>Edward S. Lyon</strong>, the town’s founder, began commercial quarrying in 1880 in competition with quarries west of Fort Collins that were backed by the Union Pacific Railroad. A railroad line running into Lyons had to wait until Hugh Murphy, a paving contractor from Omaha, Nebraska, bought part of Lyon’s holdings in 1884.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lyons sandstone served as a building material, but its primary use was for paving stones and sidewalks. Quarrymen, mostly immigrants from Scandinavia, cut sidewalk slabs directly from the bedding planes using shims and wedges (known as “blocks and feathers”). Other quarries in nearby Noland and Beech Hill competed with Murphy for markets, but demand declined as asphalt and concrete became more popular pavement materials in the early twentieth century. In 1916 Murphy sold the business to his superintendent, John Brodie. Brodie’s quarry remained viable by crushing the stone for use as a road base. The Brodie quarry contributed some stone to the construction of the University of Colorado’s Boulder campus, which had adopted a new architectural style in the 1920s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Sandstone Industry</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The ranch-style houses and suburban culture that developed in California and other areas after World War II gave consumers a taste for patios and other decorative landscape features. Quarries in Arizona made profits from the new demand for stone. Not until 1946, however, did Colorado quarries become aware of the opportunity. That year a Californian named Dewey Summers came to Boulder County with his wife, May Vickery, to restore his health. May’s brothers lived in nearby Jamestown and were working as quarrymen. When Summers saw the quality of the sandstone that her brothers were quarrying, he went into business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Soon the local industry could not keep up with the demand. Other entrepreneurs such as Les Stennette and Irving Jacobson started quarrying to meet their own construction needs. The major bottleneck in production involved cutting the sandstone pieces to customers’ specifications. Although several stonecutting prototypes existed, Summers chose one invented by Chris Jenkins of Kansas City, Missouri, and enticed Jenkins to move his enterprise to Colorado, where his machine transformed the industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The use of Lyons sandstone has spread across the country from California to New York, and into Canada. In 1950 Chris Jenkins recognized Lyons sandstone in a New York City sidewalk. Buildings at the University of Texas at San Antonio; the US Geological Survey’s research center in Reno, Nevada; and the Hotel Chaco in Albuquerque, New Mexico, are among the many other places that feature this rock.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, several companies continue the tradition of Lyons sandstone quarrying along the Front Range. The material’s uses have spread beyond wall construction and pavers to such products as signage, outdoor furniture, landscaping accents, and artwork. The quality and beauty of this material have proven its appeal to Coloradans for thousands of years.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/pace-alfred" hreflang="und">Pace, Alfred</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lyons-formation" hreflang="en">Lyons formation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>E. Steve Cassells, “Coming into the Colorado High Country: The Archaeology of the Sawtooth Game Drive,” in <em>This Land of Shining Mountains: Archaeological Studies in Colorado’s Indian Peaks Wilderness Area</em>, ed. E. Steve Cassells, Research Report No. 8 (Ward, CO: Center for Mountain Archeology, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alfred C. Pace, <em>A History of the Lyons Sandstone Quarries</em> (Lyons, CO: Applications Plus, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Lon Abbott and Terri Cook, <em>Geology Underfoot Along Colorado’s Front Range</em> (Missoula, MT: Mountain Press, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/UnitRefs/LyonsRefs_9129.html">“Geologic Unit: Lyons,”</a> USGS National Geologic Map Database, September 24, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lyons Sandstone, <a href="http://www.lyonssandstone.com/project-examples/major-architectural-projects/">“Major Architectural Projects,”</a> n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Al Pace, <a href="https://lyonscolorado.com/history/quarries-and-redstone">“Quarries and Redstone,”</a> Town of Lyons, Colorado, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bob Raynolds and James Hagadorn, <a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/main-strat-chart">“Main Strat Chart,”</a> Colorado Stratigraphy, October 30, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Marcus R. Ross et al., <em>Garden of the Gods at Colorado Springs: Paleozoic and Mesozoic Sedimentation and Tectonics</em>, Field Guide 18 (Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America, 2010).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 22:23:33 +0000 yongli 3120 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Trout Creek Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Trout Creek Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:13:05-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:13" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:13</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Trout Creek Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftrout-creek-archaeological-site&amp;title=Trout%20Creek%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Trout Creek in east <a href="/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee County</strong></a> is an extensive archaeological site exhibiting natural outcrops of colorful jaspers that were used for thousands of years as raw material for toolmaking by many different groups of Native Americans. It is one of the best-known toolstone sources not only in central Colorado but in the whole of the Southern <strong>Rocky Mountains</strong>. Archaeologists have surveyed and documented rock outcrops, quarry pits, and workshop debris spread over more than 1,000 acres south of Trout Creek Pass on both private and public lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geologic Context</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Outcrops at Trout Creek are mostly yellow brown to dusky red chert, often with black, green, or red inclusions. The rock can be described as a dendritic jasper—an iron-rich chert—because of the common presence of green to black lines in intricately branching patterns. Some Trout Creek materials have inclusions that are not dendritic forms, while others are solid colors lacking any patterning. Recent geologic mapping found that the material occurs in blocks of late Eocene or Oligocene age (23 to 38 million years old), whose movement slid sections of much more ancient rock northward down toward Trout Creek. A preliminary study in the 1980s identified the host rock as the Manitou formation, which is Early Ordovician (470–85 million years old) limestone and dolomite. More recent fieldwork suggests that some of the jasper also may occur in the Fremont dolomite of Middle and Late Ordovician age (443–70 million years old).</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Prehistoric Activities</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Artifacts found in the workshop areas and in the surrounding region show that people used Trout Creek jasper throughout the prehistoric era, beginning in the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a> at least 10,000 years ago. Because jaspers and other cherts are quite durable and fracture into sharp-edged fragments, flintknappers were able to make many different kinds of tools, including spear points and arrowheads, knives, scrapers, drills, and choppers. Other artifacts not made from the local jasper were brought to the site to meet other needs, such as seed-milling tools and a few ceramic containers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although no evidence of ancient houses has been found at Trout Creek, smaller prehistoric features have been documented. These include several campfire pits and one somewhat different burned pit interpreted as a “heat-treatment” feature. When certain rock types, such as chert and jasper, are buried in shallow pits and then baked for several hours, the result is rock that is more brittle but fractures with even sharper edges than unheated rock. In effect, toolmakers were sacrificing the durability of the rock to create material that was easier to shape and provided sharper cutting edges.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Trout Creek Source Zone</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After decades of research, archaeologists now know that many other jaspers occur in the same general region as the Trout Creek source, especially to the south in the Arkansas Hills, and eastward into <strong>South Park</strong>. At last count, twenty-seven separate sources of jasper have been documented beyond Trout Creek, even though less than 10 percent of this area has been inventoried. Some of these materials have dendritic inclusions visually similar to Trout Creek, and artifacts made from them may be erroneously assumed to be from Trout Creek. There are other such “source zones” known to archaeologists in the American West, such as in western North Dakota and the Texas Panhandle, but these are the exception rather than the rule. Clearly, there is much more to be learned about this part of Colorado that was so heavily frequented by Native Americans. It is quite likely, however, that the Trout Creek site is the largest and most intensively utilized source in the region.<br />&#13;  </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-archaeology" hreflang="en">prehistoric archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaffee-county" hreflang="en">chaffee county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jasper" hreflang="en">jasper</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “Progress and Prospects Geoarchaeological Research on Chert Sources in Central Colorado,” in “Rocky Mountain Archaeology: A Tribute to James Benedict,” ed. Kenneth P. Cannon, Judson Byrd Finley, and Molly Boeka Cannon, <em>Plains Anthropologist</em> 60, Memoir 43 (2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Collette Chambellan et al., “A Cultural Resource Evaluation of Site 5CF84, Salida Ranger District, Pike and San Isabel National Forests, Colorado,” unpublished ms. on file at History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Denver (Boulder, CO: Western Cultural Resource Management, 1984).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John W. Keller, James P. McCalpin, and Benjamin W. Lowry, <em>Geologic Map of the Buena Vista East Quadrangle, Chaffee County, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 04-4 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>C. A. Wallace and John W. Keller, <em>Geologic Map of the Castle Rock Gulch Quadrangle, Chaffee and Park Counties, Colorado</em>, Open-File Report 01–1 (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2003).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kevin D. Black and Aaron Theis, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/2017/paac_antelopegulch_final.pdf">Archaeological Survey of a Portion of the Antelope Gulch Locality, Fremont County, Colorado</a>,” History Colorado, Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (Denver: Office of the State Archaeologist of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.minerals.net/gemstone/jasper_gemstone.aspx">The Gemstone Jasper</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>T. G. Lovering, <em>Jasperoid in the United States—Its Characteristics, Origin, and Economic Significance</em>, Professional Paper 710 (Washington, DC: US Geological Survey, 1972).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:13:05 +0000 yongli 3091 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Shield Cave Archaeological Site http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Shield Cave Archaeological Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T15:07:48-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 15:07" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 15:07</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/shield-cave-archaeological-site" data-a2a-title="Shield Cave Archaeological Site"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fshield-cave-archaeological-site&amp;title=Shield%20Cave%20Archaeological%20Site"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Shield Cave is a large limestone cavern in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle County</strong></a> that contains painted <a href="/article/rock-art-colorado"><strong>rock art</strong></a> dating to the Historic period and deposits of the iron mineral pigment material used to make ochre-color paint. This site is one of hundreds of caverns that have developed in the Mississippian Period <strong>Leadville Limestone</strong> geological formation in Colorado, but one of only a few such caves that exhibit evidence of human activity predating the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado </strong><strong>Gold Rush</strong></a>. Painted rock art panels, called pictographs, in the forms represented at Shield Cave have been interpreted as belonging to the Early Historic <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute Indian</strong></a> style dating to 1600–1830 CE.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Pigment Source</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Few artifacts have been documented at the Shield Cave site other than modified chunks of mineralized pigment stone. Most of these materials are brick red in color, the tint resulting from the presence of hematite in the rock. This iron mineral also discolors the soil in patches outside the mouth of the cave, and in high enough concentrations could also be used to manufacture paints. A minor amount of pigment stone in Shield Cave is yellow, as are a few of the rock art motifs painted on the cave walls. Other motifs are painted partly or entirely in shades of gray to black using charcoal, presumably salvaged from campfire debris. Archaeologists have conducted only minor test excavations here in a single project in 1985, which was focused on repairing damage from earlier illicit digging. No buried artifacts were found in the test.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rock Art</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The numerous pictographs at Shield Cave are scattered along the cave’s interior walls and on the most easily accessed outer wall near its mouth. Part of the cave opening has been closed off by the gradual accumulation of rock and soil washing down the adjacent slope. Most of the painted images are small in scale and painted red, consisting of human forms, animals, objects, and tally-like lines. Some of the human figures are shown on horseback while others are overlaid by painted circles and are called shield figures. All the human forms (called “anthropomorphs” by specialists) and the animal figures (“zoomorphs”) are simple illustrations with little detail added. Rock art expert Sally Cole has identified such unadorned figures as characteristic of the Early Historic Ute style, which developed into more detailed scenes in the subsequent Late Historic Ute style represented in scores of panels elsewhere in western Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>More Than Paint</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Beyond creating pictographs, hematite was used in ceremonial contexts and for myriad painting needs such as body adornment, decorative drawings, or all-over coatings on artifacts of virtually any material. The history of its use spans the entire human history of North America, including in Colorado, where a <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> site in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a> contained human skeletal remains coated with red ochre. With its vivid color, many cultures viewed it as the blood of the earth, and the places where it occurred in abundance were treated with reverence. While hematite-colored rocks and soil are commonplace in widely scattered locations throughout the west, large sources like Shield Cave are rare.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition, many peoples believed caves were portals connecting the natural and spirit worlds, which may help explain the prevalence of rock art in caves the world over. Throughout their homeland, the Ute people consider both caves and hematite sources as sacred places, so Shield Cave holds a very special place in their history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Preservation Concerns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Unfortunately, caves are also targeted by both vandals and unscrupulous antiquities dealers. Efforts to curb such illegal activities are an ongoing challenge for everyone concerned with the preservation of these unique cultural resources. Remote places such as Shield Cave are especially vulnerable to unmonitored visitation. Some of the conservation options pursued at these sensitive sites include public education via interpretive signs and classes, site stewardship programs that schedule visits by trained volunteers, limited access to and publicity about site locations, and vigorous enforcement of laws protecting sites against vandalism and unauthorized digging.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Duane C. Anderson, “The Gordon Creek Burial,” <em>Southwestern Lore</em> 32 (June 1966).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, ed. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>E. Steve Cassells, <em>The Archaeology of Colorado,</em> rev. ed. (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>An Analysis of the Prehistoric and Historic Rock Art of West-Central Colorado</em>, Cultural Resource Series 21 (Denver: US Bureau of Land Management, 1987).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sally J. Cole, <em>Legacy on Stone: Rock Art of the Colorado Plateau and Four Corners Region</em> (Boulder, CO: Johnson Books, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-cave-tours">Colorado Cave Tours</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.coloradostratigraphy.org/strat-chart/strata-photos">Colorado Stratigraphy</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://cse.umn.edu/esci">Hematite</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carol Patterson, <em>Petroglyphs of Western Colorado and the Northern Ute Indian Reservation as Interpreted by Clifford Duncan</em> (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Press, 2016).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard J. Rhinehart and David Harris, <em>Colorado Caves: Hidden Worlds Beneath the Peaks</em> (Englewood, CO: Westcliffe Publishers, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 22:07:48 +0000 yongli 3090 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-14T14:37:34-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 14, 2020 - 14:37" class="datetime">Tue, 01/14/2020 - 14:37</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado" data-a2a-title="Prehistoric Stone Quarrying in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprehistoric-stone-quarrying-colorado&amp;title=Prehistoric%20Stone%20Quarrying%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From exquisitely flaked <a href="/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> spear points to the spectacular <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cliff-dwelling"><strong>cliff dwellings</strong></a> of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mesa-verde-national-park"><strong>Mesa Verde National Park</strong></a>, among the most visible vestiges of Colorado’s Native American history are those crafted from naturally available rock. Archaeologists and others have documented nearly 1,000 places across the state with evidence of ancient Coloradans gathering rocks for toolmaking and wall construction.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The first people to settle in Colorado more than 13,000 years ago brought with them a stone tool technology that was millions of years in the making. Indeed, the oldest known stone tools were made in east Africa more than 3 million years ago. The long history the toolmaking craft prior to the settlement of North America meant that most native cultures in the American West shared a common set of implements. Nevertheless, these early peoples did put their own stylistic imprint on specific tools, such as the projectile points used to tip spears and arrows.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Identifying “Quarry” Sites</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Useful toolmaking materials, sometimes called “toolstone,” can be found among all the major rock categories: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Toolstones gathered from bedrock outcrops, as is commonly seen in the mountains and on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> at sites such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trout-creek-archaeological-site"><strong>Trout Creek</strong></a>, are said to derive from primary sources. Nonbedrock quarries are called secondary sources and have the potential to yield multiple rock types. Such secondary deposits can be found statewide, even on the open plains in the form of gravels in streambeds and of loose rock pavements called pediments, which cover many prairie surfaces near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> mountain front.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although these diverse sites are often called quarries, that label exaggerates the scale of “mining” that archaeologists typically encounter at prehistoric sites. In fact, actual pit excavations at ancient quarries are uncommon at best, documented at fewer than 10 percent of known sites. Far more typical was casual surface collection of nodules in gravel deposits and of blocks broken away from bedrock outcrops by natural forces. At both primary and secondary sources, archaeologists often find broken nodules of low-quality material, called tested cobbles, which suggests that native cultures engaged in a basic quality control equivalent to the modern-day mining practice of high grading—taking the best-quality material and leaving inferior materials behind.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the earliest Colorado sites of the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian period</strong></a>, archaeologists have found artifacts made from high-quality materials gathered well beyond the state’s borders. For example, at the <a href="/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> age <strong>Drake Cache</strong> in <a href="/article/logan-county"><strong>Logan County</strong></a>, eleven of the thirteen finely flaked spear points were made from a flinty rock type called chert that derived from a source zone in the Texas Panhandle, while one specimen came from an even more distant source area in central or west Texas.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Local Sources</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s native peoples explored more of the state, they quickly homed in on more local toolstones of high quality. For example, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountaineer-archaeological-site"><strong>Mountaineer</strong></a> site of Folsom age has yielded thousands of stone artifacts made almost exclusively from locally available raw materials, including many items from a source high in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Later toolmakers of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods likewise preferred local Colorado rock types with the exception of glassy volcanic obsidian, which occurs in much larger quantities in the neighboring states of New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and beyond.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Late Paleo-Indian and Archaic period toolmakers expanded their use of local rock with the addition of sandstones and other coarse-textured materials needed mainly for seed milling equipment (manos and metates), among other tasks that required an abrasive surface. In the Formative period, this need skyrocketed particularly among the agrarian <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ancestral-puebloans-four-corners-region"><strong>Ancestral Puebloans</strong></a> of the Four Corners region. Their sedentary village life and dependence on corn as a staple crop created even more of a need for blocky, abrasive rock—mainly sandstone—for use as manos, metates, and wall building, among other purposes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Right Rock, Right Purpose</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Decisions about which rock types best fit the needs of the toolmaker were based on several key criteria. Implements requiring a sharp edge or tip, such as knives and projectile points, could be made only from rocks that break in what is known as “conchoidal fracture,” in which sufficient force applied by a “flintknapper” at the correct angle near an edge produces sharp-edged pieces called flakes that can be used as is for simple cutting tasks. The toolmaker can then modify the flake or the nodule from which it was struck (called a core) into other needed implements. Among the rocks that break in this manner are chert, quartzite, basalt, petrified wood, and obsidian.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In selecting toolstones, artisans also sought out homogeneous rock samples without internal cracks or impurities and of a size fitting the tool’s purpose, from tiny, delicate items used for etching or piercing to large, heavy items used for pounding or chopping. For most tasks, toolmakers preferred more durable rock types that could withstand repeated uses before needing repair or replacement. An important exception was glassy obsidian, which is not at all durable but does break with an extremely sharp edge that was so favored that it became an important trade item. The texture of a rock’s surface also played a role in the selection process, with smoother types such as chert providing sharper edges while coarser sandstones and granites make better seed-milling tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Finally, the visual attractiveness or aesthetic quality of a rock was clearly part of the toolmaking story. Archaeologists find many artifacts crafted from truly beautiful gem-like materials that were not accidental choices. Many of the spear points in the Drake Cache are proof of this aspect of the toolmaker’s craft. Clearly, the most skilled flintknappers were able to impart an unmistakable artistic imprint to their products even as they created the functional tools they needed to help them survive and thrive.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/black-kevin" hreflang="und">Black, Kevin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/archaeology" hreflang="en">archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prehistoric-native-americans" hreflang="en">prehistoric Native Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-quarry" hreflang="en">stone quarry</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stone-tools" hreflang="en">stone tools</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chert" hreflang="en">chert</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/quartzite" hreflang="en">quartzite</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/petrified-wood" hreflang="en">petrified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silicified-wood" hreflang="en">silicified wood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sandstone" hreflang="en">sandstone</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/obsidian" hreflang="en">obsidian</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kevin D. Black, “Lithic Sources in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado,” in <em>Intermountain Archaeology</em>, eds. David B. Madsen and Michael D. Metcalf, Anthropological Papers 122 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sonia Harmand et al., “3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools From Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya,” <em>Nature</em> 521 (21 May 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Barbara E. Luedtke, <em>An Archaeologist’s Guide to Chert and Flint</em>, Archaeological Research Tools 7 (Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Miller, “Lithic Resources,” in <em>Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies</em>, eds. Marcel Kornfeld, George C. Frison, and Mary Lou Larson, 3rd ed. (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dennis J. Stanford and Margaret A. Jodry, “The Drake Clovis Cache,” <em>Current Research in the Pleistocene</em> 5 (1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mark Stiger, “Lithic Sources in the Upper Gunnison Basin,” in <em>Hunter–Gatherer Archaeology of the Colorado High Country</em>, by Mark Stiger (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://insider.si.edu/2012/05/3d-imaging-adds-remarkable-dimension-to-understanding-of-north-americas-clovis-stone-points/">3-D Imaging Adds Remarkable New Understanding of North America’s Mysterious Clovis People</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jenny L. Adams, <em>Ground Stone Analysis: A Technological Approach</em> (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/archaeologists-take-wrong-turn-find-world-s-oldest-stone-tools-update/">Archaeologists Take Wrong Turn, Find World’s Oldest Stone Tools</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tim Church, Julie E. Francis, and Cherie Haury, <em>Lithic Resource Studies: A Sourcebook for Archaeologists</em>, Lithic Technology Special Publication No. 3 (Tulsa, OK, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John C. Whittaker, <em>Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools</em> (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 14 Jan 2020 21:37:34 +0000 yongli 3089 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Geology http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Geology</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--937--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--937.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/roxborough-state-park-colorado"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Roxborough-State-Park-Colorado-John-Fielder_0.jpg?itok=sZ9KrS1q" width="1090" height="852" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/roxborough-state-park-colorado" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Roxborough State Park, Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Much of Colorado was once covered by an ancient seafloor. The vertical red rocks at places like <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/roxborough-state-park-archaeological-district"><strong>Roxborough State Park</strong></a>, west of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, or the Flatirons west of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, are dramatic remnants of that seafloor, pushed up along with the rest of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> some 65 million years ago.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-06-24T14:26:50-06:00" title="Friday, June 24, 2016 - 14:26" class="datetime">Fri, 06/24/2016 - 14:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-geology" data-a2a-title="Colorado Geology"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-geology&amp;title=Colorado%20Geology"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Earth beneath the rugged mountains and serene plains of Colorado records an ancient saga. Broad tropical seas teemed with life, while reptiles roamed on shore. Continents converged and collided, building massive mountains, only to be torn apart by the movements of colossal tectonic plates. Volcanoes raged, and scalding fluids carrying dissolved metals churned through fissures to make future riches. A huge lake ebbed and flowed, linked to the fortunes of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glaciers</strong></a>, and fields of towering sand dunes grew against walls of new mountains. Even today, in the paper-thin history of civilization, rocks and saturated soils rush downhill to remind us that we live on a restless, dynamic Earth.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tropical Seas and Pangaea</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Late in the Paleozoic Era, some 300 million years ago, when the Ancestral <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> were being worn by weather to low hills, warm inland seas covered parts of Colorado. Life forms very different from those of today swam and flourished in the waters. Fossil records of those life forms are contained in layers of mudstone and limestone.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the end of the Paleozoic Era, the restless continental plates collided again to create the supercontinent Pangaea. As the land rose and a Sahara-like desert of enormous proportions covered the continent, the interior seas retreated. But as large as Pangaea was, it too eventually began to be torn apart by the powerful tectonic forces that made it, and the seas returned. Life on land left distinctive marks, most famously the dinosaur footprints and fossil remains throughout the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Pangaea fragmented, a breakaway piece called Laurentia drifted westward and a series of collisions with other, smaller continental pieces gave rise to the present-day Rocky Mountains. This phoenix-like rebirth of the Rockies started between 60 and 70 million years ago, during a mountain-building event called the Laramide Orogeny. As the peaks rose, they were eroded by wind, water, and ice. Wind and water carried the material eroded from the mountains, covering the area we now call the<a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong> Great Plains</strong></a>. The rise of the Rockies continues today. The sedimentary rocks that formed the floor of the warm inland seas were warped upward against the new mountains, leaving huge triangular cliff facets, locally known as flatirons. From high viewpoints, it is easy to imagine the mountains pushing the flat-lying rocks upward.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Creation of Ore Deposits</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the tectonic plates jostled and collided, some were pushed deeper into the Earth, where they melted. The newly formed liquid rock burned upward to escape back to the surface, where it created volcanoes and lava fields. The mountains of south-central Colorado host the remains of an enormous ancient supervolcano, one that produced the largest single eruption known in the Earth’s entire geologic history. The single eruption rained volcanic material so fast that the thickly falling layers retained enough heat to weld back into solid rock. The molten material was mixed with gases, and during the eruption, the gigantic cavern below the volcano collapsed back on itself, creating a deep, wide crater approximately one mile deep.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This supervolcano is named the La Garita Caldera, after a town on the west side of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>. The La Garita Caldera is only one of twenty-plus smaller but similar calderas throughout the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. The calderas have local names, such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, <a href="/article/lake-city-0"><strong>Lake City</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/creede"><strong>Creede</strong></a> calderas. The calderas are deceptively nestled together in the mountains, with the remnants of their circular outlines hinting at a violent history 25 million years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The destructive eruptions of the volcanoes gave rise to a important facet of Colorado’s history: its vast mineral wealth, which lured a stampede of miners in the mid-nineteenth century. The molten rock beneath the volcanoes often gave rise to superhot and metal-rich waters that pushed for miles outward into cracks and fissures. The invading hot waters dissolved and reacted with the surrounding rocks to make rich ore deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and many other metal-bearing minerals throughout the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Great Sand Dunes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>About 500,000 years ago—not so long ago in geologic time—the San Luis Valley of south-central Colorado was underwater. Lake Alamosa covered much of the valley, in a cycle of filling and drying as glaciers melted and grew again through many ice ages. Former shorelines, bays, and lagoons are still visible in the southern part of the valley, rimming what was once a body of water nearly 2,000 square miles on the surface and perhaps as deep as 200 feet over the present-day city of Alamosa. As the lake bottom filled with sediments and soils, and again with water, the lake’s surface eventually overflowed a natural dam and cut a deep channel that is now part of the Rio Grande Gorge.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The tallest dune field in the United States lies to the east of ancient Lake Alamosa, protected in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-sand-dunes-national-park-and-preserve"><strong>Great Sand Dunes National Park</strong></a>. The dunes are believed to have formed after Lake Alamosa drained and prevailing winds blew much of the sand up and out of the lakebed to rest against the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Range</strong>. Today, visitors to the park climb, play, and enjoy what glaciers, winds, and water brought to a pocket in the mountains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Plateaus of Western Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To the west of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado is a region called the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. Remnants of ancient seas are also present. These ancient-sea sedimentary rocks are warped upwards in some areas with flatiron forms similar to the ones on the Eastern Slope. Where the rocks are still flat-lying, there is often a cap of younger lava, a dark-colored rock called basalt that resists weathering and erosion. The basalt creates a protective cap over the softer underlying rocks, forming distinctive flat-topped hills called mesas (Spanish for “tables”). The largest of these mesas is <strong>Grand Mesa</strong> just east of <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>. The mesas are often dotted with small lakes and covered with trees, providing important surface and groundwater reservoirs. Hardened sandstones also cap softer rocks in some areas, forming dramatic pillar shapes, explained by some as supernatural. In formations such as the Book Cliffs north of Grand Junction, massive cliffs tower like toppled tomes, with durable mesa covers binding pages of the Earth’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Modern Movements</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The geologic forces that were active in the past are still active today. In the nineteenth century, tumbling rocks and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a> often blocked or destroyed stretches of railroad track and hampered railroad construction. Modern Coloradans were grimly reminded of the state’s geologic hazards in May 2014, when a thick rock-and-debris <a href="/article/avalanche"><strong>avalanche</strong></a> tumbled down from a high mesa in western Colorado for nearly three miles at speeds between 45 and 85 miles per hour. Three men died in the avalanche, which occurred after a period of significant rainfall saturated sediments that had been deposited millions of years earlier. The sediments had been exposed by the downward-cutting streams and rivers that carved the modern valley the avalanche rushed into. Another reminder of the precarious interplay between geology and infrastructure occurred on February 15, 2016, when a rock slide in <strong>Glenwood Canyon</strong> in <a href="/article/garfield-county"><strong>Garfield County</strong></a> forced the closure of twenty-four miles of <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> for about a week.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Reflections</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Crossing the plains into Colorado from its eastern neighbors, it is easy to imagine the land once being the bottom of an ancient sea. Looking north and south, where the peaks spike upward from the flatlands, the immense movement of mountains seems impossible, as do the threats of lightning-filled, ash-laden volcanic clouds from millions of years ago. Continuing westward through spectacular canyons, it is hard to fathom that a small shrug of a restless Earth could change the course of a river in a flash. But pause and try to envision the dynamic processes that shaped the land, and that checkered saga will come alive.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/benson-robert" hreflang="und">Benson, Robert</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-geology" hreflang="en">colorado geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/formation-rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">formation of rocky mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fossils" hreflang="en">fossils</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ore-deposits" hreflang="en">ore deposits</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-plateau" hreflang="en">colorado plateau</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canyons" hreflang="en">canyons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/grand-mesa" hreflang="en">grand mesa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/western-slope" hreflang="en">Western Slope</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Chuck Hickey, “<a href="https://kdvr.com/news/one-lane-of-both-decks-of-i-70-in-glenwood-canyon-reopens-after-rock-slide/">One Lane on Both Decks of I-70 in Glenwood Canyon Reopens After Rock Slide</a>,” KDVR, March 10, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael N. Machette, Mary-Margaret Coates, and Margo L. Johnson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1193/">2007 Rocky Mountain Section Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip—Quaternary Geology of the San Luis Basin of Colorado and New Mexico, September 7–9</a>,”<em> US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1193 </em>(September 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>R. F. Madole, J. H. Romig, J. N. Aleinikoff, D. P. VanSistine, and E. Y. Yacob, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/grsa/learn/nature/upload/madole_geology_article-2.pdf">On the Origin and Age of the Great Sand Dunes, Colorado</a>,” <em>Geomorphology</em> 99 (October 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vincent Matthews: <em>Messages in Stone: Colorado’s Colorful Geology,</em> 2nd ed. (Denver: Colorado Geological Survey, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jonathan L. White, Matthew L. Morgan, Karen A. Berry, “<a href="https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/publications/west-salt-creek-landslide-catastrophic-rockslide-avalanche-mesa-colorado/">The West Salt Creek Landslide: A Catastrophic Rockslide and Rock/Debris Avalanche in Mesa County, Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Geological Survey Bulletin</em> 55 (2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Andrew Alden, “<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/geologic-maps-of-the-united-states-4122863">Colorado Geologic Map</a>,” About.com, updated March 27, 2016.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 24 Jun 2016 20:26:50 +0000 yongli 1503 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org