%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en St. Leo’s Catholic Church http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-leos-catholic-church <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">St. Leo’s Catholic Church</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-12-01T16:56:45-07:00" title="Wednesday, December 1, 2021 - 16:56" class="datetime">Wed, 12/01/2021 - 16:56</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-leos-catholic-church" data-a2a-title="St. Leo’s Catholic Church"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fst-leos-catholic-church&amp;title=St.%20Leo%E2%80%99s%20Catholic%20Church"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Between 1888 and 1965, St. Leo’s Catholic Church at Tenth Street and West <strong>Colfax Avenue</strong> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>West Denver</strong></a> was the primary center of worship for Irish Catholics in the city. From the time it was built, St. Leo’s faced controversy over its role in enforcing the cultural and ethnic divisions of early <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. Since its demolition in 1965, the church’s memory has served as a reminder of both the city’s history and the potential risks of discriminating based on race and culture.</p> <h2>Tensions Between German and Irish Catholics</h2> <p>The first Catholic church in West Denver, <strong>St. Elizabeth of Hungary</strong>, was built at the corner of Eleventh and Curtis Streets in 1879. Funded by German American <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-immigration-denver-1850%E2%80%931920"><strong>immigrants to Denver</strong></a>, the church was intended as a place of worship for Germans. However, in its earliest days there were only an estimated twelve German families that attended St. Elizabeth’s. Because attendance was so small, Bishop <strong>Joseph Machebeuf</strong> decided that the church would also serve the Irish Catholic community in West Denver, which did not yet have a church of its own. Bishop Machebeuf brought in an English-speaking Irish priest so that separate Irish and German services could be conducted. The language barrier was one reason for the separate services, but so was ethnic rivalry; neither the Germans nor the Irish wanted to worship together owing to cultural differences and tensions that had existed between the groups in the United States for decades.</p> <p>The two groups were forced to coinhabit the church for almost a decade. Unhappy that the Germans controlled St. Elizabeth’s, the Irish petitioned Bishop Machebeuf for their own church in 1882. The petition went unanswered, as Machebeuf was waiting for several Franciscans to arrive and take charge of St. Elizabeth’s. In 1887 two Franciscans, Reverend Francis Koch and Reverend Patrick Carr, arrived. Reverend Koch became the rector at St. Elizabeth’s, while Reverend Carr was assigned as pastor of the English-speaking (Irish) parishioners at the church. The Irish remained at St. Elizabeth’s for another year, until Father Carr acquired land at West Colfax Avenue and Tenth Street (just a few blocks from St. Elizabeth’s) to begin construction of St. Leo the Great Catholic Church.</p> <h2>Building St. Leo’s</h2> <p>In 1888 the Irish miller <strong>John K. Mullen</strong> provided $10,000 to build St. Leo’s Catholic Church on the land that Father Carr had acquired, with another $1,200 toward the church coming from Sunday collections. The building was made of brick, with lancet arches over the windows and a wide wooden front door. There was also an adjoining rectory (or priest’s residence) beside the church. Irish Father William O’Ryan was recruited to lead the church, while Father Carr remained at St. Elizabeth’s. The church flourished in its early years, and Irish Denverites enjoyed services conducted in English with their fellow countrymen. St. Leo’s also had a school, which was noted in 1892 as being one of the best in the city.</p> <h2>Sharing the Church</h2> <p>Peace at St. Leo’s was short lived. Within thirty years of the church’s founding, a new Catholic ethnic group arrived as economic opportunities following <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> brought greater numbers of Mexican and other Spanish-speaking <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/immigration-denver-1920%E2%80%93present"><strong>immigrants</strong></a> to West Denver. The Irish Americans at St. Leo’s were faced with the prospect of having to share their church with the Spanish-speaking newcomers, which caused many of them to leave the church. Father O’Ryan tried to prevent this movement, appealing to the Theatine Fathers (members of the <strong>St. Andrew Avellino Seminary</strong> in Denver) for help. In 1923 Theatine Father Humphrey Martorell began holding services in the basement of St. Leo’s for the Spanish-speaking Catholics at the parish.</p> <p>In 1925 many of the benefactors who had helped pay for St. Leo’s Church decided to fund a separate parish for Spanish-speaking Catholics—called <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church"><strong>St. Cajetan’s</strong></a>—several blocks away at the corner of Lawrence and Ninth Streets so that the Irish would no longer have to worship alongside Hispanic Denverites.</p> <h2>Shifting Generations</h2> <p>In the decades after <strong>World War II</strong>, the demographic of St. Leo’s parish changed in a way that made it difficult to sustain the church. Several generations removed from the immigrants who had established the city, St. Leo’s parish and other Catholics in Denver were less concerned with segregating churches along ethnic lines. Younger parishioners who identified strictly as American rather than Irish American felt less tied to St. Leo’s and were finding other places to worship. Racialized postwar <strong>suburbanization</strong> also played a key role in the church’s decline, as many upwardly mobile white families moved out of central Denver during the 1950s and 1960s.</p> <p>The parish community did continue to grow but not at a rate high enough to sustain funding for the church. In February 1965, St. Leo’s closed permanently, and the order was given for its demolition. Demolition occurred within three months. Today there is a vacant lot where the church once stood, across the street from the Colfax at Auraria light rail station.</p> <p>The history of St. Leo’s Catholic Church demonstrates the city’s long experience with ethnic tensions. It started as a safe place for a group of immigrants who were discriminated against, yet its parish community later inflicted the same discrimination against another immigrant group. The church’s story provides insight into the ways in which ethnic tensions can shape, remake, or destroy religious congregations.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irish" hreflang="en">Irish</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-leos-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Leo&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-elizabeths-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Elizabeth&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-cajetans-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Cajetan&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-k-mullen" hreflang="en">John K. Mullen</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert A. Banigan, “Pastor Speaks on Closing of St. Leo’s Church,” <em>West Side Recorder</em>, May 1, 1965.</p> <p>“Catholic News—Denver,” <em>Western Irishman</em>, August 27, 1892.</p> <p>Dennis Gallagher, Thomas J. Noel, and James Patrick Walsh, <em>Irish Denver</em> (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2012).</p> <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel,&nbsp;<em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).&nbsp;</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>William J. Convery III, <em>Pride of the Rockies: The Life of Colorado’s Premiere Irish Patron, John Kernan Mullen</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>Magdalena Gallegos, “Hispanic Life in Auraria, Colorado: The Twentieth Century,”&nbsp;<em>U.S. Catholic Historian</em>&nbsp;9, nos. 1–2 (Winter/Spring 1990).</p> <p>Phil Goodstein,&nbsp;<em>How the West Side Won: The History of West Denver</em>&nbsp;(Denver: New Social, 2015).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 01 Dec 2021 23:56:45 +0000 yongli 3647 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-elizabeth-hungary-catholic-church <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-28T12:42:22-06:00" title="Thursday, October 28, 2021 - 12:42" class="datetime">Thu, 10/28/2021 - 12:42</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-elizabeth-hungary-catholic-church" data-a2a-title="St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fst-elizabeth-hungary-catholic-church&amp;title=St.%20Elizabeth%20of%20Hungary%20Catholic%20Church%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Towering above Eleventh and Curtis Streets with its Gothic spires and Romanesque arches, St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church has served Catholics in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> for more than a century. Established in 1878, St. Elizabeth’s was the second Catholic parish in the city. Originally composed of German immigrants, it has served various ethnic groups over the years, including Irish, Latino, and Russian Catholics. Growth of the parish community prompted several expansions, including a complete rebuilding of the church in 1898 and an extensive renovation in 1968. Today St. Elizabeth’s remains a center of worship and community on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> campus.</p> <h2>Germans Request a Place of Worship</h2> <p>During the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59, a diverse group of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-immigration-denver-1850%E2%80%931920"><strong>immigrants</strong></a> arrived in the area that would become Auraria and Denver. German immigrants had an especially heavy presence in Auraria, which became West Denver when the towns consolidated in 1860. Gold was only one of the pull factors for immigrants; Germans and others were also drawn to Denver by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> of 1862, which offered land for farming and saw the arrival of the railroad in 1870.</p> <p>By that time, the growing number of German Catholics in West Denver found themselves without a place of worship. In 1870 they wrote to Bishop <strong>Joseph Machebeuf</strong> requesting a German priest for their neighborhood. It took several years to get a response, but in 1878 Machebeuf established Denver’s second Catholic parish to serve the Germans in West Denver. Reverend John Wagner was given the task of building the church and school that would become St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church. Wagner quickly collected enough money from the German Catholic community to make a down payment on two lots at the corner of Eleventh and Curtis Streets. The cornerstone of St. Elizabeth’s was blessed and set in place in August 1879.</p> <h2>Irish Presence</h2> <p>In the church’s earliest days, only an estimated twelve German families attended St. Elizabeth’s. Because attendance was so small, Bishop Machebeuf decided that the church would also serve the Irish Catholic community in West Denver. An English-speaking Irish priest was brought in, and Irish and German services were conducted separately at the church. This arrangement caused tension between the two communities.</p> <p>The two groups were forced to worship at the same church for almost a decade. Unhappy that the Germans controlled St. Elizabeth’s, the Irish petitioned Machebeuf for their own church in 1882. The petition went unanswered, as Machebeuf was waiting for several Franciscans from New Jersey to arrive and take charge of St. Elizabeth’s. In 1887 two Franciscans, Reverend Francis Koch and Reverend Patrick Carr, arrived. Reverend Koch became the first Franciscan rector at St. Elizabeth’s, while Reverend Carr was assigned as pastor of the English-speaking (Irish) parishioners at the church. The Irish remained at St. Elizabeth’s for another year, until Carr acquired land at West <strong>Colfax Avenue</strong> and Tenth Street to begin construction of <strong>St. Leo the Great Catholic Church</strong>. The Irish parishioners relocated services to St. Leo’s, leaving St. Elizabeth’s to the Germans.</p> <h2>The Franciscans</h2> <p>The Franciscans who stayed at St. Elizabeth’s, Koch and Father Venatius Eder, had come at Machebeuf’s request to found the St. Elizabeth’s Franciscan House. Koch went to work right away, acquiring funds in 1890 to build a brick school and a rectory. During his years at the church, Koch would become known for his fundraising ability, with St. Elizabeth’s retiring its debt before any other church in the diocese. Koch and the Franciscan sisters at St. Elizabeth’s also became well known for their efforts to care for the poor, a tradition that other priests would continue in future decades.</p> <p>Bishop Machebeuf tasked the Franciscans of St. Elizabeth’s with caring for all Catholics in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/douglas-county"><strong>Douglas</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/elbert-county"><strong>Elbert</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a> Counties as well as all stations on the <strong>Kansas Pacific Railroad</strong> as far east as Cheyenne Wells (about 160 miles from Denver). The towns of Calhan, <strong>Castle Rock</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Monument</strong>, <strong>Parker</strong>, Stratton, and <strong>Burlington</strong> also fell under the responsibility of St. Elizabeth’s friars. The friars sometimes traveled around these far-flung towns for up to a month, packing everything they needed for mass and the sacraments.</p> <h2>St. Elizabeth’s Grows Into New Building</h2> <p>Because St. Elizabeth’s was the German national church for all of Denver, the church became overcrowded by 1890. Koch began to plan for a new building. Despite the economic depression that followed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a>, construction on the new church went forward. Koch actually took advantage of the economic depression; with so many men out of work, he was able to convince them to put their time and labor into the church.</p> <p>The new building—which still stands at Eleventh and Curtis Streets—was built with lava stone quarried in Castle Rock. Designed by Brother Adrian Wewer of the Sacred Heart Province in Nebraska, the new building was primarily Gothic in style (spires) but with Romanesque motifs (semiround archways). The interior featured plastered walls with vaulted ceilings, a wooden altar, pews, and a triptych rising to the ceiling behind the altar. The building cost between $43,000 and $60,000. It was consecrated by Bishop <strong>Nicholas Matz</strong> in June 1902, making it the first consecrated Catholic church in Denver.</p> <h2>Murder Shocks the Parish Community</h2> <p>St. Elizabeth’s parish was shocked on the morning of February 23, 1908, when an Italian shoemaker named Giuseppe Alia shot Father Leo Heinrichs to death during the six o’clock mass. Alia was apprehended as he ran out of the church and was taken to the city jail. Parishioners gathered in front of St. Elizabeth’s and discussed <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lynching-colorado"><strong>lynching</strong></a> Alia. They became so heated that the chief of police, McHale Delaney, was forced to call in reserves to protect the jail. Even that proved insufficient, so Alia was moved to a jail in <strong>Littleton</strong> to await trial.</p> <p>Ethnic tensions existed between Denver’s immigrant groups during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, particularly between German, Irish, Italian, and Chinese immigrants, and racially motivated violence was not uncommon. There were also some tensions between wealthier immigrant groups, such as Germans, and typically lower-class immigrants, such as Italians. When questioned about the murder, Alia claimed, “I have a grudge against all priests in general. They are all against the workingman . . . I did not care whether he was a German priest or any other kind of priest.” Alia’s trial began on March 9, 1908, and he was found guilty three days later. He was sentenced to hang. Despite protests from the St. Elizabeth’s Franciscans, who opposed the death penalty, he went to the gallows on July 15, 1908, at the <strong>State Penitentiary</strong> in <strong>Cañon City</strong>.</p> <h2>1968 Renovation</h2> <p>Since its consecration in 1902, St. Elizabeth’s has undergone several renovations, largely thanks to wealthy parishioners. The friary, originally built in 1891, was remodeled in 1936 with money from <strong>May Bonfils Stanton</strong>, a prominent member of the parish.</p> <p>The church’s most extensive renovation occurred in 1968. By that time, the plaster inside the church was falling apart, and the wiring needed to be brought up to code. The rope carriage mounts for the bells were so dried with age that the weight of the bells threatened to break them. During the renovation, the frames in the bell tower were reinforced with steel beams anchored to the stone walls of the tower, the wooden wheels were replaced, and an electronic bell-ringing system was installed. The wooden altar was replaced with one made of Italian marble, and the old triptych above the altar was replaced with one made of ornamental iron and Neapolitan mosaic tiles depicting St. Elizabeth of Hungary and St. Francis of Assisi. The church also installed stained-glass windows thanks to a donation from one of its patrons.</p> <h2>Campus Parish Center</h2> <p>After a bond passed in 1968 to raze the Auraria neighborhood to build a tri-institutional college campus, many buildings in Auraria faced the threat of demolition. St. Elizabeth’s and several other historic neighborhood buildings—including the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tivoli-brewery"><strong>Tivoli Brewery</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church"><strong>St. Cajetan’s Catholic Church</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/emmanuel-shearith-israel-chapel"><strong>Emmanuel Shearith Israel Chapel</strong></a><strong>—</strong>managed to avoid destruction because they were listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The State Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>) and Denver Landmarks Commission nominated St. Elizabeth’s for the National Register in 1969, citing the church’s cultural influence, architectural style, and furnishings.</p> <p>As the new Auraria Higher Education Center took shape in the early 1970s, Father Eugene Dudley of St. Elizabeth’s proposed establishing an ecumenical center for students. St. Elizabeth’s would build and fund the center at a cost of more than $1 million, which would be financed by a trust fund established by the Franciscans. The new center, known as the St. Francis Interfaith Center, opened in September 1977.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church remains a landmark not only for Denver Catholics but for students at the Auraria campus. Today the church offers worship services as well as ministries for adult faith formation and youth outreach. The church helps the homeless and poor by offering a daily sandwich line where volunteers serve soup, sandwiches, and dessert to those in need. At the campus interfaith center, students can become part of Bible study groups, receive religious counseling and education, or volunteer their time for outreach programs.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-elizabeths-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Elizabeth&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/germans" hreflang="en">Germans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/catholics" hreflang="en">Catholics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irish" hreflang="en">Irish</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/joseph-machebeuf" hreflang="en">Joseph Machebeuf</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-wagner" hreflang="en">John Wagner</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Jeff Fischer, “‘Campus Parish’ Plan Announced for AHEC,” <em>Auraria Transcript</em>, December 2, 1974.</p> <p>Dennis Gallagher, Thomas J. Noel, and James Patrick Walsh,&nbsp;<em>Irish Denver&nbsp;</em>(Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2012).</p> <p>Jolie Anderson Gallagher,&nbsp;<em>A Wild West History of Frontier Denver: Pioneers, Gunslingers, and Cattle Kings on the Eastern Plains&nbsp;</em>(Charleston, SC: History Press, 2011).</p> <p>Roy A. Hampton III, “German Gothic in the Midwest: The Parish Churches of Franz Georg Himpler and Adolphus Druiding,” <em>US Catholic Historian </em>15, no. 1 (Winter 1997).</p> <p>“Interfaith Center,” <em>Fourth Estate</em>, August 29, 1977.</p> <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel,&nbsp;<em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis&nbsp;</em>(Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p> <p>Declan A. Madden, “Missionaries Then and Now: In 89 Years: German-Irish-Spanish,” <em>West Side Recorder</em>, October 1, 1968.</p> <p>“Many Doomed by the Anarchists: Funeral of Father Leo,” <em>Daily Sentinel</em>, February 26, 1908.</p> <p>“Murderer Not Insane: Alia Knew What He Was Doing When He Shot the Priest,” <em>News Free Press</em>, March 13, 1908.</p> <p>“Paid Penalty,” <em>Aspen Daily Times, </em>July 16, 1908.</p> <p>“Priest Is Killed at the Altar: Italian Anarchist Fires Bullet Into Clergyman’s Heart While Receiving Communion,” <em>San Francisco Call</em>, February 24, 1908.</p> <p>“St. Elizabeth’s Celebrates New Sound and New Look,” <em>West Side Recorder</em>, October 1, 1968.</p> <p>“Sentenced to the Gallows: Plea of Insanity Does Not Save Murderer of Catholic Priest,” <em>Turret Gold Belt</em>, March 18, 1908.</p> <p>Ann Stoenner, “Ecumenical Center Planned as an Island of Service to Auraria,” <em>Fourth Estate</em>, April 17, 1974.</p> <p>Ann Stoenner, “Interfaith Center Offers Campus Ministry to Auraria,” <em>Fourth Estate</em>, November 26, 1975.</p> <p>“Through the Lens of Urban Renewal,” <em>Paper</em>, January 12, 1972.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>“<a href="http://stelizabethdenver.org/welcome/">Welcome and History</a>,” St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Oct 2021 18:42:22 +0000 yongli 3626 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Casa Mayan http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/casa-mayan <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Casa Mayan </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-28T12:09:29-06:00" title="Thursday, October 28, 2021 - 12:09" class="datetime">Thu, 10/28/2021 - 12:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/casa-mayan" data-a2a-title="Casa Mayan "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcasa-mayan&amp;title=Casa%20Mayan%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Between 1946 and 1973, the Casa Mayan (1020 Ninth Street) served as a restaurant in the <a href="/article/auraria"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> neighborhood of west <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> as well as a family home and multicultural meeting place for writers, musicians, artists, athletes, architects, politicians, and others. The Gonzalez family owned the restaurant and provided the hospitality and entertainment that made it one of the most popular Mexican American restaurants in Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1973, when the Auraria neighborhood was slated for destruction to make way for a tri-institutional campus, the Casa Mayan closed after more than twenty-five years in operation. The restaurant building was saved, however, when <strong>Ninth Street</strong> was preserved as a historic landmark. Now home to campus offices, the Casa Mayan still stands today as a tribute to the rich cultural history of the Auraria neighborhood, with the Casa Mayan Heritage group preserving the history of this landmark for future Denverites.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>One of the Oldest Houses in Denver</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Casa Mayan is the oldest surviving clapboard house in Denver. Built in 1872 by Dr. <strong>William Smedley</strong>, it was known for its green-and-white frame. Smedley moved to Denver from Pennsylvania in 1870 and became the city’s first practicing dentist. A prominent Denver citizen, he became the first president of the Denver Dental Association and first president of the Colorado Dental Association. He also served seventeen years as superintendent of North Side School District. He continued to live in the house on Ninth Street until his death in 1926.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Changing Hands</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1934 Ramon and Carolina Gonzalez bought Smedley’s former house on Ninth Street. Originally from Chihuahua, Mexico, the couple lived briefly in El Paso, Texas, during the Mexican Revolution of the 1910s, but migrated to Denver in 1918 to escape the turmoil of war. They had lived in Auraria for almost a decade by the time they bought the Smedley house, so they had already become integrated into the cultural fabric of the neighborhood.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It was a cultural fabric that had changed since Smedley’s time. Founded in 1858, Auraria had long been home to a diverse group of immigrants. During the 1920s, the ethnic makeup of the neighborhood began to shift as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a> brought numerous Mexican immigrants into the state. Latino farmers and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> veterans began to move their families to Auraria. From the 1920s through the 1960s, the Latino residents of Auraria created a rich cultural enclave, and the Gonzalez family found themselves at the heart of it.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Family Home Becomes Restaurant</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Gonzalez family was known among Aurarians for their generous hospitality. They decided to turn hospitality into a business in 1946, when they opened one of the first Latino-owned Mexican American restaurants in Denver on the first floor of their Ninth Street residence. They served traditional Mexican fare for lunch and dinner as well as beer and wine. The family (which included seven children) continued to live upstairs. The restaurant became one of Denver’s most popular, a cultural hub where artists, poets, musicians, and entertainers came together. Patrons noted the appeal of the musicians and dancers who performed there almost every night.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The restaurant was known for its inclusivity, welcoming people from all backgrounds. Not only was it a cultural center for Auraria’s Latino residents, but it also brought in the various other ethnic communities who called Auraria home. One of the Gonzalez family members, Marta Gonzalez de Alcaro, recalled, “We had an Irish family across the street, a German family, an English family. We never thought of being different. We were all, you know, in the same boat.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to locals, the restaurant drew famous visitors such as President Harry Truman, José Feliciano, Joan Baez, <strong>Judy Collins</strong>, Andres Segovia, Marian Anderson, and Paul Robeson. The restaurant would remain a cultural hub in west Denver until the early 1970s, when the neighborhood was razed to build a higher education campus.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>DURA and the Ninth Street Historic District</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the disastrous <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>South Platte River flood of 1965</strong></a>, Denver proposed a bond in 1969 to buy Auraria land and relocate the people who lived there to make way for a massive college campus.  In response, angry residents established the Auraria Residents’ Organization to fight the initiative. Their efforts failed as powerful institutions lined up to support the measure. The bond passed with 52 percent of the vote, and the city forged ahead. In total, 250 businesses and 330 households were displaced. The Casa Mayan restaurant was shut down by the <strong>Denver Urban Renewal Authority </strong>(DURA) in 1973. It was spared demolition, however, when Ninth Street was declared a landmark later that year to preserve its historic Victorian houses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In general, Auraria homeowners each received $15,000 in compensation when their houses were demolished, while businesses received $27,000. Marta Gonzalez de Alcaro, the owner when the Casa Mayan was shut down, got the business compensation but not the homeowner compensation (even though her business doubled as the family home). It was not much, considering that the restaurant had been in operation for twenty-seven years.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Casa Mayan Heritage </h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Auraria Higher Education Center took shape, the Ninth Street Historic District was restored and turned into campus offices. The Casa Mayan returned to its original green-and-white colors and became a campus office in 1976. To this day, the building remains one of the many campus offices on Ninth Street.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Members of the Gonzalez family never forgot their family home and the rich history it represented. In 2006 Gregorio Alcaro and Trini H. Gonzalez cofounded the Auraria Casa Mayan Heritage organization. The foundation’s vision is “to increase community awareness of Auraria’s rich cultural heritage,” including the contributions of early Latino residents and other ethnic groups. Alcaro gives tours of the Casa Mayan and Ninth Street to inform Denver residents and Auraria students alike about the restaurant and the displaced Latino community that long called Auraria home.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/casa-mayan" hreflang="en">Casa Mayan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ninth-street-historic-district" hreflang="en">Ninth Street Historic District</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/restaurants" hreflang="en">restaurants</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-smedley" hreflang="en">William Smedley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-houses" hreflang="en">historic houses</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Donna Bryson, “<a href="https://denverite.com/2018/11/05/denver-auraria-history-displacement/">In the ’60s, Denver Decided to Replace This Community With the Auraria Campus. Here’s What It Lost</a>,” <em>Denverite</em>, November 5, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phil Coombs, “Businessmen’s Reactions Mixed: Razing Continues on Auraria Site,” <em>Aurarian—Metro State</em>, September 24, 1973.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Ninth Street Restoration Begins,” <em>Fourth Estate—University of Colorado Denver</em>, July 25, 1973.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Maya Rodriguez, “<a href="https://www.9news.com/article/news/local/hispanic-heritage-month/the-history-of-casa-mayan/249909756">The History of Casa Mayan</a>,” <em>9 News (KUSA)</em>, October 11, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“What Is Auraria?” <em>West Side Recorder</em>, October 1, 1969.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://acmh.cfsites.org/">Auraria Casa Mayan Heritage</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/neighborhood-history-guide/auraria-neighborhood-history" title=" (external link)">Auraria Neighborhood History</a>,” Denver Public Library, April 21, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/auraria-uurrvk/" title=" (external link)">Auraria</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, March 18, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 28 Oct 2021 18:09:29 +0000 yongli 3625 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Ninth Street http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ninth-street <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Ninth Street</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-10-11T17:12:11-06:00" title="Monday, October 11, 2021 - 17:12" class="datetime">Mon, 10/11/2021 - 17:12</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ninth-street" data-a2a-title="Ninth Street"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fninth-street&amp;title=Ninth%20Street"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Ninth Street Historic Park is the heart of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> neighborhood, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s oldest, founded in October 1858, a month before Denver City. In the late 1960s, the <strong>Denver Urban Renewal Authority</strong> (DURA) planned to clear 169 acres of old Auraria bordering <strong>Cherry Creek</strong> to build the Auraria Higher Education Center (AHEC). Preservationists, led by <strong>Historic Denver, Inc.</strong>, fought to save one relatively intact residential face block of Ninth Street between Curtis and Champa Streets to be restored for educational use. As a preservation project, Ninth Street is notable for its wide variety of architectural styles as well as for saving a middle-class <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-immigration-denver-1850%E2%80%931920"><strong>immigrant</strong></a> neighborhood of Germans, Irish, Jews, and Hispanos.</p> <h2>Auraria History</h2> <p>Auraria got its start when <strong>William Green Russell</strong> and his party of prospectors found <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold</strong></a> there near the confluence of Cherry Creek and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>. That discovery ignited the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> and led the Russell party to found Auraria City, named for the gold-mining community of Auraria, Georgia, from which they came. Auraria was subsequently annexed by Denver City on the other side of Cherry Creek. As Auraria industrialized, wealthier folks moved to Denver’s many new, more fashionable neighborhoods. Auraria became increasingly Latino and at the northwest end of Ninth Street was anchored by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church"><strong>St. Cajetan’s</strong></a>, Denver’s first Catholic church for Spanish speakers, along with its school, health clinic, and credit union. Many Aurarians worked in nearby industries such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tivoli-brewery"><strong>Tivoli Brewery</strong></a>, the <strong>Hungarian Flour Mills</strong>, and the <strong>Burnham Shops</strong> of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong>.</p> <h2>Preserving Ninth Street</h2> <p>The oldest intact block in Denver, Ninth Street homes date from 1872 to 1906, with modest vernacular versions of Italianate, Queen Anne, classic cottage, and mansard houses as well as one of Denver’s best examples of the Second Empire style. All seemed doomed in 1969, when Denver voters approved plans to condemn and clear the land for AHEC, which would include three degree-granting institutions—<strong>Community College of Denver</strong>, <strong>Metropolitan State College</strong>, and the <strong>University of Colorado–Denver</strong>.</p> <p>Led by Don D. and Carolyn Etter and Barbara Sudler, Historic Denver, Inc., persuaded authorities to give it a chance to restore the block and return it to AHEC for educational use. Beginning in 1972, Historic Denver spent nearly $1 million to restore the block and celebrated its completion on Colorado Day, August 1, 1976. By grassing over the street and intensely landscaping the entire three-acre site, the block earned its park name as well as designation as a Denver and national historic district. More open space came with the demolition of two houses that could not be saved. All thirteen of the surviving, restored residences are noteworthy, as is the corner grocery store, an anchor of nineteenth-century neighborhoods. Six of the houses are among the city’s oldest, built before Colorado became a state in 1876.</p> <h2>Buildings</h2> <p>Knight House (1015 Ninth Street) was built in 1885 by Charles and Betsey Davis of 1068 Ninth Street as a wedding present for their daughter Kate and her husband, Steve Knight, a bookkeeper in Davis’s West Side Flour Mill. Don Etter, who helped document and restore Ninth Street, has called this unique mansard-style house “perhaps the most beautifully proportioned and tastefully embellished Victorian house in Denver<em>.</em>”</p> <p><a href="/article/casa-mayan"><strong>Smedley House/Casa Mayan</strong></a> (1020 Ninth Street) was built around 1872 by <strong>William Smedley</strong>, a Quaker dentist and teacher whose descendants became prominent dentists and state legislators. In 1933 Trinidad and Belen Gonzales bought the building and made it their family home. In 1947 the family turned the first floor into Casa Mayan, one of Denver’s first Mexican restaurants to welcome non-Mexicans. The family not only fed but entertained with Mexican music and dance, making Casa Mayan popular and doing much to bridge the gap between Spanish and English speakers. After restoration it became a museum of Auraria and Latino culture.</p> <p>Ropp House (1024 Ninth Street) was built in 1875 in the Italianate style for Cordelia Ropp and her husband, Oscar, a saloon owner and livestock dealer.</p> <p>Nevin House (1027 Ninth Street) may have been built by Jeremiah Gardener in 1882 for his son-in-law William C. Nevin. A mansard second story and dominant mansard tower distinguish one of Ninth Street’s more fashionable houses.</p> <p>Gardner House (1033 Ninth Street) was built in 1873 by Jeremiah and Mary Gardner as a frame house with a third-story shingled tower and much ornate wooden trim and metal rooftop cresting.</p> <p>Wheeler-Griebling House (1041 Ninth Street) was built around 1880 with a prominent two-story front bay. Frank Wheeler worked for the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad for thirty-five years and also served as a Denver city councilman and as director of Denver’s Auraria School District. Later owner John Griebling was a cabinetmaker with the Denver Furniture and Carpet Company.</p> <p>Schulz-Madden Duplex (1045/47 Ninth Street) was designed by J. J. Backus and built in 1890 for $3,700, complete with identical twin front porches. William Schulz, a bookkeeper for the Milwaukee (later Tivoli) Brewery, shared the duplex with Eugene Madden, who ran a saloon called Madden’s Wet Goods at 1140 Larimer Street and also served nine terms as Auraria’s city councilman.</p> <p>Cole-Wilson House (1050 Ninth Street) was built around 1875 by Henry Cole. From 1880 to 1927, this picturesque one-story cottage housed Frank Wilson, an engineer with the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad, and his family.</p> <p>Young House (1051 Ninth Street) is a classic cottage bungalow built in 1903 by Thomas Young, a blacksmith whose daughter was a piano teacher. Typical of classic cottages, it had neoclassical porch posts, a hipped roof, and a central dormer atop a small one-story house.</p> <p>Dolan House (1056 Ninth Street) was built in 1901 by Maurice Dolan, treasurer and later a manager for the Hungarian Flour Mills. William Crowe designed this typical classic cottage bungalow similar to the Young House across the street. Thousands of similar modest houses were built throughout the city in middle- and lower-class neighborhoods after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a> lowered housing expectations and budgets.</p> <p>Rundles House (1059 Ninth Street) was built in 1880 by William B. Rundle, manager of the Colorado Electric Company. The second mansard story added later was designed by Colorado’s most distinguished architectural firm, <strong>Frank E. Edbrooke</strong> and Company.</p> <p>Davis House (1068 Ninth Street) was built around 1872 by Charles R. Davis, a miller who became the successful owner of the West Denver Flour Mill. The full front porch has elaborate Carpenter Gothic trim and supports a second-story balcony.</p> <p>The Groussman Store (906 Curtis Street, at Ninth) was built in 1906 by Albert B. Groussman and his wife, Belle. Their family lived upstairs and operated the grocery on the ground floor. This red-brick commercial building designed by architect Frederick Carl Eberley has been repurposed as a Mexican restaurant crowned by distinctive cannonball finials.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>As of 2021, the fourteen historic structures served primarily as offices for campus groups, including AHEC campus and facilities planning, the University of Colorado–Denver English department, the University of Colorado–Denver honors and leadership program, the Metropolitan State University honors program, and the Auraria Faculty and Staff Club. For these groups, as well as everyone else at AHEC, Ninth Street provides a serene, park-like heart for a scattered campus.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/noel-thomas-j" hreflang="und">Noel, Thomas J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ninth-street-historic-district" hreflang="en">Ninth Street Historic District</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/casa-mayan" hreflang="en">Casa Mayan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-smedley" hreflang="en">William Smedley</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Don D. Etter, <em>Auraria: Where Denver Began</em> (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1972).</p> <p>Magdalena Gallegos, <em>Where the Rivers Meet: The Story of Auraria Through Our Eyes</em> (Denver: Metropolitan State College, 2005).</p> <p>Gregorio Gonzales Alcaro (curator of Casa Mayan), various tours and interviews with Thomas J. Noel, 2020.</p> <p>Margaret Heffron, Mark Stevens, and Don Etter, “Auraria 9th Street Historic District,” National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form (1972).</p> <p>Jerome C. Smiley, <em>History of Denver</em> (Denver: Times-Sun Publishing, 1901).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 11 Oct 2021 23:12:11 +0000 yongli 3613 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Tivoli Brewery http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tivoli-brewery <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tivoli Brewery </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-06-29T16:22:53-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 29, 2021 - 16:22" class="datetime">Tue, 06/29/2021 - 16:22</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tivoli-brewery" data-a2a-title="Tivoli Brewery "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftivoli-brewery&amp;title=Tivoli%20Brewery%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Constructed in 1864, the Tivoli Brewery in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> was the first brewery built in Colorado and the second in the nation. Over the course of its complex history, the brewery changed hands multiple times until it was abandoned in 1969. The Tivoli building became part of the Auraria Higher Education Center (AHEC) in the 1970s, when an urban renewal project transformed the former neighborhood of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> into a tri-institutional college campus. The building reopened as a bar and retail center in 1982, and in 1994 it became the official student union of the Auraria campus. Today, the Tivoli is not only part of the historic fabric of the campus but serves an integral role in the student experience.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>First Brewery in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the structure that is now the Tivoli was not opened until 1864, the brewery’s roots go back to the arrival of <strong>John Good</strong>, an immigrant who came to Denver during the 1858–59 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>gold rush</strong></a>. Good partnered with another immigrant, Frederick Salomon, who founded the Rocky Mountain Brewery, which would later become one of the Tivoli company’s greatest competitors. Good soon sold his share of the <strong>Rocky Mountain Brewery</strong> to Salomon and founded Denver’s Good Bank.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1864 German immigrant <strong>Moritz Sigi</strong> opened the Colorado Brewery on Tenth Street in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> neighborhood. This marked the start of what later became the Tivoli building. The building was designed by architect Frederick C. Eberley and featured Bavarian-style architecture—a unique combination of Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque, and Rococo influences—making it a one-of-a-kind structure in the United States. Along with the brewery, Sigi constructed the first artesian well in Colorado within the brewery to supply water for brewing. Sigi’s brewery was known for a specialized “Buck Beer,” a style of beer unique to Colorado that was a hybrid lager similar to a Bock. During the 1870s, Sigi began to expand the building, with construction of a structure to be called “Sigi’s Hall” underway.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tragedy struck on March 22, 1874, when a carriage that Sigi was driving overturned after he lost control of his horses. Falling at the corner of Wazee and Nineteenth Streets, he fractured the base of his skull. Despite the efforts of several doctors, Sigi died shortly after 9 am on the morning of March 23.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Milwaukee Brewery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Sigi’s death, the Colorado Brewery was taken over by Max Melsheimer, who renamed it the Milwaukee Brewery in 1879. Melsheimer ran the brewery successfully for several years, focusing on expanding the building’s infrastructure. He borrowed $250,000 from John Good to install new copper brewing kettles and a grain tower in 1880. Two years later, he further expanded the building by constructing the Turn Halle Opera House. While the new structures increased the company’s brewing capacity, Melsheimer was unable to earn enough revenue to repay his loan from Good. In 1900 Good foreclosed on Melsheimer’s loan and assumed control of the Milwaukee Brewery. He renamed the company Tivoli, after the famous Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, Denmark. In 1901 Good partnered with William Burkhardt’s Union Brewery to form the Tivoli-Union Company.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tivoli During Prohibition</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prohibition"><strong>prohibition</strong></a> began in Colorado in 1916, most of the state’s breweries closed. Zang’s Brewery (formerly the Rocky Mountain Brewery), which had been the Tivoli-Union’s greatest competition, was never able to recover from prohibition and eventually closed. The Tivoli-Union continued to brew legal, low-alcohol cereal beers, which sustained the company through the repeal of prohibition in 1933. As one of the only remaining breweries in Colorado at that point, the Tivoli-Union enjoyed high demand for its products. By the 1950s, the brewery was one of the largest in the country. It produced around 150,000 barrels per year and sold its products in almost every state west of the Mississippi River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Turmoil</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When John Good died in 1918, ownership of the brewery passed to Good’s children and his business partner, William Burghardt. The brewery remained in the Good family until 1965, when Loraine Good, the final heir, died. After some brief legal turmoil, the brewery was sold to Carl and Joseph Occhiato, owners of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> Pepsi-Cola Bottling Plant. The Occhiato brothers decided to rebrand Tivoli-Union products as “Denver beer.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In June 1965, shortly after the Occhiato brothers took ownership of the brewery, business was halted by a disastrous <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>flood of the South Platte River</strong></a>. The brewery was inundated with nine feet of water and sustained more than $135,000 in damages. When the Tivoli reopened after the flood, problems only continued. The flood contaminated the artesian well used for brewing, and customers noted that the Tivoli’s beers didn’t taste the same. Production was cut significantly, and in 1968 employees went on a six-week strike to protest reduced wages as well as a significant reduction in staff. Production capacity at the Tivoli never fully recovered as financial problems plagued the company after the flood. The brewery closed its doors on April 25, 1969.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>AHEC and Urban Renewal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Tivoli-Union building stood abandoned for years after closing its doors. However, in 1973 the building itself was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. That same year, the building was purchased by the <strong>Denver Urban Renewal Authority</strong> (DURA) for potential use in the Auraria Higher Education Center (AHEC) project. The Auraria Board of Directors worked with the Associates for Redevelopment of the Tivoli, a group of preservationists developing proposals to rehabilitate the Tivoli, to come up with a new use for the building that would benefit students. They hoped to turn the building into a business complex by restoring the Tivoli’s post-Victorian look and installing businesses such as a daycare center, bike shop, bank, barbershop, post office, dry cleaner, dentist, doctor, lawyer, drugstore, and student-oriented travel agency. There would also be an effort to preserve the old brewing equipment. The kettles and machinery would be cleaned, polished, and protected in glass display cases. The proposed project would charge rental fees from vendors, which could be used to reduce student costs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Plans for developing the Tivoli business center moved forward, but there were some problems along the way. In 1976 DURA and AHEC went to court over accusations made by AHEC that DURA had failed to maintain the Tivoli building. AHEC inspectors reported that no efforts had been made to keep the doors closed, leaving the interior of the building covered in bird droppings. Other complaints included significant water damage, trash, and droppings from the guard dog that had never been cleaned. All this damage would increase renovation costs above the proposed $2 million. The project halted, and the building remained in disrepair.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1980 the campus leased the Tivoli building to the Trizec Corporation of Calgary, Canada, which began a $27 million project to redevelop the Tivoli into an urban shopping center. Trizec hired HOK, the same Kansas City–based architectural firm that later designed <strong>Coors Field</strong>, to revamp and expand the brewery for commercial use. By 1982 the building housed several restaurants, a bar, retail stores, and even an AMC movie theater.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Student Union</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1991 Auraria students voted to use their fees to buy the Tivoli back from Trizec and redevelop it into a student union for the campus. Following a Colorado Historical Society Gaming Fund assessment, AHEC began a $28 million rehabilitation of the building. The project sought to restore the Tivoli’s historic spaces and artifacts; the copper brewing kettles were preserved in glass cases. The building reopened in October 1994 as AHEC’s new student union, shared by students from the <strong>University of Colorado–Denver</strong>, <strong>Metropolitan State University</strong>, and <strong>Community College of Denver</strong>. It retained the Boiler Room Bar and AMC theater that were part of the Trizec redevelopment, but many interior spaces were reconverted from stores into spaces that could serve students, including a student travel agency, bookstore, and student newspaper offices.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Tivoli Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The building is now home to meeting rooms, student-group offices, a food court, businesses, and event spaces. In 2012 Corey Marshall acquired the Tivoli and several other beer brands, and he decided to revive the Tivoli Brewing Company. Today Tivoli Brewing operates there, continuing the building’s legacy as a brewery while serving as an education center for students in beer-industry programs at the campus. As the student union, the building has become the heart of the Auraria campus, a place for students to congregate and reflect on how the building’s past has become intertwined with the campus’s future.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tivoli-brewery" hreflang="en">Tivoli Brewery</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moritz-sigi" hreflang="en">Moritz Sigi</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-good" hreflang="en">John Good</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-brewery" hreflang="en">Colorado Brewery</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/max-melsheimer" hreflang="en">Max Melsheimer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/milwaukee-brewery" hreflang="en">Milwaukee Brewery</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-burkhardt" hreflang="en">William Burkhardt</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/neighborhood-history-guide/auraria-neighborhood-history">Auraria Neighborhood History</a>,” Denver Public Library, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tom Noel, “Restoration of Tivoli Pours Forth Memories,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, October 4, 2003.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Penny Parker, “Renovated Tivoli Ready to Open: Building Combines Stores, Eateries, Auraria Offices,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, October 19, 1994.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter J. Pappas, “No Rats but a Lot of Crap,” <em>Auraria Transcript</em>, January 28, 1976.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Peter J. Pappas, “Restoration Set for Tivoli,” <em>Auraria Transcript</em>, April 23, 1975.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ann Stoenner, “115 Year Old Tivoli Brewery: Renovation, Rent, or Rubble?” <em>Fourth Estate</em>, March 13, 1974.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“A Terrible Accident,” <em>Rocky Mountain News Daily, </em>March 24, 1874.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Tivoli Brewery,” <em>Rocky Mountain News, </em>April 8, 1999.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Margaret Coel, <em>The Tivoli: Bavaria in the Rockies </em>(Denver: Colorado and West, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://tivolibrewingco.com/story">The Tivoli Story</a>,” Tivoli Brewing Company.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 29 Jun 2021 22:22:53 +0000 yongli 3591 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Auraria (West Denver) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Auraria (West Denver)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-06-16T09:20:04-06:00" title="Wednesday, June 16, 2021 - 09:20" class="datetime">Wed, 06/16/2021 - 09:20</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver" data-a2a-title="Auraria (West Denver)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fauraria-west-denver&amp;title=Auraria%20%28West%20Denver%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Now home to the tri-institutional campus of <strong>Metropolitan State University of Denver</strong>, <strong>University of Colorado–Denver</strong>, and <strong>Community College of Denver</strong>, the Auraria neighborhood has a long and rich history predating the founding of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> itself. Auraria is bordered by the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> to the west, <strong>Colfax Avenue</strong> to the south, and Speer Boulevard (which flanks <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>) to the east, forming a rough triangle. The neighborhood’s proximity to the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek made it an oasis amid <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Colorado’s dry plains</strong></a>, and Indigenous people used the place as a trading post for many years before whites arrived. In 1858 the town of Auraria was founded by miners who discovered gold in the area, and it continued to grow and flourish until being combined with nearby Denver in 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Auraria, known as West Denver, was a mixed-use neighborhood for much of its history, home to a diverse group of nationalities and cultures. In 1965 a disastrous flood left Auraria severely damaged, and an urban-renewal project demolished the former neighborhood to build the Auraria Higher Education Center (AHEC) that exists today. While the removal of Auraria residents to build an urban college campus remains controversial, AHEC and local historic-preservation groups have attempted to preserve the neighborhood’s cultural past.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Origins</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek was home to a diverse group of Indigenous people for more than 10,000 years before white immigrants arrived. Throughout the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a> periods, various prehistoric groups hunted bison along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. By about 1500 CE, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> and <strong>Apache</strong> people started to move into the central <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> and plains. In the 1700s, <strong>Comanche</strong> and <strong>Kiowa</strong> drove the Apaches out of the area and established a trade network that would last into the 1800s, when the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> pushed them out.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Auraria Town Company</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>It was with the Cheyenne and Arapaho that the first white trappers and traders in the area established contact in the 1810s. But the dry, harsh climate of the plains meant that immigrants did not come in droves. Some Cherokees discovered gold around the confluence, but they kept the location secret. In 1858, however, a Georgia man named <strong>William Green Russell</strong>, who had marriage ties to the Cherokees, headed west after hearing about a gold discovery at Ralston Creek. Initially Russell’s group came up empty-handed, but it finally discovered gold at the junction of the South Platte and Dry Creek (a few miles south of the Cherry Creek confluence) in July 1858.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>News of the discovery spread, and soon <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>prospectors flocked to the area</strong></a>. A townsite, named Auraria for Russell’s hometown in Georgia, was staked out at the confluence and advertised as free to all immigrants. On November 6, the Auraria Town Company formalized and adopted a constitution, making it an official township.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rivalry on the Plains</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Within weeks of Auraria’s founding, General <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-larimer-jr"><strong>William Larimer, Jr.</strong></a>, led a group of men from Kansas into the Cherry Creek area, at that time still technically part of Kansas Territory. Larimer’s party acquired the land on the east bank of Cherry Creek, opposite Auraria, which had formerly been the townsite of St. Charles. The party formed the Denver City Company, named after Kansas governor James W. Denver. The Denver Town Company adopted its constitution on November 22, 1858.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Auraria and Denver became rivals, fighting to attract businesses and residents. In April 1859, for example, <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong> editor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William N. Byers</strong></a> first set up shop in Auraria, on the second floor of Richens Wootton’s saloon, before moving to the dry bed of Cherry Creek in order to maintain neutrality between the towns. (As one might expect, the office was soon destroyed in a flood.)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While Auraria initially succeeded in attracting more businesses, Denver won an important victory when it offered fifty-three lots and nine shares to the Leavenworth and Pikes Peak Express. Having the first stagecoach connection was crucial for Denver’s growth because hotels and saloons wanted to be located near the stagecoach terminals. Residents also wanted to live near the stagecoach for easier access to incoming mail and news. Auraria finally conceded, and on April 5, 1860, it merged with Denver. For the next century, the neighborhood was known as “West Denver.” The term Auraria would not be used again until the 1960s, when the city revived it to refer to the redevelopment project in the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Immigrants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Over time, Auraria developed as a distinctly working-class neighborhood, home to mills, warehouses, breweries, and various other businesses alongside homes for working-class families and boardinghouses for single men. Old immigrant groups were the first to inhabit the neighborhood, primarily American-born citizens from the east as well as German and Irish immigrants. After several South Platte River and Cherry Creek floods in the 1860s­–80s, which made the area less desirable, the land along the river was devoted to railroads and industrial uses while the demographics of West Denver began to shift toward central and eastern European immigrants.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between the 1890s and 1920s, the West Colfax neighborhood (including West Denver) was the main home of eastern European Jews in Denver. Many originally left Russia because of religious persecution, and eventually some relocated to Denver for <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tuberculosis</strong></a> treatment at the Jewish Hospital for Consumptives (now <strong>National Jewish Hospital</strong>). In the 1910s, future Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, who was originally from Russia, lived on Julian Street, where her family’s duplex became a cultural center for Jewish immigrants from Russia. In 1988 the duplex was relocated about a mile east to the Auraria campus and today is a museum. Another center of Jewish culture in Auraria was the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/emmanuel-shearith-israel-chapel"><strong>Emmanuel Shearith Israel Chapel</strong></a>, originally built in 1876 as an Episcopalian church but converted to a synagogue in 1903. The building remained a center for Jewish worship in West Denver until 1963, when a private owner bought the chapel and converted it into an art gallery. Today it remains an art gallery on the Auraria campus.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These different immigrant groups mingled mostly in peace, though there was some rivalry and contempt between groups, especially the Germans and Irish. Germans built <strong>St. Elizabeth’s Catholic Church</strong> in 1878, and a separate Irish church, St. Leo’s, was not built until 1891. During the intervening years, Irish residents of West Denver attended mass in the German-dominated St. Elizabeth’s, something that neither group was particularly happy about.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Latino Community Calls Auraria Home</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early twentieth century, West Denver’s population declined as streetcars and automobiles allowed many people to move outside the urban core. During the 1920s, Latino farmers and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> veterans began to move in, shifting the neighborhood from central and eastern European to Latino. From the 1920s through the 1960s, the Latino residents of Auraria created a rich culture. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church"><strong>St. Cajetan’s Catholic Church</strong></a> at the corner of Lawrence and Ninth Streets was built in 1926 and represented the heart of the neighborhood, while the Casa Mayan restaurant also served as a cultural center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1941 city officials were concerned about the concentration of Latinos living in West Denver, as they believed overpopulation and crowding in the neighborhood’s houses and apartments were negatively affecting the lives of residents. This was a controversial issue, given that many residents of Auraria liked their neighborhood. They had lived there for generations, and despite a lack of resources, it was rich in kinship, tradition, and community. Despite official concerns, the Auraria community continued to thrive until 1965, when the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>South Platte River flooded</strong></a>, inundating much of the neighborhood.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Flood and Urban Renewal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late spring of 1965, the Front Range was struck by heavy rain and thunderstorms. On June 16, the rains caused the South Platte to flood, damaging railyards, houses, and warehouses as well as the <strong>Tivoli Brewery</strong> in West Denver. More than 1,700 buildings were destroyed or damaged by the flood, with an estimated $543 million in damages. Twenty-one lives were lost, making the flood one of the deadliest natural disasters in Colorado history.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the flood, as part of a large urban-renewal and flood-mitigation project, the city proposed that West Denver be transformed into a tri-institutional college campus. With business and industry in the city growing and a large generation of baby boomers nearing college age, the city saw the need for higher education centers in the Denver metro area to support a better-educated workforce.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Legislators and planners had been targeting West Denver for urban renewal since the 1950s. Already in 1956, the city prohibited the construction of new residential housing in the neighborhood, which several studies identified as the most promising location for a higher-education campus. The flood gave the city an excuse to move ahead; city officials argued that three-fourths of the area was “damaged beyond repair,” when in fact less than half of the neighborhood had been affected by the flood.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To prepare for what it called the Auraria urban-renewal project, Denver proposed a bond to buy the land and relocate West Denver citizens. In response, angry residents established the Auraria Residents’ Organization to fight the initiative. Their efforts failed, however, largely because Denver archbishop <strong>James Casey</strong> urged Catholics to vote “yes.” Some displaced residents pondered whether the city may have paid off the church. One granddaughter of a displaced resident claimed, “No one thinks they have a price. But everyone does. Even the church.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Whether or not the allegations were true, the bond passed with 52 percent of the vote. The city went ahead with the project. Residents were forced to leave, and by 1972 relocations were complete. Many moved just south to the Latino neighborhood of <strong>La Alma–Lincoln Park</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Auraria Campus</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After the bond to create a higher education campus passed, Auraria began to be recognized by its original name again. The neighborhood was mostly flattened to make way for the tri-institutional campus of Metropolitan State University of Denver, University of Colorado–Denver, and Community College of Denver, which opened in 1974. Some efforts were made to preserve the area’s history with St. Elizabeth’s, St. Cajetan’s, Emmanuel Shearith, and the Tivoli Brewery all still on campus. Ninth Street Historic Park also remains, with original Victorian-style houses that now serve as campus offices.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Auraria campus was built, tensions erupted when Chicano activists claimed that city officials had failed to deliver on promised scholarships to the children of displaced residents as well as a Hispanic cultural center on campus. Officials claimed they never found documentation of the promises, but in the 1990s, after much lobbying, the campus did start offering Displaced Aurarian Scholarships, which provide displaced residents and their children and grandchildren with eight semesters of tuition and funding at any of the campus’s three schools. Current public history projects on campus seek to rediscover the historic value of the neighborhood and tell the stories of its residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, the campus continues to flourish with an enrollment of more than 33,000 students, making it the largest higher-education campus in Colorado.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/west-denver" hreflang="en">West Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/emmanuel-shearith" hreflang="en">Emmanuel Shearith</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tivoli-brewery" hreflang="en">Tivoli Brewery</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-elizabeths-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Elizabeth&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/st-cajetans-catholic-church" hreflang="en">St. Cajetan&#039;s Catholic Church</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/neighborhood-history-guide/auraria-neighborhood-history">Auraria Neighborhood History</a>,” Denver Public Library, April 21, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Denver as It Is,” <em>Rocky Mountain News, </em>April 11, 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Encyclopedia Staff, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church">St. Cajetan’s Catholic Church</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified May 7, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jolie Anderson Gallagher, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22A%20Wild%20West%20History%20of%20Frontier%20Denver:%20Pioneers,%20Gunslingers,%20and%20Cattle%20Kings%20on%20the%20Eastern%20Plains%20%22" title="Find in a library with WorldCat"><em>A Wild West History of Frontier Denver: Pioneers, Gunslingers, and Cattle Kings on the Eastern Plains </em></a>(Charleston, SC: History Press, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Magdalena Gallegos, “Hispanic Life in Auraria, Colorado: The Twentieth Century,” <em>U.S. Catholic Historian</em> 9, nos. 1–2 (Winter/Spring 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Phil Goodstein, <em>How the West Side Won: The History of West Denver</em> (Denver: New Social, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Prendergast, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/looking-to-aurarias-future-while-studying-the-lessons-of-its-past-5119749">Looking to Auraria’s Future While Studying the Lessons of Its Past,”</a> <em>Westword</em>, February 28, 2013.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Rosemary Fetter, <em>Celebrating Twenty Years of Innovation in Higher Education: A Brief History of Auraria</em> (Denver: Auraria Higher Education Center, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/auraria-uurrvk/">Auraria</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, March 18, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 16 Jun 2021 15:20:04 +0000 yongli 3563 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Immigration to Denver, 1920–Present http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/immigration-denver-1920-present <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Immigration to Denver, 1920–Present</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-02-08T15:57:23-07:00" title="Monday, February 8, 2021 - 15:57" class="datetime">Mon, 02/08/2021 - 15:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/immigration-denver-1920-present" data-a2a-title="Immigration to Denver, 1920–Present"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fimmigration-denver-1920-present&amp;title=Immigration%20to%20Denver%2C%201920%E2%80%93Present"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Beginning in the 1920s, immigration to Denver underwent several significant changes owing to war, economic depression, and evolving civil rights legislation and related social tensions. Movements of people due to <strong>World War II</strong>, Japanese internment, changing agricultural landscapes, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s–60s, and Denver’s urban renewal campaign starting in the 1960s contributed to a revolution in Denver’s diversity and group relations. Denver’s ethnic diversity grew with new immigrants from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Meanwhile, existing residents built up communities and fought to assert their rights as Denverites and American citizens.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As before, wealthier immigrants from the eastern United States and Europe typically experienced the highest rate of acceptance in Denver as they became prominent business owners and took up seats in local government. Working-class immigrants—especially those from Latin America, Africa, and Asia—often faced discrimination in jobs and housing, even after civil rights legislation made it illegal.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>A New Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1920s, the city of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> was home to residents from numerous religious, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds. English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver%E2%80%99s-chinatown"><strong>Chinese</strong></a>, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants were just some of the groups that had already moved to the city.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The start of the 1920s marked an important shift away from Denver’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/early-immigration-denver-1850%E2%80%931920"><strong>early immigration patterns</strong></a> that had begun in the 1850s. After the end of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> and the Red Scare—a nationwide panic over Communism—the United States passed immigration restrictions that imposed new national origins quotas and effectively ended immigration from Asia. This new nativism was reflected in the revival of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a>, which gained a large following in Denver. Some members of the Klan even gained powerful government positions and tried to force Blacks, Jews, and Catholics out of the city.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The end of the war also prompted Latino servicemen to move their families from rural centers to Denver, especially the <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver">Auraria</a> </strong>neighborhood. Instead of Europeans and Asians, Latinos would become the most populous immigrant group in Denver during the twentieth century.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Auraria: Heart of Latino Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Latinxs who moved to Auraria starting in the 1920s arrived largely via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong></a>, which had started in Colorado around 1900 and soon joined ranching and <a href="/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> as one of the most prominent industries in the state. The growth of the sugar beet industry demanded a new labor force to work beet fields and sugar factories. American Indian and Mexican laborers from southern Colorado, northern New Mexico, and Mexico became the preferred labor group for sugar beet farmers because they accepted lower wages than whites and were more easily available than Chinese, who had been banned from immigrating in 1882. Companies such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-western-sugar-company"><strong>Great Western Sugar</strong></a> also drew laborers from other marginalized groups in Colorado, including Japanese, Tejano (Texans of Mexican descent), and German Russian.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the 1920s, many Latinx farmers and World War I veterans began to move their families to Auraria, shifting the neighborhood from Central and Eastern European to Latinx. From the 1920s through the 1960s, the Latinx residents of Auraria created a rich culture. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/st-cajetan%E2%80%99s-catholic-church"><strong>St. Cajetan’s Catholic Church</strong></a>, at the corner of Lawrence and Ninth Streets, was built in 1926 and represented the heart of Auraria.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early 1940s, however, city officials became concerned about the concentration of Latinxs in the neighborhood, as they believed overpopulation and crowding were negatively affecting the lives of residents. This was a controversial issue, given that many Auraria residents liked their neighborhood. They had lived there for years, and despite its lack of resources, Auraria was rich in kinship, tradition, and community. Despite official concerns, the neighborhood continued to thrive until 1965, when it was inundated after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>South Platte River flooded</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The flood spurred the city to move ahead with a long-planned urban-renewal and flood-mitigation project that would transform Auraria into a <strong>tri-institutional college campus</strong>. With business in the city growing and a large generation of baby boomers nearing college age, the city saw the need for more higher education opportunities in the Denver metro area. After first banning the construction of new residential housing in Auraria in 1956, city officials argued in the wake of the 1965 flood that three-fourths of the neighborhood was “damaged beyond repair,” when in fact less than half of the area had been affected.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver proposed a bond to buy Auraria land and relocate the people who lived there. In response, angry residents established the Auraria Residents’ Organization to fight the initiative. Their efforts failed as powerful institutions lined up to support the measure. Denver archbishop James Casey, for example, urged Catholic voters to approve the bond. Some displaced residents believed the city paid off the church for its support. One granddaughter of a displaced resident claimed, “No one thinks they have a price. But everyone does. Even the church.” Whether or not the allegations were true, the bond passed with 52 percent of the vote.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The city went ahead with the project. Residents were forced to leave, and by 1972 relocations were complete. Many moved just south to <strong>La Alma–Lincoln Park</strong>, which had shifted from working-class European immigrants to Latinx residents in the previous two generations. After the Auraria campus was built, more tensions erupted when Chicano activists claimed that city officials had failed to deliver on promised scholarships to the children of displaced residents and a Hispanic cultural center on campus. Officials claimed they never found documents confirming such promises were made, but in the 1990s the campus began offering Displaced Aurarian Scholarships, which provide displaced residents and their children and grandchildren with eight semesters of tuition and funding at any of the campus’s three schools.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The War Effort and Japanese Internment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Denverites saw the benefits of war industry before, during, and after World War II. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fitzsimons-general-hospital"><strong>Fitzsimons Army Hospital</strong></a>, which had treated soldiers during World War I, was refurbished and expanded, while <strong>Lowry Air Force Base</strong> (1938) and <strong>Buckley Field</strong> (1942) opened east of town. Just west of Denver, construction on the giant <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-ordnance-plant"><strong>Denver Ordnance Plant</strong></a> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lakewood"><strong>Lakewood</strong></a> started in 1941. These new army bases and hospitals brought roughly four million servicemen and women to Denver during the war. Employment in war industries reached as high as 19,500 in 1943. After the war, many of these soldiers and workers relocated permanently to the Denver area, especially as federal agencies mushroomed in size. The Denver Federal Center, for example, replaced the ordnance plant, eventually adding thousands of new office jobs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the war brought army and government personnel to Denver, it also caused an increase in the city’s Japanese population. In early 1942, when Japanese Americans were forced to leave their homes on the West Coast, many of them moved to inland states such as Colorado. Denver’s Japanese American population, clustered near the <strong>Tri-State Buddhist Temple</strong> on Lawrence Street, grew from 324 people in 1940 to 2,310 in 1944.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Other Japanese Americans were forced into detention camps because of fears that they would try to sabotage American war efforts. Ten concentration camps were built to incarcerate them, with one—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Camp Amache</strong></a>, also known as the Granada War Relocation Center—in Colorado. Located near Granada in the southwest corner of Colorado, Camp Amache was built starting in June 1942. Many of the initial 212 detainees to arrive at the camp first had to help finish building it; in fact, the camp was still under construction when its population peaked at 7,567 people in October 1942.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When Camp Amache detainees were gradually released toward the end of the war, many moved to Denver owing in part to sympathetic Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ralph-carr"><strong>Ralph Carr</strong></a> (1939–43), who believed that putting US citizens in concentration camps based on their race violated the Constitution. Hundreds of former Amache prisoners went to work on sugar beet and other farms in Denver, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe</strong></a> Counties, where they were welcome as agriculture was on the rise after the war, resulting in a huge demand for agricultural laborers. Although Governor Carr’s beliefs were welcoming to Japanese Americans, not all white Americans shared his sentiment, causing continued racial discrimination toward Denver’s Japanese population for years to come.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Most Japanese Americans in Denver, even those who had been US soldiers during World War II, did not enjoy equal rights and protections until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, when Americans became somewhat more aware of the prejudices facing all ethnic minorities, not only Blacks. The McCarran-Walter Act of 1952 allowed Asian immigrants to become naturalized US citizens, and the Hart-Cellar Act of 1965 lifted discriminatory immigration quotas, opening US borders to significant numbers of new Asian immigrants for the first time in nearly half a century. Over the next fifty years, Asian immigrants were granted large numbers of visas because many of them had acquired advanced educations and technical expertise. This significantly increased Denver’s Asian American population, which more than doubled its share of the city from 1.4 percent in 1970 to 3.4 percent in 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sakura-square"><strong>Sakura Square</strong></a> in downtown Denver functions as a sort of Japanese cultural center, home to several Japanese businesses as well as the Tri-State Buddhist Temple. Developed as a center for Japanese culture during the 1970s, the square has become home to Denver’s annual Cherry Blossom Festival, which includes celebrations of traditional Japanese practices such as the Japanese tea ceremony and <em>ikebana </em>flower arranging.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Black Denverites and the Five Points Neighborhood</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the 1910s and 1920s, a movement known as the Great Migration brought an influx of Black residents from the southern states to Denver. By 1920 about 2.4 percent of Denver’s population was Black, a proportion still much lower than in cities such as New York or Chicago (as well as many southern cities). Compared to many other cities, African Americans in Denver were moderately prosperous and well educated. Still, many of Denver’s Black residents worked as common laborers and were subject to racial prejudice, especially when the Ku Klux Klan emerged as a dominant force in the 1920s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many Black Denverites moved into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/five-points"><strong>Five Points</strong></a> neighborhood, located near the five-way intersection of Washington Street, Welton Street, East Twenty-Sixth Avenue, and Twenty-Seventh Street. While Five Points had initially been home to European immigrants, a housing boom in the 1920s allowed whites to move to newer, higher-class neighborhoods. Discrimination and restrictive covenants forced Blacks to remain in older, lower-quality housing in Five Points. By 1929 more than 75 percent of the city’s Black residents lived in Five Points. The area’s population skyrocketed during and after World War II, with the neighborhood’s Black population almost doubling to 13,500 in 1950.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the 1950s, Five Points became known as the “Harlem of the West,” home to several well-known jazz clubs such as the Casino Cabaret and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rossonian-hotel"><strong>Rossonian Lounge</strong></a>. But the neighborhood experienced significant changes in the next few decades. Denver’s Fair Housing Act of 1957, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the federal Fair Housing Act of 1968 made it possible for African Americans and other groups to move to better housing in neighborhoods where segregation had previously barred them. As a result, the population of Five Points decreased by half between 1950 and 1970. As Black Denverites moved elsewhere, Latinx people soon made up 40 percent of the population in Five Points. Many businesses that had been owned by Blacks (including several popular jazz clubs) shut down, and older buildings were demolished in the name of urban renewal.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>North and East African Immigrants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As American immigration policy changed in the second half of the twentieth century, Denver became home to several thousand refugees from other countries, most notably countries in North and East Africa and the Middle East. In addition to abolishing discriminatory national-origins quotas, the Hart-Cellar Act of 1965 established a new policy based on reuniting immigrant families and attracting skilled laborers from other countries. Immigration of refugees further increased when President Jimmy Carter signed the Refugee Act of 1980, which promised to provide effective resettlement of refugees and assistance in helping them to achieve economic self-sufficiency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado has been the destination of choice for many of these refugees. The US Office of Refugee Resettlement reported that more than 9,500 African refugees and asylum seekers settled in Colorado between 1980 and 2014. The majority of these immigrants came from Ethiopia, Somalia, Iraq, Sudan, Iran, and Syria, with smaller numbers from Liberia, Eritrea, and other countries. In fact, while in 2014 Mexico remained the most common country of origin for immigrants in Colorado, Ethiopia placed second.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many Colorado-bound refugees settled in Denver, while some moved to smaller cities such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-morgan"><strong>Fort Morgan</strong></a>. A variety of local agencies mobilized to help immigrants learn English, start businesses, and obtain counseling and legal services, including the Catholic Charity Center, the Global Refugee Center in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, and the Rocky Mountain Immigrant Advocacy Network in <strong>Westminster</strong>. African immigrants found economic success, owning more than 300 businesses in Denver and employing thousands of people in the city. This economic success has resulted in greater involvement of first- and second-generation African immigrants in Colorado politics. In 2018, for example, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/joe-neguse"><strong>Joe Neguse</strong></a>, the son of Eritrean parents, won election to the US House of Representatives from Colorado’s Second <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-congressional-districts"><strong>Congressional District</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite their general success, some North and East African immigrants have faced discrimination, particularly those who are Muslim. Muslim meatpacking workers in northern Colorado—mostly Somali immigrants—have been fired on multiple occasions for taking prayer breaks, while in 2019 a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver%E2%80%99s-capitol-hill"><strong>Capitol Hill</strong></a> landlord was forced to pay $675,000 for refusing to rent to a Muslim family, claiming the family was not American because of its religion.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“Natives” and “Transplants”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to people from other countries, Denver saw an increase in immigrants coming from other parts of the United States in the 2010s. This internal migration has been attributed to Colorado’s tourism industry, the state’s relatively low unemployment rate, and the legalization of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>marijuana</strong></a> in 2012. The city’s population mushroomed by more than 100,000 people, with more than 60 percent of that growth attributable to newcomers. These immigrants came not only from other states, but also from economically struggling rural areas of Colorado, suggesting that Denver’s economy has been a main draw for many people in recent years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Newcomers to Colorado are commonly referred to as “transplants,” while those born in the state—apparently oblivious to the existence of American Indians and their own immigrant past—sometimes call themselves “natives.” Many of the so-called transplants moving into Denver are young, white, middle-class professionals, a large number of whom do not have children. As more of these transplants moved to Denver, skyrocketing housing prices, worsening traffic, and greater competition for jobs resulted in some tensions between newcomers and the so-called natives who call Denver home. While many residents have embraced or accepted the city’s growth, some have chosen to relocate.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Conclusion</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>From 1920 to the present, Denver has become home to new groups of immigrants from all over the country and the world. Today, Denver continues to celebrate its rich cultural diversity with events such as the Cherry Blossom Festival, Cinco de Mayo celebrations, the Denver Greek Festival, the Five Points Jazz Festival, and others. Many historic churches and religious centers such as St. Elizabeth’s Catholic Church, the Tri-State Buddhist Temple, and <strong>Temple Emanuel</strong> continue to offer services. Despite major changes, formerly ethnic neighborhoods such as Five Points and Auraria still pay homage to previous residents’ cultures and histories with areas such as the Ninth Street Historic Park and the <strong>Black American West Museum</strong>. Denver’s rich cultural heritage is also evident in an ongoing push for equal rights for all citizens, as was seen in the <strong>protests of June and July 2020</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver continues to welcome refugees from other countries as well as immigrants from other parts of the United States. While the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coronavirus-colorado"><strong>COVID-19 pandemic</strong></a> caused a decline in tourism, Denver has still seen its population increase. The city is predicted to continue to grow and welcome newcomers for the foreseeable future, which will add to Denver’s rich diversity and inevitably create new demographic shifts, conflicts, and movement patterns within the city. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/kennedy-anna" hreflang="und">Kennedy, Anna</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/african-american-history" hreflang="en">african american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/african-americans-denver" hreflang="en">african americans denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/latino-immigration" hreflang="en">Latino Immigration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/refugees" hreflang="en">refugees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/world-war-ii" hreflang="en">World War II</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-immigration" hreflang="en">Colorado immigration</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/immigration" hreflang="en">immigration</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/neighborhood-history-guide/auraria-neighborhood-history">Auraria Neighborhood History</a>,” Denver Public Library, April 21, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/06/02/colorados-african-immigrants-step-up-politically-on-neguse-candidacy/">Colorado’s African Immigrants Step Up Politically on Neguse Candidacy</a>,” <em>The</em> <em>Denver Post,</em> June 2, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2015/12/22/colorados-population-jumped-by-101000-in-12-months/">Colorado’s Population Jumped by 101,000 in 12 Months</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, December 22, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Encyclopedia Staff, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/five-points">Five Points</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified October 29, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elizabeth Escobedo, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado">Terminology: The Latino Experience in Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified December 29, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kathleen Foody, “Denver Landlord Who Refused to Rent to Muslim Men Settles Lawsuit for $675,000,” <em>The Denver Post, </em>May 3, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.lincolnparkneighborhood.org/history/">History</a>,” Lincoln Park Neighborhood Association, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Melyn Johnson, “At Home in Amache: A Japanese-American Relocation Camp in Colorado,” </strong><em>Colorado Heritage </em><strong>(1988).</strong></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jon Murray, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2019/04/18/denver-population-growth-census/">Denver’s Population Has Grown by Nearly 20 Percent Since 2010—And It’s Picking Up Again</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, April 18, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.hppr.org/hppr-news/2018-09-14/muslim-workers-receive-1-7m-in-settlement-with-cargill-over-prayer-breaks">Muslim Workers Receive $.17M in Settlement with Cargill Over Prayer Breaks</a>,” High Plains Public Radio, September 14, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bernadette Jeanne Pérez, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sugar-beet-industry">Sugar Beet Industry</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified August 6, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Peterson, “<a href="https://www.confluence-denver.com/features/denver_by_the_data_8_population_011817.aspx">Denver by the Data, Vol. 8: Population and Demographics</a>,” Confluence Denver, January 18, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Prendergast, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/looking-to-aurarias-future-while-studying-the-lessons-of-its-past-5119749">Looking to Auraria’s Future While Studying the Lessons of Its Past</a>,” <em>Westword, </em>February 28, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alan Prendergast, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965">South Platte Flood of 1965</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified June 5, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/denver-metros-population-is-up-more-than-388000-in-eight-years-11316402">Metro Denver’s Population Is Up More Than 388,000 in Eight Years</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, April 19, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>“</strong><a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2016/03/19/somalis-struggle-to-make-new-home-in-colorado/">Somalis Struggle to Make a New Home in Colorado</a><strong>,” <em>The Denver Post, </em>March 19, 2016. </strong></p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Megan Verlee, “</strong><a href="https://www.npr.org/2008/10/01/95254631/fired-muslims-to-sue-over-prayer-break-dispute">Fired Muslims to Sue Over Prayer Break Dispute</a><strong>,” NPR, October 1, 2008.</strong></p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Wei, <em>Asians in Colorado: A History of Persecution and Perseverance in the Centennial State</em> (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365030024/" title=" (external link)">“Amache 1-Hour Special,”</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, June 20, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/auraria-uurrvk/">Auraria</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, March 18, 2019.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Feb 2021 22:57:23 +0000 yongli 3529 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Tremont House Hotel http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tremont-house-hotel <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tremont House Hotel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2560--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2560.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/tremont-house-early-1860s"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Tremont%20House%20Hotel_media1_0.jpg?itok=tu5mja59" width="1000" height="724" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/tremont-house-early-1860s" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tremont House, Early 1860s</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Established in 1859 near Cherry Creek in Auraria, Tremont House (left) soon became one of the area's top hotels.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2561--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2561.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/tremont-house-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Tremont%20House%20Hotel_media3_0.jpg?itok=wCywxfOJ" width="1000" height="683" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/tremont-house-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tremont House Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>After Tremont House was demolished in 1912 because of flood damage, the site was used as storage by an adjacent company and then became a parking lot on the Auraria campus. In 1988–89 the site was excavated before the realignment of Speer Boulevard destroyed it.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-05T12:04:43-06:00" title="Friday, May 5, 2017 - 12:04" class="datetime">Fri, 05/05/2017 - 12:04</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/tremont-house-hotel" data-a2a-title="Tremont House Hotel"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ftremont-house-hotel&amp;title=Tremont%20House%20Hotel"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Tremont House Hotel was established in the fall of 1859 near <strong>Cherry Creek</strong> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a> (later West Denver) and soon became one of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>’s top hotels. In the 1880s, the hotel declined as flood-prone West Denver became home to immigrants and industry while wealthy residents moved to new neighborhoods. In 1912 the building was demolished after suffering significant damage in a <a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flood</strong></a>. In 1988–89 the Tremont House site was excavated to make way for a realignment of <strong>Speer Boulevard</strong>, allowing archaeologists to recover thousands of artifacts and study trade patterns, eating habits, and other aspects of life in early Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Years</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Tremont House opened in late fall 1859 as a teetotaling boardinghouse called the Temperance Hotel. It was owned and operated by a Mrs. Maggard, who had just come to Colorado from Missouri. Her two-story wood-frame establishment faced east on B Street (later Thirteenth) between Third Street (Wazee) and Fourth Street (Market) in Auraria near the southwest side of Cherry Creek, about a half-mile from its confluence with the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>. The Temperance Hotel shared the block with two other hotels, a grocery store, a gun shop, livery stables, and a lumberyard. It catered to people looking for an alcohol-free environment and soon became well known for its buffalo tongue potpies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In June 1860, Maggard expanded the hotel with a two-story addition on the building’s north side, but a month later she sold the business to Nelson Sargent, who remodeled the interior, added a bar, and reopened it as the Tremont House. Operated by Sargent and his wife, the hotel soon acquired a reputation as one of the finest in Denver (which had merged with Auraria earlier that year). In May 1861, it hosted the inaugural reception for Colorado’s first territorial governor, <a href="/article/william-gilpin"><strong>William Gilpin</strong></a>, who delivered his inaugural speech from the hotel’s balcony.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After surviving the <strong>Great Fire of 1863</strong> and the <strong>Cherry Creek flood of 1864 </strong>without any structural damage, Tremont House remained one of the city’s finest spots for dining, entertainment, and accommodations for the next ten or fifteen years. During that period, the hotel changed hands several times and was under almost constant renovation. Sometime in the late 1860s or early 1870s, the hotel was reconstructed as a three-story brick building with arched windows, a colonnaded porch, and a second-floor balcony. In 1874 a further expansion added a reading room, billiard hall, baggage room, and washroom.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Decline and Destruction</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1870s and 1880s, Denver’s rapid growth and change caused Tremont House to lose its status as a first-class hotel. Fancy new hotels on the east side of Cherry Creek—including the Windsor (1880), the Metropole (1891), the Oxford (1891), and the <a href="/article/brown-palace-hotel"><strong>Brown Palace</strong></a> (1892)—drew customers away from older hotels in West Denver. Meanwhile, the city’s wealthy residents were moving to new neighborhoods on the east side of the city, such as <strong>Curtis Park</strong> and <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-capitol-hill"><strong>Capitol Hill</strong></a>, leaving flood-prone West Denver to immigrants, warehouses, and railyards. Tremont House’s quality declined. The third floor was removed and the brick exterior was covered with stucco. By the early 1910s, the former high-class hotel had become a cheap boardinghouse with a saloon on the first floor.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On July 14, 1912, Cherry Creek flooded yet again, wreaking havoc in low-lying sections of West Denver. The damage was so severe that the city soon condemned more than fifty buildings in the area—including Tremont House, which was filled with several feet of mud and sand from the flood. The building was torn down later that month.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Excavation</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For about six decades, the site of the demolished Tremont House was used as storage for an adjacent business. In the 1970s, West Denver was largely cleared to make way for the <strong>Auraria Higher Education Center</strong>, and the Tremont House site at the northwest corner of Thirteenth Street and Auraria Parkway was turned into a parking lot for the campus.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/tremont-house-excavation"><img alt="Tremont House Excavation" src="/sites/default/files/Tremont%20House%20Hotel_media4.jpg" style="float:right; height:328px; margin:15px; width:480px" /></a>In 1987 a proposed realignment of Speer Boulevard near the Auraria campus called for the existing viaduct to be replaced with an at-grade roadway about a block west of Cherry Creek. Initial research using historic maps, photographs, and property records showed that the new alignment would pass over the Tremont House site. To confirm those findings, researchers tested the area with ground-penetrating radar in the fall of 1988, then dug up part of the parking lot during the campus’s winter break to conduct test excavations. The Tremont House site was deemed eligible for the National Register of Historic Places, so state and federal historic preservation laws required a full-scale excavation of the site before road construction destroyed it. The <strong>Colorado</strong> <strong>Department of Transportation</strong> Archaeological Unit under Richard Carrillo conducted the excavation from March to May 1989.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Carrillo’s excavation team discovered the foundation walls of the original Tremont House as well as foundations for two structural additions and two cellars. The team found 26,000 artifacts, including some of the earliest settlement period material ever found in Denver. These materials helped show that wealthy residents of early Denver had access to luxury items from the East and Europe. The excavation also uncovered nearly 4,000 bones, which revealed what animals—mostly pigs, cattle, and chickens—were served for dinner at the hotel. Wild game made up about 10 percent of the remains.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Tremont House excavation was probably the most famous and significant urban archaeology project in Denver history because of its highly visible location near downtown, and it contributed important new information about the city’s early years. All artifacts were deposited with the Colorado Historical Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>), and a detailed report was published in 1993.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After Carrillo’s team completed the excavation, the surviving Tremont House foundation walls were destroyed and the area was refilled with soil to make a base for the realignment of Speer Boulevard. The Tremont House site is now underneath Speer Boulevard near its intersection with Auraria Parkway.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/historic-hotels" hreflang="en">historic hotels</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/urban-archaeology" hreflang="en">urban archaeology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria-higher-education-center" hreflang="en">Auraria Higher Education Center</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/speer-boulevard" hreflang="en">Speer Boulevard</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Richard F. Carrillo and Daniel A. Jepson, <em>Exploring the Colorado Frontier: A Study in Historical Archaeology at the Tremont House Hotel, Lower Downtown Denver</em> (Denver: Colorado Department of Transportation and Federal Highway Administration, 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Richard F. Carrillo, Sarah J. Pearce, Stephen M. Kalasz, and Daniel A. Jepson, <em>The Tremont House (5DV2954): Historical Archaeological Investigations of an Early Hotel in Denver, Colorado</em>, Colorado Department of Transportation Archaeological Research Series No. 1 (1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah M. Nelson, <em>Denver: An Archaeological History</em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1990).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 05 May 2017 18:04:43 +0000 yongli 2557 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Denver http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Denver</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1610--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1610.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/denver-dmns"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Santomarco_Denver_DMNS_0.jpg?itok=ohZid4mJ" width="815" height="427" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/denver-dmns" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Denver from DMNS</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the Denver skyline looking west from the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-03T15:33:26-06:00" title="Wednesday, August 3, 2016 - 15:33" class="datetime">Wed, 08/03/2016 - 15:33</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver" data-a2a-title="Denver"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fdenver&amp;title=Denver"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Denver is the capital of Colorado and the twenty-first largest city in the United States, sprawling over six counties and 3,497 square miles of the High Plains and the<strong> <a href="/article/rocky-mountains">Rocky Mountain</a></strong> foothills. Centered at the confluence of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a> and <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>, the city and county of Denver together have a population of about 600,000. At an elevation of 5,280 feet, Denver has been nicknamed “The Mile High City.” <a href="/article/michael-hancock"><strong>Michael Hancock</strong></a> has served as mayor since 2011. More a conglomeration of suburbs than a single city, the Denver metropolitan area consists of Denver, <a href="/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe</strong></a>, <a href="/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a>, <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> and <a href="/article/adams-county"><strong>Adams</strong></a> Counties and has a population of about 3.4 million. This area forms the cultural, economic, political, and social center of Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Indigenous Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Historically, Denver’s location at the intersection of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> made it a place where people in the American West came together. Local prehistoric indigenous sites provide a record of cultural contact and mixing, featuring stone tool styles from sometimes hundreds or thousands of miles away. These early groups did not mark their boundaries on maps. Their territories were irregular and widespread, fluctuating with the ebb and flow of resources and political alliances. Nuche (<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a>) and <strong>Apache</strong> peoples frequented the area of present-day Denver by the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and by the nineteenth century, the site became a favorite winter campsite of the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Golden Gamble</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>William Green Russell</strong>, a veteran of both the Georgia and the California Gold Rushes, was one of many nineteenth-century Americans who surmised that the massive granite cordillera of the Rockies held mineral treasure. In July 1858, about eight miles above the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte, Russell’s prospecting party found a few ounces of gold. His find initiated the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> (1858–59), which gave birth to Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the west side of Cherry Creek, Russell and his party founded the first permanent settlement in what is now Metro Denver—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a>, from the Latin word for gold. On November 22, 1858, General <a href="/article/william-larimer-jr"><strong>William H. Larimer, Jr.</strong></a><strong>,</strong> jumped a claim across Cherry Creek from Auraria. He named his town Denver City, after Kansas Territorial Governor James Denver. Denver City became the seat of what was then <a href="/article/arapahoe-county"><strong>Arapahoe County</strong></a>, a huge swath of land stretching from the current Kansas border to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> soon swept Auraria’s Georgians away, and Yankee town builders took command, reorganizing the city as West Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The gold rush prompted Congress to establish the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. That year the federal government also brokered the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>, reducing the territory of the Cheyenne and Arapaho people to a small reservation in eastern Colorado. Amidst rising tensions between whites and Native Americans, US troops under Col. <strong>John Chivington</strong> slaughtered more than 150 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho women, children, and elderly men at a camp on <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre">Sand Creek</a> </strong>in November 1864. Enraged by the massacre, the Cheyenne and Arapaho, along with other Plains Indians, fought a protracted war against the US Army in Colorado until 1869, when the Cheyenne leader <strong>Tall Bull</strong> was defeated at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs-0"><strong>Summit Springs</strong></a>. By that time, much of the remaining Cheyenne and Arapaho populations had been forced onto reservations in Wyoming and Oklahoma via the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> of 1867. The next year the government brokered a <a href="/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>treaty</strong></a> with the Ute people that relocated most of them to a large reservation on the <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“The Great Braggart City”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver City was a long shot, since most gold rush “cities” became ghost towns. But while other Coloradans <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mined gold</strong></a>, Denverites mined the miners, providing them with food, liquor, and entertainment in exchange for the wealth they found up in the hills. Denverites also bet on everything from dogfights to <a href="/article/snow"><strong>snowfall</strong></a>, gambling with mining stock, real estate, railroads, and bank notes. During the slow winter months, city fathers amused themselves with card games. Using town lots as poker chips, they won and lost whole blocks of downtown Denver in an evening.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver’s persistence puzzled visitors. The city had few visible means of support. It lacked the navigable waterways which usually helped cities thrive. Other towns, notably <a href="/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a> and <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, were closer to mines. <strong>Littleton</strong>, with its Rough and Ready Mill, had a solid agricultural base. Meanwhile, Denver faced the same problems—aridity and isolation—that left the prairies and mountains littered with ghost towns. It seemed that Denverites lived solely on excitement and speculation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Beset by isolation and Indian conflicts, by drought and grasshoppers, the city owed its early survival to capable town builders and determined boosters. Chief among them were William Larimer and <a href="/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William N. Byers</strong></a>, founder and longtime editor and publisher of the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>. Although stigmatized by some as the “Rocky Mountain Liar,” Byers and the <em>News</em> persisted in promoting Denver as the capital of Colorado. In early issues, Byers even puffed Denver as the steamboat hub of the rockies. It is not difficult to see why English traveler Isabella Bird called Denver “the Great Braggart City” when she visited in 1873.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While steamboats never negotiated the South Platte River, railroads did arrive in 1870. This spiderweb of steel first enabled Denver to establish its metropolitan sway over Coloradans. Gold and silver ores mined in the mountains rode the rails into Denver’s smelters. The giant <strong>Argo</strong>, Globe, and Grant <strong>smelters</strong> became Denver’s biggest employers by the 1890s. Acrid, black smelter smoke hung over the city, signaling its emergence as an industrial center.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The city drew not only Colorado’s gold and silver, but also attracted the state’s mining magnates. Wealth and the wealthy from <a href="/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>, <a href="/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <a href="/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, the <a href="/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juans</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> flowed into Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Rush to Culture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s gold and silver rushes led to a culture rush, as Denver’s overnight millionaires hoped to impress the rest of the world—or at least other Coloradans—with their artistic and humanistic pursuits. Denver’s nouveaux riches found cultural trappings a way to separate themselves from less successful gold-grubbers. Peacocks in the front yard of mansions in <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-capitol-hill"><strong>Capitol Hill</strong></a>, servants in the kitchen, and children off to Vassar and Yale helped the successful flaunt their new status. Inspired by both a sincere interest in culture as well as a means to defining an aristocracy, Denverites rushed to respectability. <a href="/article/horace-tabor"><strong>Horace Tabor</strong></a>, the “Silver King,” epitomized this trend, going from nouveau riche to a patron of the cultural arts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado did not produce any literary giants to immortalize the frontier era, no Willa Cather or <a href="/article/mari-sandoz"><strong>Mari Sandoz</strong></a>. Travelers such as Isabella Bird, Richard Townsend and Louis Simonin left lively, literary accounts, but not until the twentieth century would Coloradans such as <strong>Hal Borland</strong>, <strong>Marshall Sprague,</strong> and <strong>Frank Waters </strong>do literary justice to the white settlement of mountain and plain.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Historians have been luckier. <strong>Robert Athearn</strong>, Leroy Hafen, Frank Hall, Jerome C. Smiley, and Wilbur Fisk Stone all published state histories. Nearly every town and county compiled at least a booster booklet. The first generation of Coloradans were conscious of both history and culture. They prided themselves on being the first white Americans to see, to name, to settle, and to build.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 1872, Denver and other towns held pioneer picnics for their founding mothers and fathers. In 1879 the State Historical and Natural History Society (now <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>) was created. The state legislature gave the society $500 to collect, preserve, and exhibit Colorado’s heritage.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denverites emphasized the edifying, ignoring the fact that their city and territorial governments had been conceived in saloon halls. Saloons also housed the first theaters, art exhibits, dance music, theater, and even libraries. By 1910 Denver had 410 saloons, offering a side variety of goods, services, arts, and amusements, as well as nickel beers and free lunches.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Bar art attested to early cultural aspirations. Today, original art is often confined to museums, corporate board rooms, and the homes of the wealthy, but in nineteenth-century Denver, much original saloon art was public art. Charles Stobie, a now celebrated western artist, lived above the Gallup &amp; Stanbury Saloon (which still stands at 1445 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer Street</strong></a>) and exhibited his work downstairs in the bar. Byers of the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> appraised Stobie’s work as “the most excellent and beautiful work in oil painting we have seen executed in this country.” Stobie’s works, like the paintings Charles Russell once swapped for drinks in the Mint Saloon, now command five- and six-digit prices. Most of Denver’s bar art perished under the reckless demolition of nineteenth-century buildings. Two exceptions are the landscapes on the old high-back booths at the <strong>Punch Bowl Tavern</strong> (2052 Stout Street) and the Windsor Hotel bar mural in the <strong>Oxford Hotel</strong> dining room.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado artists and art lovers organized the Artists Club in 1893 to promote the visual arts. During the 1920s, this club was reorganized as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-art-museum"><strong>Denver Art Museum</strong></a>. Anne Evans, a leading benefactor and an artist herself, helped to establish what is still the Denver Art Museum’s strongest collection: its American Indian materials. In their rush to culture, many in the pioneer generation overlooked the treasures of earlier Indian cultures that are now showcased in public and private collections. Ironically, Anne was the daughter of territorial governor <a href="/article/john-evans"><strong>John Evans</strong></a>, who was removed from office for his role in the <u><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</a></u>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s performing arts were also born in barrooms. Apollo Hall on Denver’s Larimer Street staged Colorado’s first theatrical performances in 1859, and the Occidental Hall on Blake Street featured Colorado’s “favorite balladist” to “delight all with operatic and sentimental, as well as comic songs.” At other times, this Blake Street bar advertised a reading room with the latest newspapers and free stationery, offering readers a haven two decades before the <a href="/article/denver-public-library"><strong>Denver Public Library</strong></a> was founded in 1886.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Such astonishing artistic efforts helped make Denver a cultural as well as a commercial capital for Colorado. Farmers from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>eastern plains</strong></a>, ranchers from the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and the Western Slope, and mountain miners have long relied on Denver as an entertainment center.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Diversity</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Flush times ended abruptly for Coloradans with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>Panic of 1893</strong></a>. The price of silver—then the state’s chief product—tumbled from over one dollar an ounce to under sixty cents. In response, Denver diversified its economy. The city had previously relied on supplying and smelting for the mining industry, but now it shifted to other endeavors, including tourism and agricultural processing.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1894 Denverites launched the Festival of Mountain and Plain to promote tourism, boost local spirits, and advertise the region’s industrial diversity. A prominient example of the latter was <strong>Charles Gates</strong>, an out-of-work mining engineer, and his brother John. They invented the world’s first rubber v-belt, which, unlike earlier flat belts, did not slip off machinery wheels and helped improve machinery performance. The Gates hired Buffalo Bill to promote their belts, tires, and hoses. Gates rode his rubber accessories for horseless carriages into prominence and wealth with the auto age. As they built factories, sugar mills, barley elevators, train depots, and gas stations, Gates and other enterprising Denverites transformed not only the city but also the rest of the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of these entrepreneurs were immigrants. <a href="/article/adolph-coors"><strong>Adolph Coors</strong></a>, a teenage orphan from Germany, transformed long-stagnant Golden into a thriving brewery town. <strong>John Kernan Mullen</strong>, a young Irish immigrant, skipped school to work in a flour mill and wound up with a multi-million-dollar milling empire. Mullen’s <strong>Colorado Grain Elevator</strong> and Hungarian Flour empires owned wheat fields, grain elevators, and flour mills throughout the state. Rather than sink his money into mining, <strong>Charles Boettcher</strong>, a German immigrant, concentrated on hardware and mining supplies, then fathered the Great Western Sugar Company, the Ideal Cement Company, Capitol Life Insurance, the National Fuse and Powder Company, and the Bighorn Rand in North Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Racial and Ethnic Diversity</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the area’s long history as a gathering place, Denver has drawn people of many different races and ethnicities. Yet, as in other American cities, those who were considered white—a definition that has changed over time—had held most of the economic and political power since the mid-nineteenth century. Beginning then, relations between the various groups that have called Denver home were often fraught with tension.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the city’s first white residents held ambivalent views toward Native Americans. Some even argued for their extermination through violence or other means. In 1866 the <em>Rocky Mountain News</em> declared that “savage tribes must give way to the western advance of empire,” suggesting that in lieu of extermination “by the sword … the remedy then consists in feeding them, and they will gorge themselves to death.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>White Denverites also looked upon their Chinese neighbors with disdain, even though Chinese residents helped build the nation’s railroads and operated nearly all of the city’s laundering businesses, a critical part of the local service industry. By the late nineteenth century, Chinese residents in Denver had built a thriving community along present-day Wazee Street. Anti-Chinese sentiment came to head in the <strong>Anti-Chinese Riot of 1880</strong>. A white mob descended upon <a href="/article/denver%E2%80%99s-chinatown"><strong>Denver’s Chinatown</strong></a>, destroying property and beating dozens of Chinese residents, killing one. Denver’s Chinatown endured the assault and remained an integral part of the city until the 1940s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the late nineteenth century, black railroad workers began moving their families to the<a href="/article/five-points"> <strong>Five Points</strong></a> neighborhood north of downtown, as it was closer to the tracks along the South Platte. By the 1920s Five Points had become majority black and was known as the “Harlem of the West,” attracting Louis Armstrong, Billie Holiday, and other great musicians of the day. White Denverites enacted discriminatory housing practices, including racially restrictive covenants, to keep blacks in Five Points. Such agreements effectively barred black Denverites from new housing developments until the state supreme court outlawed racially restrictive covenants in 1957.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While black businesses and culture were thriving in north Denver during the 1920s, the city’s Latino population grew in the Auraria neighborhood on the west side of Cherry Creek. By 1940 the city’s Spanish-speaking population had expanded to other neighborhoods northeast and southwest of downtown. Like blacks, Latinos faced discrimination in housing, education, law enforcement, and employment, but because they were relative newcomers, their plight was often worse. A survey conducted by the Denver Area Welfare Council in 1950, for instance, found that Spanish-speaking residents were twice as likely to live in substandard housing as black residents, and blacks’ per capita income was double that of Latinos.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the resurgence of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> in the early 1920s, race relations had reached a nadir. The KKK numbered in the hundreds of thousands and eventually achieved de facto political control over the entire state. Members included Denver mayor <strong>Benjamin F. Stapleton</strong>, Denver police chief William J. Candlish, at least twenty Denver police officers, a state supreme court justice, and even the governor, <strong>Clarence J. Morley</strong>. Klan members threatened the local chapter of the NAACP, held well-attended cross-burnings, boycotted Catholic businesses, hurled insults while driving through Jewish neighborhoods, and chased blacks out of new white neighborhoods. By 1925, corruption and political ineptitude doomed the Klan in Colorado, as Klan policemen’s ties to vice trades were exposed and the Colorado Grand Dragon was investigated for tax evasion. Stapleton, however, remained Denver’s ineffective yet immovable mayor until 1947.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Social Struggles and Civil Rights Campaigns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as they did in other American cities, black and Latino Denverites took part in social movements that sought to change long-entrenched patterns of discrimination. De facto <strong>segregation</strong> and discrimination continued in Denver, despite the state supreme court’s 1957 ban on restrictive housing covenants and the election of Denver’s first black city council member, <a href="/article/elvin-r-caldwell"><strong>Elvin Caldwell</strong></a>, in 1955. In the 1960s black Denverites organized boycotts of discriminatory businesses such as Denver Dry Goods and staged sympathy sit-ins to demonstrate their solidarity with other black sit-ins across the country. In the late 1960s the local chapter of the Black Panther Party found traction, sponsoring free breakfasts for black school children while loudly criticizing racist policies and actions by Denver officials and police.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1965 <a href="/article/rodolfo-%E2%80%9Ccorky%E2%80%9D-gonzales"><strong>Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales</strong></a> organized "La Crusada para La Justicia," the Crusade for Justice, which became part of the broader Chicano Movement that gained traction in Denver and across the country in the 1960s. Gonzales’s crusade advocated for Latino self-determination through control of local schools and ethnic solidarity, while also calling for an end to employment and police discrimination against Denver’s Latino population. While the candidate for his Chicano political party,  La Raza Unida, garnered just 2 percent of the vote in the gubernatorial election of 1970, Gonzales’s campaign nonetheless demonstrated the political power of Latinos in the Mile High City.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Gonzales was unifying Denver’s Latinos, the city’s Native American population was growing. It began to increase in the 1950s, when the federal government encouraged members of western tribes to move to western cities. Many of the city’s new Native American residents were poorer than either blacks or Latinos, and several intertribal support agencies—such as the White Buffalo Council and the <strong>Denver Indian Center</strong> of Denver Native Americans United—provided social support and services to members of the Navajo, Lakota, and other tribes.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Economic Decline and Renewal</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1980s, Denver’s economic fortunes again crashed alongside the price of a major Colorado commodity. This time it was not silver but oil. In the 1970s Colorado had enjoyed an energy boom thanks to development of oil shale deposits on the Western Slope. But in 1983 the price of crude oil plummeted from $42 a barrel to $10, and unemployment and office vacancy rates soared. The oil bust retaught lessons of the Silver Panic of 1893. Led by Governor <strong>Roy Romer </strong>and Denver mayor <strong>Federico Peña</strong>, Denverites explored new economic possibilities, such as high-tech, computer-age enterprises. Meanwhile, Coloradans could take some comfort in economic mainstays such as tourism and recreation. Additionally, in 1988 the city designated the portion of Lower Downtown Denver between Twentieth Street, Larimer Street, Cherry Creek, and Wynkoop Street—locally known as “<a href="/article/lodo-lower-downtown-denver"><strong>LoDo</strong></a>”—as a historic district. In 1991 Denverites elected the development-minded <strong>Wellington Webb </strong>to the mayor’s office. Webb, the city’s first black mayor, served for twelve years and oversaw the completion of a new airport, the arrival of new sports teams, and the expansion of the city’s parks and art museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The successful redevelopment of LoDo brought Major League Baseball’s <strong><a href="/article/colorado-rockies">Colorado Rockies</a> </strong>to Denver in 1995. The franchise built its stadium, <strong>Coors Field</strong>, on the northeast edge of the Historic District at Twentieth and Blake Streets. Architects incorporated elements of the surrounding buildings into the stadium’s design, adding red brick and stone trim. Just across Cherry Creek, the Pepsi Center (now <strong>Ball Arena</strong>) opened in 2000 as home for the National Basketball Association’s <a href="/article/denver-nuggets"><strong>Denver Nuggets</strong></a> and the National Hockey League’s <a href="/article/colorado-avalanche"><strong>Colorado Avalanche</strong></a>. These two giant venues, along with the addition of <strong>Dick’s Sporting Goods Park</strong> in Commerce City in 2006, made the Denver Metro Area into a sports fan’s paradise. Of course, Mile High Stadium, the home of the <a href="/article/denver-broncos"><strong>Denver Broncos</strong></a> on the west bank of the South Platte, had already been a national sports landmark for decades.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Metro Denver Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver is different from other large American cities in several ways. First, its population is generally well educated, with the second-highest per capita education level in the country. Second, most are residents by choice rather than birth—the city, and especially the suburbs, are filled with immigrants from across the nation and world who are more likely to be “United in Orange” (as Broncos fans) than by a common ancestry. In recent years, Denver residents have also continued the city’s long tradition of political activism, organizing protests against Wall Street, police brutality, the federal government and Internal Revenue Service, and the city’s treatment of the homeless.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denverites are also unusually mobile, both in vehicles and with their legs. The American Fitness Index ranks Denver as the third-fittest city in the nation, ahead of both Seattle and Portland. Denverites also own about 1.5 vehicles per household, ranking in the top 25 percent among American cities; the emissions from so many vehicles often creates a visible layer of smog above the city. <a href="/article/union-station-0"><strong>Union Station</strong></a> once made Denver a hub for state and regional travel, but since 1995 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-international-airport"><strong>Denver International Airport</strong></a> (DIA) has taken up that mantle. DIA is the sixth-busiest airport in the United States and the largest by land area, covering more than 33,500 acres. The <strong>Regional Transportation District</strong>, meanwhile, supplies Metro Denver residents with bus and light rail service, including to DIA.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Perhaps the greatest asset of this automobile metropolis is easy escape to the wide open spaces. Within an hour’s drive to the east lie prairie ghost towns and the exquisite solitude of the Great Plains. An hour’s drive to the west takes Denverites to <a href="/article/denver-mountain-parks"><strong>Denver’s Mountain Parks</strong></a> system and the campgrounds, hiking trails, and <a href="/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski</strong></a> areas of the Continental Divide. Long after the founding generations of Denver extolled the beauty of the Front Range, the easy escape to Colorado’s other attractive regions remains one of the Mile High City’s best attributes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>This article is an abbreviated and updated version of the author’s essay “Denver: Mile High Metropolis and Capitol of the Five States of Colorado,” distributed in 2006 as part of <strong>Colorado Humanities</strong>’ “Five States of Colorado” educational resource kit.</em></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/noel-thomas-j" hreflang="und">Noel, Thomas J.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-museum-nature-and-science" hreflang="en">denver museum of nature and science</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lodo" hreflang="en">lodo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-beautiful-movement" hreflang="en">city beautiful movement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mayor-denver" hreflang="en">mayor of denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-mountain-parks" hreflang="en">denver mountain parks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-history" hreflang="en">denver history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tom-noel" hreflang="en">tom noel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/metro-denver" hreflang="en">metro denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-larimer" hreflang="en">william larimer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/jr" hreflang="en">Jr.</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mile-high-city" hreflang="en">mile high city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/queen-city" hreflang="en">queen city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lower-downtown-denver" hreflang="en">lower downtown denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coors-field" hreflang="en">coors field</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/five-points" hreflang="en">Five Points</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capitol-hill" hreflang="en">capitol hill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aurora" hreflang="en">aurora</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arvada" hreflang="en">arvada</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/commerce-city" hreflang="en">commerce city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thornton" hreflang="en">Thornton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brighton" hreflang="en">brighton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lakewood" hreflang="en">lakewood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cherry-creek" hreflang="en">Cherry Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/regional-transportation-district" hreflang="en">Regional Transportation District</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range" hreflang="en">front range</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-broncos" hreflang="en">Denver Broncos</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-rockies" hreflang="en">Colorado Rockies</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/interstate-25" hreflang="en">Interstate 25</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/interstate-70" hreflang="en">interstate 70</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tourism" hreflang="en">tourism</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rossonian-hotel" hreflang="en">rossonian hotel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/robert-s-roeschlaub" hreflang="en">robert s. roeschlaub</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/barney-ford" hreflang="en">Barney Ford</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/washington-park" hreflang="en">Washington Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-park" hreflang="en">City Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-hall" hreflang="en">city hall</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Air Traffic Activity System, “<a href="https://aspm.faa.gov/">Airport Operations: Ranking Report</a>,” Federal Aviation Administration, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>American Fitness Index, “<a href="https://acsmsoftware.com/afi/rankings/">2016 AFI Report</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=RMD18660706.2.2&amp;srpos=48&amp;e=-------en-20-RMD-41">Among the Mountains</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, July 6, 1866.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Isabella Bird, <a href="https://www.mckinley.k12.hi.us/ebooks/pdf/llirm10.pdf"><em>A Lady’s Life in the Rockies</em></a> (1879).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Summer Burke, “<a href="https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&amp;amp;httpsredir=1&amp;amp;article=1017&amp;amp;context=psi_sigma_siren">Community Control: Civil Rights Resistance in the Mile High City</a>,” <em>Psi Sigma Siren </em>7, no. 1 (January 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://voicesofthecivilrightsmovement.com/Video-Collection/2015/12/04/denvers-sit-in-movement/">Denver’s Sit-In Movement</a>,” Voices of the Civil Rights Movement, December 4, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Governing.com, “<a href="https://www.governing.com/archive/car-ownership-numbers-of-vehicles-by-city-map.html">Car Ownership in US Cities</a>,” 2010-13.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Ingold, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2009/04/15/5000-attend-tax-day-tea-party-at-capitol/">5,000 attend tax-day ‘tea party’ at Capitol</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, April 15, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Invisible Government,” <em>Denver Express</em>, March 27, 1924.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah M. Nelson, K. Lynn Berry, Richard F. Carrillo, Bonnie L. Clark, Lori E. Rhodes, and Dean Saitta, <em>Denver: An Archaeological History</em> (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> Thomas J. Noel, <em>The City and the Saloon, Denver, 1858–1916 </em>(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, <em>Showtime: Denver’s Performing Arts, Convention Centers &amp; Theatre District </em>(Denver: Denver’s Division of Theatres &amp; Arenas, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, “<a href="https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/when-kkk-ruled-colorado-not-so-long-ago">When the KKK Ruled Colorado: Not So Long Ago</a>,” Denver Public Library Western History and Geneaology, June 19, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kristin Leigh Painter, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2012/05/01/occupy-denver-joins-occupy-wall-street-in-may-day-protest/">Occupy Denver joins Occupy Wall Street in May Day protest</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, May 1, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas H. Simmons, R. Laurie Simmons, and Dawn Bunyak, “Historic Residential Subdivisions of Metropolitan Denver, 1940–1965,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Serivice form 10-900 (Denver: History Colorado, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/tea-party-activists-rally-at-denver-irs-office/">Tea Party Activists Rally At Denver’s IRS Office</a>,” <em>CBS Denver</em>, May 21, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Chris Walker, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/homeless-sweeps-protests-planned-at-rockies-opener-denver-art-museum-7784003">Homeless Sweeps: Protests Planned at Rockies Opener, Denver Art Museum</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, April 8, 2016.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18591214&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-">Denver City Charter, 1859</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://digital.denverlibrary.org/">Denver Public Library, Western History &amp; Geneaology Digital Collections</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.denverwater.org/">Denver Water</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.englewoodco.gov/">Englewood</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Steve Grinstead, ed., <em>Denver Inside and Out</em>,<em> Colorado History </em>16 (2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis </em>(Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1990).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://lodo.org/">Lower Downtown Denver</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel, <em>Mile High City: An Illustrated History of Denver </em>(Encinitas, CA: Heritage Media, 1997).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365603226/">"Speer &amp; the City,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, November 5, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 03 Aug 2016 21:33:26 +0000 yongli 1575 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Gold Rush http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Gold Rush</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2182--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2182.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/old-colorado-city-historic-commercial-district"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Colorado-Springs-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=FuhT20K7" width="1000" height="417" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/old-colorado-city-historic-commercial-district" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Old Colorado City Historic Commercial District</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado City, now known as "Old Colorado City," was established in 1859 during the Colorado Gold Rush. The town supplied miners in South Park, which lay on the other side of Ute Pass to the west. The city joined Colorado Springs in 1917.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2227--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2227.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/idaho-springs"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Clear-Creek-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=z3GLGR-N" width="1000" height="801" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/idaho-springs" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Idaho Springs</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of downtown Idaho Springs, seat of Clear Creek County, c. 1900-10. The town was formed in 1859, at the height of the Colorado Gold Rush.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-06T14:50:48-06:00" title="Friday, May 6, 2016 - 14:50" class="datetime">Fri, 05/06/2016 - 14:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush" data-a2a-title="Colorado Gold Rush"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-gold-rush&amp;title=Colorado%20Gold%20Rush"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The discovery of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold</strong></a> near present-day Denver in 1858–59 drew thousands of people to present-day Colorado, prompting the political organization of first a US territory and later a state. Many current cities and towns, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>,&nbsp;<a href="/.../central-city–black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a>, and <a href="/.../central-city–black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>, were founded during the Colorado Gold Rush, and its associated activities produced tremendous social and environmental changes, including the displacement and deaths&nbsp;of Indigenous people&nbsp;and the pollution and large-scale manipulation of the Colorado environment.</p><h2>Origins</h2><p>Rumors of gold had filtered out of the Rockies since the sixteenth century. In 1807 explorer <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon M. Pike</strong></a> met trapper James Purcell in Santa Fe and learned that Purcell had found gold in the area eventually known as the&nbsp;<a href="/article/pikes-peak" target="_blank"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>&nbsp;region. In 1850 Cherokees on their way to California found&nbsp;a small amount of gold in Ralston Creek in present-day&nbsp;<strong>Arvada</strong>. In May 1857, <strong>George Simpson </strong>noted&nbsp;gold dust in Cherry Creek, near its confluence with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte River</strong></a>.&nbsp;Around the same time, gold nuggets found near the future site of Denver by Fall Leaf, a Delaware US Army scout, sparked Midwestern and Eastern interest in the western fringe of Kansas Territory.</p><p>More excitement was stirred in the <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/solar-companies-north-carolina-solar-power-systems-reviews-pmftf">summer</a> of 1858, when the Russell brothers—<strong>William</strong>, Oliver, and Levi, along with John Beck and a party of Cherokees and whites from Georgia, reached Ralston Creek, where they found a little gold. They then headed upstream (south) along the South Platte, past&nbsp;<strong>Cherry Creek</strong>&nbsp;and on to Little Dry Creek in present-day Englewood, where they found paying quantities of placer gold. In the late summer and fall of 1858, hundreds of others followed in the Russells’ footsteps, leading to the founding of several towns including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/auraria-west-denver"><strong>Auraria</strong></a>, Denver, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><span><strong>Golden</strong></span></a>.</p><p>The 1858 discoveries were teasers. George Jackson’s discovery of a substantial placer deposit in Chicago Creek near present-day Idaho Springs in January 1859, a lode gold (veins of gold embedded in rock) discovery at Gold Hill in January 1859, and John Gregory’s finding of lode gold near Black Hawk fueled a Gold Rush which drew tens of thousands of prospectors into the region during the spring and summer of 1859. Those adventurers quickly fanned out across the&nbsp;<a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>&nbsp;and traveled&nbsp;deep into the Rockies.</p><p>However, as historians Kent Curtis and <strong>Elliott West</strong> argue, the discovery of gold alone was not enough to set off a rush. Two other factors—the pacification of Native Americans and the unstable economy—opened the door for the surge of immigrants to Colorado in 1859. First, the treaties of<strong> </strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Fort Laramie</strong></a><strong> </strong>(1851) and Fort Atkinson (1853), signed by representatives of the United States and several Indigenous Nations of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great&nbsp;Plains</strong></a>, made the westward trails a bit safer for Anglo-American travelers. Then, an economic downturn beginning in 1857 bankrupted many eastern families, giving them the incentive to head west and start over. Finally, in 1857, news of Col. Edwin V. Sumner’s victory over a group of <strong>Cheyenne</strong> warriors in Kansas created the perception that Native Americans were no longer a threat. All of these events helped push Anglo-Americans and others westward at the time of the first major gold discoveries in the Rockies.</p><h2>Symbolism of Pikes Peak</h2><p>The Colorado Gold Rush is often referred to as the “Pikes Peak Gold Rush.” Although there was some prospecting around Pikes Peak in 1858–59, major gold mining near the mountain did not begin until the 1890s with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> strike. But as the easternmost of Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteeners</strong></a>, the appearance of Pikes Peak on the western horizon served as an encouraging signpost for weary westward immigrants in 1859, and the mountain came to represent the rush to the Rockies more generally; its name was emblazoned on wagons and mentioned in newspaper reports about the rush, and the settlement of <strong>(Old)</strong>&nbsp;<strong>Colorado City</strong> was established at the base of Pikes Peak to supply gold camps in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a>.</p><p>In February and March 1859, thousands of gold seekers, spurred by bad crops and the pressure of debts, assembled in towns along the Missouri River in eastern Kansas and western Missouri for the journey west. For $600—half a year’s pay for a clerk—they could buy three yoke of oxen, wagons, tools, tents, flour, bacon, and coffee for four people at <strong>Pikes Peak Outfitters</strong>. For several weeks in April and May, newspaper editors in the major Missouri River towns reported the passage of forty, seventy-five, or 100 teams per day, and observers found the roads leading west from the river jammed with emigrants’ wagons.</p><h2>“Humbug Mania”</h2><p>As the spring migration began in earnest, editors started to worry that no shipments of gold had yet appeared from those who had wintered on the South Platte River. In early May the first reports of the “go-backers” appeared: stories of disappointed prospectors who had reached the Cherry Creek settlements, tried their hand at panning, and then gave up. By mid-May the ragged, foot-weary go-backers were crossing paths with thousands of wagons heading toward Colorado. According to <em>New York Tribune</em> editor <strong>Horace Greeley</strong>, the total number of go-backers may have been as high as 40,000.</p><p>By early May, Denver had lost two-thirds of its people, and the entire population of the gold region was perhaps only 3,000, a small increase over January and February. The region had gone through an entire cycle of boom and bust in half a year.</p><p>While thousands made their way back eastward across the plains, others turned to new gulches and new hopes along the Front Range. Rich gold mines were in operation west of Boulder&nbsp;at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-hill"><strong>Gold Hill</strong></a> and along <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clear-creek-canyon-0"><strong>Clear Creek</strong></a> by the end of April 1859. Other finds dating from that summer include Left Hand Creek, Twelve-Mile Diggings, Chicago Creek, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre</strong></a>, and the Jackson Diggings. Gold seekers swarmed over Kenosha Pass to South Park and the towns of Montgomery, Buckskin Joe, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>, Tarryall, Hamilton, and Jefferson, and north over Hoosier Pass to American and Humbug gulches in the Blue River valley.</p><h2>Gregory Fever</h2><p>But additional discoveries were not enough to recharge the Colorado gold rush; that would take some timely publicity. The break came on May 13. Denverites were astonished by the display of a vial containing eighty dollars’ worth of gold brought from diggings found a week earlier by Gregory near the North Fork of Clear Creek. By the end of May, the excitement had grown so intense that towns at the base of the mountains were almost emptied.</p><p>Greeley, editor of the nation’s most widely read newspaper, visited Gregory Gulch in June and confirmed the findings in a <em>Rocky Mountain News </em>article. Prospectors became possessed by “Gregory Fever.” Early that month the wooded slopes of Gregory Gulch sheltered a population of 4,000 or 5,000 that slept in tents or lean-to shelters of pine boughs. Over the next month 500 newcomers arrived daily. They dug test holes, uprooted the eighty-foot pines, and left the landscape desolate in search of pockets of pay dirt. They set up numerous camps, one of which—Central City—emerged as the dominant gold camp in the area.</p><p>Most of the prospectors were young men, more than 90 percent of them born in the United States. The others came mainly from Ireland, England, and German-speaking areas of Europe. The 1860 census showed more than twenty men for each woman in the portion of Kansas Territory that would become Colorado.</p><h2>Political Effects</h2><p>Politically, the gold rush of 1858–59 inspired the creation of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861 and shifted the balance of power on the Colorado plains from the Cheyenne and Arapaho to the United States. It also marked the beginning of the decline of the Nuche, or&nbsp;<a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute </strong></a>people,&nbsp;in Colorado, as the US government moved to protect mining interests after 1859 by appropriating Ute territory through a series of treaties. By 1880, twenty-one years after the initial gold rush, the Utes had ceded most of the Rockies and western Colorado—their homeland for centuries—to the United States.</p><p>As many as 100,000 gold seekers may have started for the so-called Pikes Peak goldfields over the course of 1859, but observers believed only 40,000 reached Denver. Perhaps 25,000 entered the mountains between April and October. About 10,000 remained in Colorado by early August—2,000 in Denver, a few hundred in Golden, and most of the remainder engaged in mountain gold mining operations or ever-deepening lode mines. As late as September 24, more than 2,000 were counted in the six-square-mile gulch region around Central City, along the North Fork of Clear Creek.</p><p>The influx of so many white immigrants took a disastrous toll on the Native Americans living in Colorado’s plains and mountains. When the rush began in earnest in 1859, groups of Cheyenne, <strong>Lakota</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, and <strong>Kiowa</strong> lived on the plains, while <a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a> and Arapaho bands lived throughout the Front Range. Plains Indians spent the harsh winters along the sheltered river bottoms of the South Platte River and its tributaries as well as in the natural trough running north and south along the foothills. After 1858 Anglo-Americans increasingly traversed and occupied these areas, killing buffalo, trampling grazing grass, and cutting down precious timber. Native Americans soon found their resource base dwindling, and some began raiding wagon trains for supplies or in hopes of scaring off other white immigrants. Meanwhile, in the mountains, the Ute and Arapaho increasingly found traditional hunting grounds occupied by white mining camps, which cut into supplies of timber and game.</p><p>Faced with starvation and sporadic outbreaks of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a> for which they had no immunity, some Native American leaders, including the Cheyenne chief <strong>Black Kettle</strong> and the Arapaho chief <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chief-left-hand-niwot"><strong>Left Hand</strong></a>, attempted to secure necessary food and supplies through negotiation. In agreements such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> (1861), the US government promised Native Americans food and payment in exchange for land granted to them in previous treaties. However, the government often reneged on these payments, called <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-annuities"><strong>annuities</strong></a>, leading some Native American groups to continue raiding white settlements. Warrior groups such as the Cheyenne <strong>Dog Soldiers</strong> engaged in a protracted war against the US military until 1869, when a decisive US victory in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/battle-summit-springs"><strong>Battle of Summit Springs</strong> </a>effectively ended Native American resistance on the Colorado plains. Afterward, most Arapaho and Cheyenne were moved to a reservation in present-day Oklahoma.</p><h2>Economic Effects</h2><p>Economically, a variety of gold rush-related industries supplanted traditional Native American activities. <strong>Ranching</strong> and irrigated <strong>agriculture</strong> fed miners, while <strong>coal</strong> and iron industries provided energy for steam-powered mining equipment, railroads to ship ore to market, and bricks for towns and cities. Raw ore needed to be smelted to produce valuable metals, and cities such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and <strong>Durango</strong> developed alongside busy smelters. In addition, the success of the 1859 gold rush engendered a sustained interest in the mineral resources of the Rocky Mountains, which led to silver mining in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a> as well as the 1890 Cripple Creek gold rush.</p><h2>Environmental Effects</h2><p>Finally, the surge of mining initiated by the 1859 gold rush produced significant changes in the Coloradan environment. To extract gold from quartz deposits, miners used dangerous chemicals such as cyanide, which often leaked into streams, posing a threat to both wildlife and humans. Miner and taxidermist<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/edwin-carter"> <strong>Edwin Carter</strong></a> noticed this effect as early as the 1860s, when he began finding pollution-induced abnormalities in animals. Deforestation associated with the mass construction of flumes, cabins, sluices, railroads, and mining camps, as well as the removal of large quantities of rock in subsurface mining operations, resulted in less stable hillsides, making it easier for dislodged sediments to clog streams.</p><div style="left:-9727px;position:absolute;"><p>Understanding the historical context of mining's impact on Colorado's environment highlights the importance of responsible and sustainable practices in all industries, including the online gaming sector. As a committed advocate for responsible gaming, OnlineCasino 65 emphasizes the significance of ethical practices within the virtual casino arena. 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By prioritizing online casinos that use renewable energy sources for their servers or support environmental initiatives, OnlineCasino 65 not only contributes to a safer gaming environment for players but also champions the cause of preserving our planet's delicate ecosystems, much like Edwin Carter's efforts to protect wildlife from the adverse effects of gold mining.</p></div><div style="left:-9837px;position:absolute;"><p>Looking for a smooth and secure way to fund your online gaming sessions? Opt for a reliable casino with Google Pay, the latest trend in Australia’s online gambling scene. Google Pay is a digital wallet platform that offers swift transactions, so you can top up your casino balance and start playing in mere seconds. The convenience of using Google Pay lies in its simplicity and the fact that it eliminates the need to enter lengthy card details. Australian players can now benefit from this hassle-free payment method at select reputable online casinos, ensuring that their personal information remains protected. A <a href="https://aucasinoslist.com/casinos/google-pay/">casino with google pay</a> assures a level of security synonymous with Google's trusted services while providing an uninterrupted and enjoyable online gaming experience. Make your next deposit with confidence and ease, knowing that you're using one of the fastest-growing payment methods in the Australian online casino market.</p></div><div style="left:-9611px;position:absolute;"><p>Transport yourself back to an era of old-world charm and classic gaming with <a href="https://nostalgia.cad.casino/">Nostalgia casino Canada</a>. As one of the most cherished online gambling destinations for Canadian players, this casino offers a unique blend of vintage aesthetics and modern-day online casino technology. Indulge in a vast array of games, including timeless slots, table games, and progressive jackpots, all within a secure and trustworthy environment. Nostalgia Casino Canada prides itself on its user-friendly experience and generous bonuses, starting with an inviting sign-up offer that allows you to delve into the world of gaming for just a small deposit. The casino also provides seamless banking options tailored for Canadian players, ensuring quick and safe transactions. At Nostalgia Casino Canada, you get to enjoy the elegance of bygone days coupled with cutting-edge gaming convenience, making it the go-to choice for anyone looking to relive the golden age of casino entertainment.</p></div><p>One of the most important changes that mining brought to the Colorado environment was the exposure of millions of tons of buried rock to oxygen, initiating a process known as <strong>acid mine drainage</strong>. Once exposed to air, sulfides in the metal lodged within the rock begin to break down into sulfuric acid, which dissolves the metals and allows them to drain into local water sources. Although it was initiated during the nineteenth century, this process continues to affect Coloradans today; one of the most dramatic examples occurred during summer 2015, when workers with the US Environmental Protection Agency accidentally released a torrent of water contaminated with liquefied metals into the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>.</p><p><strong>Adapted from Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, </strong><em><strong>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</strong></em><strong>, 5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013) and Robert R. Crifasi, </strong><em><strong>A Land Made from Water</strong></em><strong> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015).</strong></p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pikes-peak" hreflang="en">pikes peak</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pikes-peak-gold-rush" hreflang="en">pikes peak gold rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/humbug-mania" hreflang="en">Humbug Mania</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/central-city" hreflang="en">Central City</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/golden" hreflang="en">golden</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/auraria" hreflang="en">auraria</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-green-russel" hreflang="en">william green russel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-discovery-colorado" hreflang="en">gold discovery in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-rush" hreflang="en">gold rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fifty-niners" hreflang="en">fifty-niners</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/59ers" hreflang="en">59ers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-founded" hreflang="en">denver founded</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-denver" hreflang="en">history of denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-history" hreflang="en">colorado history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horace-greeley" hreflang="en">Horace Greeley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gregory-fever" hreflang="en">Gregory Fever</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/go-backers" hreflang="en">Go-Backers</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Kent Curtis, “Producing a Gold Rush: National Ambitions and the Northern Rocky Mountains, 1853–1863,” <em>Western Historical Quarterly </em>40, no. 3 (Autumn 2009).</p><p>“<a href="https://digital.denverlibrary.org/digital/collection/p15330coll22/id/75053">Gregory Gulch, Colorado</a>,” (Photo) Denver Public Library, Western History and Genealogy Collection.</p><p>David Lindsey, ed., “<a href="http://www.kancoll.org/khq/1956/56_4_lindsey.htm">The Journal of an 1859 Pike’s Peak Gold Seeker</a>,” <em>Kansas Historical Quarterly </em>22, no. 4 (Winter 1956).</p><p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p><p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p><p>Ellen Wohl, “<a href="https://www.u.arizona.edu:443/~conniew1/geog532/Wohl2006.pdf">Human impacts to mountain streams</a>,” <em>Geomorphology </em>79 (2006).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Bill Chappell, “<a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/08/10/431223703/epa-says-it-released-3-million-gallons-of-contaminated-water-into-river">EPA Says It Released 3 Million Gallons of Contaminated Water Into River</a>,” The Two-Way, NPR, updated August 14, 2015.</p><p>“<a href="https://westernmininghistory.com/4785/the-colorado-gold-rush/">The Colorado Gold Rush</a>,” <em>Western Mining History</em>, July 16, 2009.</p><p>“<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/colorado-mine-tours-gold-rush-towns">Colorado Mine Tours &amp; Gold Rush Towns</a>,” Colorado.com, last updated June 9, 2015.</p><p>Duane Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold and Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 06 May 2016 20:50:48 +0000 yongli 1335 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org