%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/institute-arctic-and-alpine-research-instaar <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR)</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-08-09T15:32:09-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 9, 2022 - 15:32" class="datetime">Tue, 08/09/2022 - 15:32</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/institute-arctic-and-alpine-research-instaar" data-a2a-title="Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR)"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Finstitute-arctic-and-alpine-research-instaar&amp;title=Institute%20of%20Arctic%20and%20Alpine%20Research%20%28INSTAAR%29"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><div>&#13; <p>The Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) is the oldest research institute at the <strong>University of Colorado</strong>. It studies the connectivity of cold desert ecosystems, like the ones found on <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountain</strong></a> peaks. INSTAAR was one of the country's first prominent ecological research programs and found early success in the mid-twentieth century. Since the mid-1970s, INSTAAR has shifted its mission to study how climate change affects the high-altitude tundra and how these seemingly small changes in Colorado may affect similar ecosystems globally.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early History</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The idea for an alpine research organization was devised in 1946 when John Marr, professor of biology at the University of Colorado, took a group of students to the school’s <strong>Science Lodge </strong>on Niwot Ridge, near the Indian Peaks west of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong>,</a> to study winter plant ecology. While eating sandwiches and discussing dwarven plants, Marr and his students were overcome by a blizzard. The stormy picnic inspired Marr and his students to establish measurement stations around the lodge to record wild weather fluctuations and to gather more data about the alpine tundra. INSTAAR was born.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From the outset, INSTAAR was concerned with the global connectivity of tundra environments but had difficulty fulfilling its mission due to constant budget constraints. John Marr and his team aimed to record data in both Colorado and the Canadian Arctic, where he previously studied tree distribution and soil composition. But the institute could only get enough cash for a seasonal stint in Ungava Bay in Nunavut, Canada, in 1948. As he struggled to find funding for longer Arctic research trips, Marr insisted that the team could facilitate near-identical studies in Colorado, where high <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/.../beatrice-willard-alpine-tundra-research-%20plots"><strong>alpine tundra</strong></a> ecosystems mirrored Arctic conditions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neither CU nor the federal government was interested in funding a new biological database to survey conditions in Niwot because the research had no immediate promise of profit or Cold War-era military application. In response to the government’s data priorities, Marr advertised his program as an opportunity for the Army’s Quartermaster General office to test cold weather equipment. The Quartermaster General office took the bait and funded Marr’s alpine ecology field research on the condition that he and his students test military gear, such as coats, gloves, and even tank-like vehicles, while they collected data.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Institute of Arctic and Alpine Ecology was officially formed in 1951 (the catchy acronym INSTAAR was not adopted until the mid-1960s). Within the year, Marr and his students established sixteen Environmental Analysis Stations around Niwot Ridge, at elevations ranging from 5,500 to 13,000 feet.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, INSTAAR began to garner a reputation for its local accessibility, wide-ranging interdisciplinary research, and educational fieldwork opportunities. Meanwhile, Marr’s students conducted research of their own. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beatrice-willard"><strong>Beatrice Willard</strong></a>, a student of Marr’s in the late 1950s, was among the first to study sensitive alpine tundra environments along <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/trail-ridge-road"><strong>Trail Ridge Road</strong></a> in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Shift in Focus</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1960s and early 1970s marked a shift in the University of Colorado’s emphasis on scientific research. In 1967 CU geography professor Jack Ives<strong>,</strong> former director of the Sub-Arctic Research Laboratory at McGill University in Québec, Canada, took on Marr’s position at INSTAAR. CU hired Ives as a way to attract other world-renowned cold temperature researchers and expand CU’s growing reputation as a scientific research behemoth. Ives took full advantage of the university’s renewed investment by finally cosigning yearly research trips to Baffin Island and Labrador in the Canadian Arctic. This solidified a permanent polar presence for the institution.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ives not only stretched INSTAAR’s geographic range but also helped make a compelling case for why Colorado’s ecology mattered globally. INSTAAR’s two-decade history of long-term ecological research in the alpine tundra earned Niwot Ridge a tundra biome site designation for the International Biological Program (IBP) in 1971. The program collected data about ecosystems around the world to understand how they might interact with one another on a global scale.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1960s also saw INSTAAR’s first major project emphasizing the functional application of tundra research for state and national interests. In 1969 INSTAAR partnered with <strong>Colorado State University</strong> (CSU) to research the effects of cloud seeding in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a> funded the study and assessed how animals and plants reacted to higher precipitation and delayed snowmelt, in addition to how the active trigger chemical in seeding—iodide, toxic to both animals and humans—affected those life systems. CSU focused on collecting data on forest ecosystems, while INSTAAR tackled similar research in the alpine tundra.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The operation's goal was to build on previously successful cloud-seeding experiments toward adding more water to the Upper <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado River</strong></a> Basin. The bureau hoped that weather modification would be the ultimate step in reconfiguring the western landscape against the threat of <strong>drought</strong> and the region’s growing population. INSTAAR and CSU took on this initiative despite knowing that the experiments might elevate levels of silver iodide in the Basin. The data ultimately reflected this worst-case scenario, and the program was shut down when toxicity in the region increased.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>INSTAAR’s work with CSU on the cloud seeding project demonstrated that it could successfully collaborate with other institutions. This led to an additional research partnership with the University of Washington, and the Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labs in New Hampshire focused on <strong>avalanche</strong> research. These seven years brought considerable fame to INSTAAR in the academic community while highlighting additional applications of its tundra research.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Role of Climate Change</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since the 1970s, INSTAAR has increasingly focused on atmospheric research and the impact of climate change. This was partly thanks to an invigorated <strong>environmental movement</strong> and increasing recognition of ecology’s role in human health and wellbeing. In response to this movement, the federal government launched the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) initiative, which awarded funding to long-term data-collection projects. The National Science Foundation began searching for sites in 1978, and by 1980 Niwot Ridge became one of the first locations to receive an LTER designation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1992 the University of Colorado, in partnership with the United States Geological Survey (USGS), was awarded a second LTER site in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. INSTAAR’s inclusion in the LTER signaled a shift from national security applications to the scientific investigation of the effects of climate change.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Much of the USGS’s work in Antarctica involved drilling for ice cores to study biological and environmental conditions. The INSTAAR-USGS partnership in Antarctica culminated in the creation of the National Ice Core Lab in 1993. This was housed in the USGS federal center in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and administered by INSTAAR. The goal of the Ice Core Lab is to collect, house, and distribute ice cores. Management of the lab has since been transferred from INSTAAR to the University of New Hampshire. Studying ice cores helps researchers understand historic chemical fluctuations in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide levels, providing insight into today’s atmospheric composition.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recent Activity</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since the 1980s, INSTAAR has pioneered several landmark observations and models regarding tundra and polar science. The Niwot LTER, for instance, has determined that the tundra is becoming incrementally wetter and has created several models articulating carbon and nitrogen cycling in the tundra. Researchers at the McMurdo site have studied how changing stream flows due to climate change have affected delicate microbial environments. In 2012 the INSTAAR team in Antarctica also worked with NASA to study microbiology in the context of climate change and potential extraterrestrial organisms. Research in both regions is ongoing and has been a critical resource for other federal scientific agencies, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), and other organizations. </p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Legacy</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>INSTAAR’s decades of ecological research have helped scientists understand how global environments are connected. INSTAAR continues to advance this mission, making its work more accessible to the public through educational programs at Mountain Research Station and other trips that invite students into the field. INSTAAR has played an instrumental role in working to help Colorado scientists and communities understand how to mitigate and prepare for the effects of climate change.</p>&#13; </div>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/petrie-gentrice" hreflang="und">Petrie, Gentrice</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arctic-research" hreflang="en">arctic research</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/instaar" hreflang="en">instaar</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alpine-tundra-research" hreflang="en">alpine tundra research</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alpine-tundra-scientists" hreflang="en">alpine tundra scientists</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/science-colorado" hreflang="en">science in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/berthoud-pass" hreflang="en">berthoud pass</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-peaks" hreflang="en">indian peaks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-marr" hreflang="en">john marr</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beatrice-willard" hreflang="en">Beatrice Willard</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trail-ridge-road" hreflang="en">Trail Ridge Road</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-national" hreflang="en">rocky mountain national</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Martha Andrews, Scott Elias, Anne Jennings, et al. <em>Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research 1993-1994 Biennial Report. </em>Boulder: INSTAAR, 1994.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elena Aronova, Karen S. Baker, and Naomi Oreskes, “<a href="https://online.ucpress.edu/hsns/article-abstract/40/2/183/105628/Big-Science-and-Big-Data-in-Biology-From-the?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Big Science and Big Data in Biology: From the International Geophysical Year through the International Biological Program to the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network, 1957–Present</a>,” <em>Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences</em>, May 1, 2010.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel B. Botkin, “<a href="https://lternet.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/77workshop.pdf">Piolet Program for Long-Term Observation and Study of Ecosystems in the United States</a>,” National Science Foundation, February 10, 1978.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joel B. Hagen, <em>An Entangled Bank:</em> <em>The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology </em>(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Halfpenny et al., “<a href="https://instaar.colorado.edu/uploads/occasional-papers/OP37.pdf">Ecological Studies in the Colorado Alpine: A Festschrift for John W. Marr</a>,” Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, 1982.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/resources/979">John W. Marr Papers</a>, University of Boulder Libraries, Boulder, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Margaret P. O’Mara, <em>Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley</em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kathleen Salzberg, Nan Elias, and Polly Christensen, “<a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/%5B50th-anniversary%5D.-Delatte/f84c18e4cb2de7efa9e092cf989fe28ae010d2c6?p2df">The Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, 50<sup>th</sup> Anniversary: 1951-2001</a>,” Regents of the University of Colorado, 2001. </p>&#13; &#13; <p>Leo Teller, Harold W. Steinhoff, Jack D. Ives, and Colorado State University Department of Water Sciences, <em>The San Juan Ecology Project, Phase I: A Problem Analysis and Study Plan for an Evaluation of the Ecological Impact of Weather Modification in the Upper Colorado River Basin. Final Report for the Period February 1970-August 1970</em> (Fort Collins: Colorado State University, 1970).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Leo Teller, Harold W. Steinhoff, Jack D. Ives, and Colorado State University Department of Water Sciences, <em>The San Juan Ecology Project: An Evaluation of the Ecological Impact of Weather Modification on the Upper Colorado River Basin, Interim Progress Report for the period September 1970-October 1971 </em>(Fort Collins: Colorado State University, 1971).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John F. Vernberg et al. “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3881109">Field Stations of the United States</a>,” <em>American Zoologist</em>, 1963.  </p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/research">INSTAAR Current Research</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a name="_Hlk30156368" id="_Hlk30156368"></a><a href="https://icecores.org/about">National Ice Core Facility</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://lternet.edu/network-organization/lter-a-history/">Timeline of the LTER project</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Aug 2022 21:32:09 +0000 yongli 3733 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Precious Metal Mining in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold_%28Dixie_Mine%2C_Idaho_Springs%2C_Colorado%2C_USA%29_3_%2817030135106%29_0.jpg?itok=RpPwBrd-" width="1090" height="757" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/gold-taken-colorado-mine" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gold Taken from Colorado Mine</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>During the raising of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> millions of years ago, superheated fluids rose from deep within the Earth and pushed minerals such as gold and silver up through the Earth's crust. Erosion brought pieces of gold downstream in creeks (placer gold), while the deeper deposits (lode gold) could only be recovered by skilled labor and technology.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3768--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3768.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/argo-tunnel"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/6210103088_252254fdb0_k_0.jpg?itok=DjskRzJC" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/argo-tunnel" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Argo Tunnel</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Argo Tunnel was part of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>precious metal minin</strong></a>g operations in <a href="/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a> and <a href="/article/clear-creek-county"><strong>Clear Creek County</strong></a> during the late nineteenth century. At more than four miles long, it connected a host of gold mines between <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a> and <strong>Idaho Springs</strong> before it was shuttered following an accident in 1943.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2022-08-09T11:55:06-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 9, 2022 - 11:55" class="datetime">Tue, 08/09/2022 - 11:55</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado" data-a2a-title="Precious Metal Mining in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprecious-metal-mining-colorado&amp;title=Precious%20Metal%20Mining%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>From the 1850s to the 1920s, gold and silver mining drove Colorado’s economy, making it into an urbanized, industrial state. The rapid development of Colorado’s mineral resources had political, social, and environmental consequences. The mining of gold and silver in Colorado began in earnest during the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. The state’s first miners used metal pans to sift gold nuggets out of riverbeds. Prospecting these streams quickly outlined a mineral belt stretching diagonally across the state from <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> to the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-mountains"><strong>San Juan Mountains</strong></a>. Colorado’s principal towns and mines were developed within this belt. Industrial mining followed, allowing for deeper extraction of gold and silver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining spurred many events in Colorado history, including the removal of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/person/native-americans"><strong>Indigenous people</strong></a>, the development of commercial agriculture, the organization of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-territory"><strong>territory</strong></a> and state of Colorado, the <strong>Civil War</strong> in the West, the development of <strong>railroads,</strong> and heavy industry such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal mining</strong></a>, precious- and base-metal <strong>smelting</strong>, and<strong> steel production</strong>. Most of the state’s influential political figures from the late nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries had connections to the metal industry. That industry attracted immigrants, ideas, and technology from all over the world. Mining and smelting also led to the development of unions, strikes, and labor conflicts in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it no longer underwrites the state economy, precious metal mining continues in Colorado today, the ongoing legacy of discoveries made more than 150 years ago.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Geology of Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s precious metals were embedded into the rocks of the northeastern <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> tens of millions of years ago. Superheated fluids transported dissolved minerals into fractures in pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks and into soluble Paleozoic limestone. As the solutions cooled, free metals and metallic compounds were deposited in the rock. Gold is generally found throughout veins of quartz-rich igneous rocks called “pegmatites” or compounded with another element called tellurium into “gold telluride.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silver, meanwhile, is rarely found on its own. It is usually associated with lead, zinc, iron, and <strong>other metals,</strong> as well as non-metallic sulfur, carbonate, and chloride in minerals such as galena, cerussite, and sphalerite. These minerals formed the heavy, dark gray silver-lead ore found in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> during the 1870s. And as the iron sulfide (also called pyrite or “fool’s gold”) was exposed to air, it was altered to form weak sulfuric acid that leaks out of mines and into local water sources, a phenomenon known as <strong>acid mine drainage</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the northeastern Colorado mineral belt, the mountains were uplifted at the end of the Cretaceous Period (65–70 million years ago). Fast-flowing water and glacial ice eroded these rocks and deposited the metals in the gravel and sand of stream channels, sand bars, and terraces. These streams were the first locations where gold was found in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southwestern portion of the mineral belt was formed very differently. Around 25–35 million years ago, a long episode of volcanic eruptions deposited thick lava flows over the entire region. Some of these were super-sized, explosive volcanoes that created calderas similar to the Yellowstone caldera, only smaller. Superheated fluids containing dissolved metals, similar to the geysers in Yellowstone, flowed into fractures in these volcanic rocks and precipitated the metals as they cooled. These calderas—including the Silverton, Lake City, Creede, Bonanza, La Garita, and others—are now the locations of the principal San Juan mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Types of Mining</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Placer Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Panning gold from stream and terrace gravels is called <em>placer </em>mining, derived from the Spanish word <em>placer</em> or “pleasure”—the gold is available at one’s pleasure. Between 1858 and 1867, Colorado placer miners took out more than $14 million in gold (when gold was valued at about $20 per troy ounce) from creeks and streambeds. The early Colorado prospectors needed only a large pan that looked like a pie pan, a pick, and a shovel to pan for gold. Being denser than the sand around it, the gold settled to the bottom of the pan as the water and lighter sand swirled away.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A strong magnet could then separate heavy black iron (magnetite) that would settle to the pan's bottom. A problem in some parts of Colorado was the presence of another heavy black mineral that was non-magnetic. During the early gold rush, this mineral was assayed as a lead compound, which was worthless to gold miners. Only later would it be found to contain silver as well as lead, zinc, and other metals.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To process more gold-bearing sand than an individual with a pan, miners began working in teams using rockers, a cradle-like wooden box, and sluices—long, high-sided wooden flumes with numerous cross-pieces nailed to the bottom. Both techniques emulated the natural stream-sorting of the denser gold nuggets, flakes, and dust while carrying off the gravel and sand. Because a considerable flow of water was needed to separate the gold, this technology was little used in areas with seasonal stream flows.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hydraulic Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>When placer deposits ran out, miners in places such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>South Park</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a> turned to hydraulic mining, in which highly pressurized water was used to blast thick terrace gravel away from hillsides, sending the metal-containing debris down into a series of sluices. However, the relative lack of water and hose materials, as well as the fact that many gulches had already been placer-mined to exhaustion, meant that hydraulic mining did not become as prevalent in Colorado as it had in California.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Hard-Rock Mining</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Instead of hydraulic mining, most of Colorado’s gold and silver were taken out by mining the bedrock. Miners started using this method in the early 1860s. Lode or hard-rock mining required digging shafts and tunnels into the mountains, following the veins downward from the surface. Recoverable gold and silver in the lodes is called <em>ore</em>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At first, hard-rock miners used hand drills, sharpened pieces of steel like long chisels, that were hit with hammers to drill holes for black powder. The explosive would blow apart the ore-bearing rock, allowing the ore to be shoveled into ore cars for the trip to the surface. By the 1890s, when the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> gold rush and silver booms in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/creede">Creede</a> </strong>were in full swing, hand drills began to be replaced by steam-powered or compressed-air drills.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Processing Precious Metals</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early days of the Colorado Gold Rush, placer miners borrowed the Spanish process of using mercury to extract gold; the two heavy metals were bound together in an amalgam and would sink to the bottom of the sluice. The amalgam was then heated in a retort until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold and retorted mercury to be collected.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1860s, before successful smelting in Colorado, ore was taken from a mine to a stamp mill, where it was crushed into sand and then washed over copper plates embedded with mercury, or simply into sluice boxes to recover the gold. The use of mercury posed a threat to miners, mill workers, and local wildlife, as documented by the gold seeker-turned-naturalist <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/edwin-carter"><strong>Edwin Carter</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Early stamp milling was relatively inefficient, with as little as 25 percent of the gold content recovered. The inefficiency came because milling is only a physical separation process and does not break the chemical bonds between the rock and gold. As mines became deeper, lower-grade ore and ore laden with sulfides made profitable milling difficult. The result was the first “bust” in Colorado’s gold “boom.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Advent of Smelting</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1860s, entrepreneurial chemistry professor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/nathaniel-p-hill"><strong>Nathaniel P. Hill</strong></a> applied a process he learned in Wales to build the state’s first successful smelter in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>. Smelters use heat to melt milled ore and chemically separate the precious metals. The advent of smelting not only revived the struggling mining industry in Colorado but also launched the potential extraction of silver from complex ores.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Smelting also galvanized the <a href="file:///C:/Users/yongli/Downloads/coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coal-mining-colorado"><strong>coal industry</strong></a>, as large amounts of coke—an industrial fuel derived from coal—were needed to fuel the smelters. By 1890 Leadville had fourteen smelters, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and Denver had three, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/golden"><strong>Golden</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a>, Aspen, and <strong>Durango</strong> each had one.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A new gold-extraction process gained traction in Colorado during the Cripple Creek gold boom of the 1890s. Using cyanide to separate gold was, as mining historian Jay Fell writes, “far more efficient than stamp milling and far less expensive than smelting.” Like earlier stamp milling, the process involved crushing the gold ore into sand, but instead of running it over copper plates or through sluices, the cyanide mills sent the sand into vats of a cyanide solution which dissolved gold for extraction.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Like smelting, cyanide milling was developed overseas; it was used extensively in South Africa during the 1880s before being implemented in Colorado mining operations at <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crestone"><strong>Crestone</strong></a> and Cripple Creek. Despite the success of cyanide in gold processing, silver-lead-zinc ores still had to be smelted. Many Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters operated until the 1920s, and one each in Denver and Leadville operated until the 1960s.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Timeline of Precious Metal Mining in Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Early History</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1849 California Gold Rush set off the search for precious metals across the American West. On their way to California, various groups traveling across the Rockies began finding small amounts of gold in <strong>Cherry Creek</strong> and other streams near present-day Denver. These early findings attracted little attention after the 1851 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> made the area more accessible to non-Natives and an economic depression in 1857 led many eastern Americans to seek their fortunes in the West. In 1858 the party of <strong>William Green Russell</strong>, prospectors with experience from gold rushes in Georgia and California, made a minor gold discovery in Cherry Creek.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The ensuing Colorado Gold Rush saw thousands of people cross the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> to newly established towns such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, Cañon City, and Golden; by 1860, the non-Native population of Colorado—which was then still controlled mainly by Indigenous people and officially part of western Kansas Territory—numbered over 34,000. The following year, with the Civil War looming, Congress organized Colorado Territory in part to safeguard the gold-producing region from the emerging Confederacy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s population swiftly declined in the early 1860s, as many of the most popular gold streams were panned out and hard rock mining began. People left the area to join the Union or Confederate armies and to seek their fortunes in the Idaho and Montana gold rushes that began in 1862.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Spread Across the Rockies</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the mid-to-late 1860s, the violent removal of the <strong>Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, as well as treaties with the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people of the Rocky Mountains and the importing of stamp milling and smelting, revived Colorado’s gold-mining industry. This was followed in the 1870s by the development of railroads in the mining districts and discoveries of gold and silver in the San Juan Mountains, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison Valley</strong></a>, and Leadville. The forced removal of much of Colorado’s Ute population in 1881 made industrial mining possible in places such as Aspen (silver) and the San Juan Mountain towns of <strong>Ouray</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/telluride"><strong>Telluride</strong></a> (gold and silver).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Silver’s Rise and Fall</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The fates of Colorado’s gold and silver mining industries were always bound to national events. Beginning in the late 1850s, during the Colorado Gold Rush, the rapid development of the Comstock Lode, a massive silver deposit in Nevada, sent the price of silver tumbling. The price drop continued when Colorado’s silver industry came alive in Leadville in the late 1870s, prompting those invested in western silver to lobby Congress for support. The Bland-Allison Act, passed in 1878, compelled the government to purchase a set amount of silver each year and was a boon for Colorado mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 increased the government’s silver-buying obligation and further stimulated silver production in Colorado. During the ensuing debate over which precious metals would back US currency, most Coloradans supported silver because Colorado’s silver mines, anchored by booming Leadville and Aspen, were producing some $20 million in silver each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The overproduction of silver had already caused its price to drop by about a quarter when another <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/panic-1893"><strong>economic depression hit in 1893</strong>.</a> That year, the US government sought to protect its diminishing gold reserves by halting its silver purchases. After the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, the price of silver dropped even further, to about sixty-three cents per ounce by 1894.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the repeal was intended to stimulate the national economy, it devastated Colorado’s. Of the silver mining towns, Leadville suffered the most, with ninety mines closed and 2,500 unemployed. Aspen’s silver boom effectively ended, and the town later had to reinvent itself as a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ski-industry"><strong>ski</strong></a> destination to survive. Altogether, more than 9,500 jobs dried up in mining towns across the state. Colorado’s silver industry never recovered, with production dwindling to below $10 million per year after the turn of the century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Cripple Creek and Consolidation</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the bane of Colorado’s silver industry, repealing the Sherman Act was a boon for mining gold and other metals. Many out-of-work silver miners flocked to new discoveries in the Cripple Creek gold mines.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Cripple Creek district was on the western flank of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>, where local rancher Bob Womack found gold in 1890. With the repeal of the Sherman Act, the value of gold in Colorado increased by about $4 million (40 percent) from 1894 to 1895 and reached a peak of $28 million in 1900, due primarily to Cripple Creek production.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As in other industries—such as railroads, steel, and petroleum—the precious metals industry began to consolidate in the 1890s. This led to the creation of large companies that controlled both mines and smelters. Formed in 1899, the <strong>American Smelting and Refining Company</strong> (ASARCO) was the most significant of these companies in Colorado, operating the <strong>Globe smelter</strong> in Denver, the Arkansas Valley smelter in Leadville, and the <strong>Colorado smelter</strong> in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, as well as dozens of mines across the state. Several years later, ASARCO also acquired the Guggenheim family’s smelters at those locations, creating a near-monopoly in Colorado’s smelting industry.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Twentieth Century</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thereafter, the amount of gold produced in Colorado began to taper off, dropping from 20 million ounces in 1900 to 8.5 million by 1910, then down to 5.4 million ounces in 1920. Gold’s value, however, remained steady throughout the 1910s, hovering around $20 million for the better part of the decade. Its value declined as English investors pulled out of Colorado mines to support their home nation during <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1910s, dredging provided hope for gold mining outfits in five Colorado counties. Dredging used a mechanical chain of buckets attached to a boom on a huge flat-bottom barge floating on a self-dug pond. The dredge buckets scooped large volumes of riverbed gravel into an onboard sluice, where gold was separated. The “waste” gravel was then stacked by a conveyor belt in huge dredge piles still visible along the Blue River near Breckenridge and southeast of <a href="/article/fairplay"><strong>Fairplay</strong></a>. Although it did not bring gold mining back to its heyday, dredging yielded modest gold production in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a> Counties through the early 1940s, when the federal government halted gold mining during <strong>World War II</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, with mine production continuing to fall, most Colorado silver-lead-zinc smelters had been shut down by the late 1920s, leaving only one Leadville and one Denver facility in operation. Fewer smelters meant higher costs for transporting ore, making it even harder to turn a profit on the lower-grade ore that remained. Gold and silver production and values dwindled. To compensate, the US Mint stopped coining gold in 1933 and raised the price from $20 per troy ounce to $35 per troy ounce, where it remained until 1972.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the war, gold and silver became mere nuggets in the state’s mining stream, which was dominated by <strong>molybdenum </strong>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/uranium-mining"><strong>uranium</strong></a>. The last underground mine in the Cripple Creek District shut down in 1964. By 1975, when US citizens could again own gold bullion, Colorado still produced some $5.4 million in gold annually. However, along with silver, gold was primarily a by-product of mining for other, more profitable metals. Colorado’s molybdenum production, for instance, was $183 million that year.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Labor Strife</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As the precious-metal mining industry consolidated in the late nineteenth century, the era of the individual prospector rushing to strike it rich came to an end, replaced by the grueling drudgery of workers mining for a company. Hard-rock mining was dangerous, with daily hazards including rock falls, injuries from drills and other equipment, and dynamite blasts. As mining historian Duane Smith put it, many accidents and injuries stemmed from “general rashness and lack of care” on behalf of the companies and fellow workers. In addition, many miners developed silicosis, a deadly lung disease caused by inhaling tiny rock particles all day. By 1900 miners braved all these risks for an average of about three dollars per eight-hour day, paltry earnings compared to those of the company bosses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Disgruntled hard-rock miners joined the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-federation-miners"><strong>Western Federation of Miners</strong></a> (WFM), which lobbied for better pay and working conditions and organized strikes in such places as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville-strike-1896%E2%80%9397"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <strong>Cripple Creek</strong>, and <strong>Telluride</strong>. The tensions that stemmed from the miners’ exploited condition sometimes boiled over into outright labor conflict, such as when WFM members in Cripple Creek blew up a train platform where strikebreakers arrived in 1894 or when striking miners shot at and bombed strikebreakers in Leadville in 1896. For all their organizing and sacrifice, miners’ gains in this period were relatively small; slight pay increases, as well as the state’s implementation of an eight-hour workday in 1899, were among their victories—although subsequent strikes proved necessary to get mine owners to follow the law.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Production</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it is far from being as profitable as it was in the nineteenth century, gold and silver mining continues in Colorado today. After a brief hiatus in the 1960s, gold and silver mining resumed at the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine in the late 1970s. Today the mine produces about 322,000 ounces of gold and silver each year. While this is nothing compared to the 25 million ounces pulled out of Colorado mines in 1893, its value—some $580 million at a rate of roughly $1,800 per troy ounce—is still substantial.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mine operators still use milling technology to crush the ore to a usable size. From there, the Cripple Creek and Victor Mine now use a process called <em>heap-leaching </em>to recover gold from ore instead of cyanide vats. In heap-leaching, the ore is crushed into sand, piled up, and dripped with a cyanide solution that causes the metals to dissolve and leach into a catchment pond, where the gold can be recovered, and the cyanide reused.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>Legacy</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gold and silver mining played an essential role in the development of modern Colorado, but it also touched off a statewide environmental crisis that is ongoing today. Acid mine drainage—the breakdown and leaching of sulfide metals from mine workings, mine waste rock, and mill tailings into local water sources—became a concern in the late twentieth century due to the Clean Water Act and similar environmental laws. This has resulted in lawsuits against mining companies and the creation of several <strong>Superfund sites in Colorado</strong> where the US <strong>Environmental Protection Agency</strong> (EPA) has worked to contain and treat contaminated water from mining districts.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although the EPA is tasked with cleaning up mines with acidic drainage, the agency has sometimes caused further damage. In 2015, EPA crews <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-king-mine-spill"><strong>accidentally released</strong></a> some 3 million gallons of metal-contaminated water into the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/animas-river"><strong>Animas River</strong></a>. That spill, originating from the <strong>Gold King Mine</strong> north of Durango, demonstrated the risk of modern environmental disasters arising from nineteenth-century gold and silver mining in Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the mines themselves, processing precious metals also produced environmental problems. Emissions from smelters caused localized acid rain; the emissions, as well as the waste material from smelting called <em>slag</em>, contained high levels of arsenic and lead, both harmful to human health. Multiple smelter locations across the state, including in Denver’s <strong>Globeville</strong> neighborhood and in Pueblo, became Superfund cleanup sites in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with the EPA and in some cases, the smelting company working to remove contaminated soil and slag piles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, the legacy of Colorado’s precious-metal mines also continues in other, more positive ways. As a result of its durability and malleability, much of the gold mined in Colorado during the 1800s is still in use today, whether in jewelry, electronics, space probes, or the treasury reserves of nations across the globe. And the silver, used in US coins until 1972 and in film processing until the 1990s, is now found in jewelry and high-conductivity electronic circuits. Although more than 160 years have passed since the Colorado Gold Rush began, the sun’s gleam off the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>State Capitol</strong></a>’s gold dome continues to reflect the state’s mining heritage.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/hart-steve" hreflang="und">Hart, Steve</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/fell-james-e" hreflang="und">Fell, James E.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">gold mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silver-mining-colorado" hreflang="en">silver mining colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/metal-mining" hreflang="en">metal mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mining" hreflang="en">mining</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/acid-mine-drainage" hreflang="en">acid mine drainage</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride" hreflang="en">Telluride</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-hawk" hreflang="en">Black Hawk</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cripple-creek" hreflang="en">Cripple Creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aspen" hreflang="en">Aspen</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/leadville" hreflang="en">Leadville</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/railroads" hreflang="en">railroads</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/smelter" hreflang="en">smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/breckenridge" hreflang="en">Breckenridge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/indian-removal" hreflang="en">indian removal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hosa" hreflang="en">hosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ute" hreflang="en">ute</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/brunot-agreement" hreflang="en">Brunot Agreement</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-juan-mountains" hreflang="en">San Juan Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/silverton" hreflang="en">Silverton</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/durango" hreflang="en">Durango</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>American Museum of Natural History, “<a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions">Forming Deposits</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vladimir Basov, “<a href="https://www.mining.com/heap-leach-minings-breakthrough-technology/">Heap Leach: Mining’s breakthrough technology</a>,” Mining.com, August 20, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.asarco.com/about-us/company-history/">Company History</a>,” ASARCO, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.newmont.com/operations-and-projects/global-presence/north-america/cripple-creek-victor-us/default.aspx">Cripple Creek &amp; Victor</a>,” Newmont Mining, updated 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell and Eric Twitty, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/media/document/2017/651.pdf">The Mining Industry in Colorado</a>,” National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Documentation Form, OMB No. 1024-0018 (March 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Henderson, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0138/report.pdf">Mining in Colorado: A History of Discovery, Development and Production</a>,” USGS Professional Paper 138 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hobart M. King, “<a href="https://geology.com/minerals/silver.shtml">Silver</a>,” Geology.com, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terry Norgate and Nawshad Haque, “Using life cycle assessment to evaluate some environmental impacts of gold production,” <em>Journal of Cleaner Production</em> 29-30 (July 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1860/population/1860a-38.pdf">Population of the United States in 1860: Territory of Colorado</a>,” US Census Bureau, 1860.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/coloradoslag.html#:~:text=The%20waste%20materials%20were%20then,the%20only%20ones%20at%20risk.">Pueblo, CO Exposure Investigation Success Story</a>,” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, updated April 11, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Shunk, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/restaurants/globeville-was-a-superfund-site-could-we-garden-there-10767357">Here’s the Dirt on Gardening in Globeville</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, September 12, 2018. Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Duane A. Smith, <em>The Trail of Gold &amp; Silver: Mining in Colorado, 1859–2009 </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/case-summary-epa-funded-sites-and-communities-asarco-bankruptcy-settlement">Case Summary: EPA Funded Sites and Communities in the ASARCO Bankruptcy Settlement</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://semspub.epa.gov/work/08/312995.pdf">Fact Sheet: Yak Tunnel Cleanup—California Gulch Superfund Site</a>,” April 1989.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.cleanup&amp;id=0802700">Superfund Site: Colorado Smelter—Pueblo, CO—Cleanup Activities</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James E. Fell, <em>Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Henry Jackson and John Fielder, <em>Colorado: 1870–2000 </em>(Silverthorne, CO: John Fielder Publishing, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Aug 2022 17:55:06 +0000 yongli 3721 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Joe Neguse http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/joe-neguse <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Joe Neguse</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-07-06T14:54:28-06:00" title="Monday, July 6, 2020 - 14:54" class="datetime">Mon, 07/06/2020 - 14:54</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/joe-neguse" data-a2a-title="Joe Neguse"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fjoe-neguse&amp;title=Joe%20Neguse"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Joseph “Joe” D. Neguse (1984–) is a politician who represents Colorado’s Second <a href="/article/colorado-congressional-districts"><strong>Congressional District</strong></a>, which includes <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, and most of the northern <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. A member of the <strong>Democratic Party</strong>, Neguse is the first <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/person/african-americans"><strong>African American</strong></a> elected to Congress from Colorado. He previously served as a regent for the <strong>University of Colorado</strong>, his alma mater, and as executive director of the Colorado Consumer Protection Agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elected at age thirty-four, Neguse is one of the youngest members of the House of Representatives. A member of the Progressive Caucus, Neguse often sides with other young Progressive colleagues, such as Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of New York and Representative Ilhan Omar of Minnesota. Among other positions, Neguse favors universal health care, robust funding for public education, and strong protections for public lands.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Joseph D. Neguse was born on May 13, 1984, in Bakersfield, California, to Debesai and Azeib Neguse. His parents were both Eritrean; they had separately fled Eritrea in the early 1980s, when the country was fighting for independence from Ethiopia. Both ended up in Bakersfield, where they were introduced through mutual Eritrean friends and married. The couple had two children, Joseph and Sarah. The family soon moved to Colorado so Debesai, an accountant, could pursue a master’s degree at the <strong>University of Denver</strong>. Azeib, meanwhile, attended the University of Colorado–Denver. The Neguse family lived at various times in <strong>Aurora</strong>, <strong>Littleton</strong>, and <strong>Highlands Ranch</strong>. Joe attended Thunder Ridge High School in Highlands Ranch, graduating in 2001. In 2002 Neguse moved to <strong>Lafayette</strong>, in eastern <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neguse attended the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> and was politically active in college. He served as co–student body president, and he founded New Era Colorado, a group that worked to organize, engage, and amplify the voices of young voters. New Era is credited with helping register more than 150,000 young voters since 2006. He also championed a successful 2005 <strong>ballot measure</strong>, Referendum C, that increased public education funding. He graduated with a degree in economics and political science in 2005, and in 2009 he completed his education with a JD from the university’s law school.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Political Career</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Neguse credits his time in Colorado with stoking a passion for environmental protection and better health care, which he sees as interconnected. Neguse has also said his political career was influenced by his parents’ immigrant experience, as they had fled their war-torn homeland, moved halfway across the world with nothing, and were able to earn advanced degrees in the United States. The example of his parents drove Neguse to work for improved education and young-voter turnout so that today’s young people could have the same opportunities he had.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2009, fresh out of law school, Neguse was elected to represent Colorado’s Second Congressional District on the University of Colorado’s Board of Regents—a university supervisory body consisting of members from the state’s seven congressional districts, plus two statewide officials. At the same time, he also began his career in labor law, working for the <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> firm Holland &amp; Hart. A failed campaign to become Colorado’s secretary of state in 2014 nevertheless put Neguse on the state Democratic Party’s radar. In 2015 Governor <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-hickenlooper"><strong>John Hickenlooper</strong></a> appointed Neguse as head of the state’s consumer protection agency.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>This critical political experience enabled Neguse to make a bid for Congress in 2018, at the age of just thirty-four. On November 6, 2018, the district’s reliably Democratic counties propelled Neguse to a fifty-seven-point victory over Republican Peter Yu, making him the first African American congressman from Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>House of Representatives</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After Neguse was elected to the House, he told an interviewer, “I firmly believe that we are a country rooted in the values of empathy and compassion for people who are coming to the United States to rebuild their shattered lives.” In the House, he went on to support the DREAM Act—a proimmigrant bill that would legitimize the children of illegal immigrants. At a time when President Donald Trump was demonizing and detaining Central American immigrants and asylum seekers at the US–Mexico border, Neguse cast votes for legislation that protected immigrant and refugee rights.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to his support for immigrant rights, Neguse has supported increased civil rights for women and minorities. Like fellow Colorado Representative <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/diana-degette"><strong>Diana DeGette</strong></a>, Neguse supports the proposed Equality Act, which would prohibit discrimination based on sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity. He also supported legislation to shore up the Voting Rights Act and was one the many cosponsors of the Emmett Till Antilynching Act in early 2020, which would make lynching a federal hate crime. Neguse has joined other House Democrats in repeatedly condemning President Donald Trump’s many racist and incendiary remarks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neguse has also upheld his long-standing commitments to young voters, environmental protection, and public education. In January 2019 he introduced the Next Generation Votes Act, which would allow sixteen- and seventeen-year-olds to preregister to vote. Neguse has sponsored bills to protect endangered wildlife on the South Platte River, add acreage to the Arapaho <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>National Forest</strong></a> in his home district, and extend a 2000 law that provided federal funds to rural schools. As the Trump Administration sought to open public lands for extractive industries, Neguse coauthored legislation that would protect Colorado’s public lands (the <strong>CORE Act</strong>) and support research on environmental issues such as ocean acidification.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As part of a new Democratic majority in the House, Neguse also voted in the fall of 2019 to impeach President Trump over his attempt to withhold military aid to Ukraine in exchange for investigating the son of political rival Joe Biden.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neguse won reelection in 2020, handily defeating Republican challenger Charlie Winn.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Personal Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Neguse met his wife, Andrea, a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a> native, while living in Boulder County. In August 2018, Andrea gave birth to the couple’s first child, Natalie.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/joe-neguse" hreflang="en">joe neguse</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-politics" hreflang="en">colorado politics</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/politicians" hreflang="en">politicians</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-democrats" hreflang="en">Colorado Democrats</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/democrats" hreflang="en">democrats</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ethiopia" hreflang="en">ethiopia</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/eritrea" hreflang="en">eritrea</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/progressive" hreflang="en">progressive</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Robert Bray, “<a href="https://neophilanthropy.org/grantees-in-action-a-site-visit-with-new-era-colorado/">Grantees in Action: A Site Visit With New Era Colorado</a>,” NeoPhilanthropy, May 23, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Abdi Latif Dahir, “<a href="https://qz.com/africa/1455789/eritrean-american-joe-neguse-colorados-first-black-congressman/">This Eritrean-American Is Now Colorado’s First Black Congressman</a>,” <em>Quartz Africa</em>, November 8, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eric Gershon, “<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/coloradan/2019/02/11/congressman-joe-neguse-colorado">The Congressman: Joe Neguse</a>,” <em>Coloradan</em> (CU Alumni Magazine), March 1, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Govtrack, “<a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/members/joe_neguse/412761">Rep. Joe Neguse</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joe Neguse, U.S. Congressman, “<a href="https://neguse.house.gov/media/press-releases/congressman-joe-neguse-introduces-federal-voter-pre-registration-bill">Congressman Joe Neguse Introduces Federal Voter Pre-registration Bill</a>,” January 23, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Joe Neguse, U.S. Congressman, “<a href="https://neguse.house.gov/media/press-releases/bennet-neguse-unveil-core-act-protect-public-lands-safeguard-outdoor-recreation">Bennet, Neguse Unveil CORE Act to Protect Public Lands, Safeguard Outdoor Recreation, and Boost Economy</a>,” Press Release, January 26, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael Roberts, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/joe-neguse-interview-about-colorado-second-district-congressional-run-2018-10671963">Joe Neguse on His Parents’ Refugee Story and Making History in Congress</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, August 31, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lisa Roy, “<a href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/joseph-joe-neguse-1984/">Joseph (Joe) Neguse</a>,” BlackPast.org, January 12, 2020.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Salem Solomon, “<a href="https://www.voanews.com/usa/us-politics/parents-journey-inspired-us-congress-1st-eritrean-american">Parents’ Journey Inspired US Congress’ 1st Eritrean-American</a>,” <em>Voice of America</em>, November 8, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jamie Swinnerton, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/joe-neguse-i-go-by-joe-on-his-run-for-secretary-of-state-5874854">Joe Neguse—‘I Go by Joe’—on His Run for Secretary of State</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, June 19, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>VoteSmart, “<a href="https://justfacts.votesmart.org/candidate/key-votes/151075/joe-neguse/?p=4">Joe Neguse’s Voting Records</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>VoteSmart, “<a href="https://justfacts.votesmart.org/candidate/key-votes/151075/joe-neguse/13/civil-liberties-and-civil-rights">Joe Neguse’s Voting Records on Issue: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Justin Wingerter, "<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2020/11/03/jason-crow-steve-house-cd6-colorado-race/">US House incumbents in Colorado win reelection</a>," <em>The Denver Post</em>, November 3, 2020.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://neweracolorado.org/">New Era Colorado</a>.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 06 Jul 2020 20:54:28 +0000 yongli 3358 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org September 2013 Floods http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">September 2013 Floods</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3298--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3298.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/2013-colorado-floods"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/September%202013%20Floods%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=8LMrY2Vk" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/2013-colorado-floods" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">2013 Colorado Floods </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Colorado residents who were evacuated due to flooding arrive at Boulder Municipal Airport in Boulder, September 13, 2013, after being rescued by National Guard and civilian rescue personnel. Colorado and Wyoming National Guard units were activated to provide assistance to people affected by massive flooding along Colorado's Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3300--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3300.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/jamestown-colorado-cut-2013-colorado-floods"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/September%202013%20Floods%20Media%202_0.jpg?itok=pv-S2fnN" width="1090" height="726" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/jamestown-colorado-cut-2013-colorado-floods" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Jamestown, Colorado Cut Off by 2013 Colorado Floods</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In September 2013, the small mountain town of Jamestown (population 300) was cut off by flooding in Boulder County.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3302--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3302.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/national-guard-soldiers"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/September%202013%20Floods%20Media%203_0.jpg?itok=rnpjxY6K" width="1090" height="724" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/national-guard-soldiers" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">National Guard Soldiers</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Soldiers with the Colorado National Guard respond to floods in Boulder County on September 12, 2013. The Colorado National Guard was activated to provide assistance to people affected by massive flooding along Colorado's Front Range.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-09T14:45:08-06:00" title="Tuesday, June 9, 2020 - 14:45" class="datetime">Tue, 06/09/2020 - 14:45</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods" data-a2a-title="September 2013 Floods"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fseptember-2013-floods&amp;title=September%202013%20Floods"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In September 2013, Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a><strong>, </strong>from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> south to <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, experienced some of the most dramatic and devastating <a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flood</strong></a><a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>s</strong> </a>in state history. In the hardest-hit areas, the rainfall beginning September 9 and ending September 16 matched or exceeded annual averages. Across the region, swollen creeks and rivers jumped their banks, destroying houses, bridges, and roads, and stranding individuals and communities. The floods ultimately killed eight people and caused more than $4 billion in damages across seventeen counties.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Between Mountain and Plain</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Along the Front Range, home to a majority of Colorado’s population, destructive flooding is not new. Centuries before the arrival of Anglo-American immigrants, American Indians seasonally hunted, foraged, and grazed horses along the nutrient-rich bottomlands of Colorado’s rivers and creeks. When whites arrived on the Front Range during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> (1858–59), Native peoples warned of the region’s tendency to flood, but the newcomers often ignored these warnings—perhaps because they thought of the area as a “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/%E2%80%9Cgreat-american-desert%E2%80%9D"><strong>Great American Desert</strong></a>.” They sought to overcome the region’s inconsistent rainfall by farming nutrient-rich, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigable</strong></a> floodplains in such places as <a href="/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, and Fort Collins. Heavy snowmelt, powerful cloudbursts, and stalled storms, however, periodically punished such intrusions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The area’s location as a transition zone between the rolling <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and the jagged peaks of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rockies</strong></a> explains the potential for extreme rains. During spring and summer months, moisture-rich air from the Gulf of Mexico comes across the Great Plains and abruptly runs into the Rocky Mountains. As the mountains push the moisture-rich air upward, storm clouds occasionally form and then rupture over the Eastern Slope of the Rockies. These downpours are usually highly localized, short, and intense, dumping inches of rain over a small area in a matter of hours. In the case of most deadly floods on the Front Range, such as the <strong>Big Thompson Flood of 1976</strong> and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spring-creek-flood-1997"><strong>Spring Creek Flood of 1997</strong></a>, heavy rainfall drained into creeks and rivers, overwhelming their carrying capacity and flooding cities and surrounding areas.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In some ways, the 2013 floods fit into similar Front Range flood patterns. As in 1976 and 1997, west-moving moisture coalesced into storm clouds, fell as rain, and overwhelmed east-running waterways. In other ways, 2013 was unique. The devastating fires of 2012, especially the <a href="/article/high-park-fire"><strong>High Park Fire</strong></a> west of Fort Collins and the <a href="/article/waldo-canyon-fire"><strong>Waldo Canyon Fire</strong></a> near Colorado Springs, cleared the landscape of vegetation that slows and absorbs excess water. Additionally, while cloudbursts were responsible for previous floods, the rainstorms that flooded the Front Range in September 2013 dumped rain not just over a few miles, but from Colorado Spring to Fort Collins, and the storms lasted not hours but days.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>From Merciful Rain to Raging Rivers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The rain began across eastern Colorado on September 9, 2013, as a slow-moving, low-pressure system settled over the southwest, pulling moist air from the Pacific Ocean and the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico toward the Front Range. Rain was initially a welcome respite for the region’s residents, who had seen an unusually warm first week of September, a drought-plagued summer, and a series of recent <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado"><strong>forest fires</strong></a>. However, relief turned to worry as rain continued through September 10 and the low-pressure system stayed put, pulling more moisture toward the Front Range. With no immediate end in sight, the National Weather Service issued flash flood warnings in <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-paso-county"><strong>El Paso</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a> counties on September 11.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On the night of September 11, torrential rainfall pounded the fire-scarred, oversaturated foothills. In Boulder, the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> began its first wave of evacuations and the city activated sirens along Boulder Creek, urging those in earshot to find higher ground. Throughout the night, rockslides, debris flows, and the surging St. Vrain, <strong>Big Thompson,</strong> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre</strong></a> rivers destroyed sections of US Highway 34, US Highway 36, Colorado Highway 14, and numerous county roads, stranding many mountain and foothill communities. The unrelenting downpour continued through September 12, forcing thousands living along the floodplains from <strong>Estes Park</strong>, Fort Collins, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/downtown-loveland-historic-district"><strong>Loveland</strong></a>, south to <strong>Lyons</strong>, Boulder, and Jamestown, to evacuate.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When the rain briefly relented on September 13, army, national guard, and private helicopters began evacuating those stranded in mountain communities. After authorizing the use of <strong>Colorado National Guard</strong> helicopters in Boulder County the morning of the September 13, Governor <a href="/article/john-hickenlooper"><strong>John Hickenlooper</strong></a> signed an executive order declaring a disaster emergency across fourteen Front Range counties, providing resources for search-and-rescue operations and immediate highway repair. Through an emergency declaration on September 12, then a major disaster declaration two days later, President Barack Obama released federal funding to supplement the local and state response.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Overflowing waterways fueled by sustained precipitation also caused destruction east of the foothills. On the plains, floodwater rushing east forced evacuations, damaged agricultural land, overwhelmed wastewater facilities, and flooded oil wells. As in the foothills, swollen tributaries of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong> River</strong></a>—along with the South Platte itself—wiped out bridges, undercut roads, and tore buildings off their foundations. In the early hours of September 13, the Big Thompson River spilled over and temporarily closed <strong>Interstate 25</strong>. Just hours later in Weld County, the South Platte and the Cache la Poudre Rivers began to flood low-lying neighborhoods in Evans and Greeley, forcing evacuations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Farther east, in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/morgan-county"><strong>Morgan County</strong></a>, the surging South Platte, usually running two feet high in September, reached thirteen feet high on the evening of September 14, damaging infrastructure and forcing evacuations. By the time the storm finally relented on September 16, the week of rain—totaling twenty inches in Boulder, nine in Estes Park, six in Loveland, and six in Fort Collins—had reshaped natural areas and river channels all the way to the state border, destroying nearly 2,000 houses, damaging 28,000 dwellings, and killing 8 people. Pouring into western Nebraska, the South Platte remained at a moderate flood stage through September 23.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Aftermath</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On Monday, September 16, as the storm cleared and helicopters continued to evacuate those stranded, students returned to classes at the University of Colorado. In the following days, grade schools in Larimer County reopened, road crews opened mountain roadways to flood-isolated towns, and response teams restored access to potable water and electricity from Evans to Estes Park. These steps toward recovery highlighted the resiliency of the afflicted communities and the experience and capability of responders, emergency planners, and disaster-relief crews. Decades of increasingly proactive zoning, modernized warning systems, and floodplain management helped minimize loss and streamline emergency response. Still, no town or city along the Front Range and the South Platte was fully prepared for that week of extreme rainfall, as illustrated by the expensive, prolonged recovery, the flooding of uninsured houses, and the tragic loss of life.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After sheriff’s offices accounted for missing persons, relief organizations provided shelter for the displaced, and road crews reached previously stranded communities, efforts shifted to long-term reconstruction. Relying on reimbursements from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Federal Highway Administration, federal block grants, and state disaster funds, the Front Range began multiyear road reconstruction and neighborhood redevelopment projects. Slowed by the complicated contracts and price vetting that came with federal assistance, some of the hardest-hit mountain roadways did not reopen until 2016. US Highway 34—connecting Loveland, Estes Park, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>—did not reopen until 2018. When it did, the reconstructed highway exemplified the region-wide response to the flooding: it reopened within its traditional corridor, the Big Thompson Canyon, but now followed a slightly different path to minimize washouts in the event of another storm.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With future flooding a primary concern, municipalities across the Front Range sought to rebuild in a manner that better prepared them for the next storm. Engineers designed roadways to better deflect and avoid floodwater, and city planners turned hard-hit, low-lying neighborhoods and mobile-home parks into greenspaces, sometimes to the detriment of those who relied on the now-vanished affordable housing. The enormity of the rainfall’s destruction, along with the difficulties that came with government shutdowns, accessing federal funds, congressional alterations to FEMA aid guidelines, and the varied needs of those affected by the floods ensured that the road to recovery was anything but straight.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Flooding in the Future</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Population growth, urban expansion, and increasingly volatile weather patterns associated with climate change mean that flooding will remain a pressing issue on the Front Range in the future. Scientists have not concluded that the abnormal rainfall from September 9 to 16, 2013, was the direct result of climate change, but aspects of the flood’s development—an abundance of moisture-rich air and increased storm volatility, both stemming from warmer temperatures—suggest that instances of heavy rainfall may increase across the region in the coming decades.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/purdy-tristan" hreflang="und">Purdy, Tristan</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/september-2013-floods" hreflang="en">september 2013 floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range-floods" hreflang="en">front range floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weld-county" hreflang="en">weld county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flooding-colorado" hreflang="en">flooding in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flood-history" hreflang="en">flood history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/2013" hreflang="en">2013</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/loveland" hreflang="en">loveland</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/greeley" hreflang="en">greeley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/estes-park" hreflang="en">Estes Park</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/longmont" hreflang="en">longmont</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>John Aguilar, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/09/09/colorado-floods-2013-recovery/">‘We're About to Wake Up’: Victims of Colorado's 2013 Flood Look to End of Recovery</a>,” <em>The</em> <em>Denver Post</em>, September 9, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Aguilar and Charlie Brennan, “<a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2013/09/21/eight-days-1000-year-rain-100-year-flood/">Eight Days, 1,000-Year Rain, 100-Year Flood</a>,” <em>Daily Camera </em>(Boulder), September 21, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ruth M. Alexander, “<a href="https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/167378/2013ColoradoFloodOralHistoryFinalReport.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y">2013 Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Project: Final Report</a>” (Fort Collins: Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Collection, Water Resources Archive, Colorado State University Libraries, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kathleen A. Brosnan, <em>Uniting Mountain and Plain: Cities, Law, and Environmental Change Along the Front Range</em> (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terri Cook, “<a href="https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/disaster-strikes-along-colorados-front-range">Disaster Strikes Along Colorado’s Front Range</a>,” <em>EARTH Magazine</em>, January 20, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Michael deYoanna, “<a href="https://www.coloradoindependent.com/2019/09/19/parked-mobile-home-dwellers-left-behind-after-2013-colorado-floods/">Parked: Mobile-Home Dwellers Left Behind After 2013 Colorado Floods</a>,” <em>Colorado Independent, </em>September 19, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Nolan J. Doesken, Roger A. Pielke, Sr., and Odilia A. P. Bliss, “<a href="https://climate.colostate.edu/climate_long.html">Climate of Colorado</a>,” Colorado Climate Center (Fort Collins: Colorado State University, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dan England, “<a href="https://www.greeleytribune.com/2013/09/28/something-wicked-this-way-came-flood-brings-devastation-but-weld-endures/">Something Wicked This Way Came: Flood Brings Devastation but Weld Endures</a>,” <em>Greeley Tribune</em>, September 28, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Leon R. Sawyer, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0997/report.pdf"><em>Floods in Colorado</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 997 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1948).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jenni Grubbs, “<a href="https://www.fortmorgantimes.com/2013/09/23/morgan-county-roads-bridges-see-damage-from-flood-2/">Morgan County Roads, Bridges See Damage From Flood</a>,” <em>Fort Morgan Times, </em>September 23, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Wallace R. Hansen, John Chronic, and John Matelock, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1019/report.pdf"><em>Climatography of the Front Range Urban Corridor and Vicinity, Colorado</em></a><em>, </em>US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1019 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1978).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Hines, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/science-application-integration/docs/science-you-can-use/2014-03.pdf">Our Relationship With a Dynamic Landscape: Understanding the 2013 Northern Colorado Flood</a>,” <em>Science You Can Use Bulletin</em> (March/April 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert A. Kimbrough and Robert R. Holmes, Jr., <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20155119"><em>Flooding in the South Platte River and Fountain Creek Basins in Eastern Colorado, September 9–18, 2013</em></a><em>, </em>US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2015-5119 (Virginia, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Danielle Langevin and Tessa Sullivan, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/spring-creek-flood-1997">Spring Creek Flood of 1997</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>, last modified October 24, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Patricia N. Limerick and Jason Hanson, <em>A Ditch in Time: The City, the West and Wate</em>r (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jacy Marmaduke, “<a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2019/05/03/big-thompson-flood-fema-hasnt-funded-road-bridge-repairs/3651296002/">6 Years After Big Thompson Flood, FEMA Hasn’t Paid Up: Lack of Reimbursement Has Delayed Road Repairs</a>,” <em>Coloradoan</em> (Fort Collins), May 6, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>National Weather Service, “<a href="https://www.weather.gov/lbf/southplatte_platte_flooding_2013#NebraskaFlooding">South Platte/Platte River Flooding of 2013</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Office of the Governor, “<a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/archives/governor-hickenlooper-executive-orders">Executive Order D 2013-026 Declaring a Disaster Emergency Due to the Flooding in Adams, Arapahoe, Broomfield, Boulder, Denver, El Paso, Fremont, Jefferson, Larimer, Logan, Morgan, Pueblo, Washington, and Weld Counties (Front Range Flooding)</a>,” September 13, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Geoff Plumlee, “<a href="https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/when-water-gravity-and-geology-collide-firsthand-observations-impacts-2013-colorado-floods">When Water, Gravity and Geology Collide: Firsthand Observations of the Impacts of the 2013 Colorado floods</a>,” <em>EARTH Magazine, </em>January 21, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Katie Schimel, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.17/how-2013s-front-range-floods-changed-the-face-of-the-region">How 2013’s Front Range Floods Changed the Face of the Region</a>,” <em>High Country News, </em>October 12, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.reporterherald.com/2018/09/08/the-2013-flood-a-timeline/">The 2013 Flood: A Timeline</a>,” <em>Loveland (CO) Reporter-Herald</em>, September 8, 2018.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Daniel Tyler, <em>Silver Fox of the Rockies: Delphus E. Carpenter and Western Water Compacts </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Louis W. Uccellini, <a href="),%20https:/prd-wret.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/atoms/files/NWS_CO_FSA.pdf"><em>The Record Front Range and Eastern Colorado Floods of September 11–17, 2013</em></a><em>,</em> US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Service Assessment (Silver Spring, MD, June 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Homeland Security, “<a href="https://www.fema.gov/news-release/2013/09/15/fema-continues-support-response-colorado-flooding">FEMA Continues to Support Response to Colorado Flooding</a>,” September 15, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Homeland Security, “<a href="https://www.fema.gov/news-release/2013/09/12/president-obama-signs-colorado-emergency-declaration">President Obama Signs Colorado Emergency Declaration</a>,” September 12, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Monte Whaley, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2014/09/13/flood-damaged-colorado-roads-are-getting-a-makeover/">Flood-Damaged Colorado Roads Are Getting a Makeover</a>,” <em>The</em> <em>Denver Post, </em>September 13, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Will Wright, “<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado">Flooding in Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Encyclopedia,</em> last modified October 23, 2019.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William Wyckoff, <em>Creating Colorado: The Making of a Western American Landscape, 1860–1940 </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Robert Crifasi, <em>A Land Made From Water: Appropriation and the Evolution of Colorado's Landscape, Ditches, and Water Institutions </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Darla Sue Dollman, <em>Colorado’s Deadliest Floods </em>(Charleston, SC: History Press, 2017).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jared Orsi, <em>Hazardous Metropolis: Flooding and Urban Ecology in Los Angele</em>s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Steinberg<em>, Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 09 Jun 2020 20:45:08 +0000 yongli 3272 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Clara Brown http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clara-brown <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clara Brown</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3226--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3226.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/clara-brown"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Clara-Brown-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=Vx0komlt" width="600" height="867" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/clara-brown" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Clara Brown</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item">Clara Brown was likely the first African American woman to come to Colorado. Born a slave in Virginia, Brown was freed in Kentucky and headed west during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1859. She acquired mining properties in Gilpin County and used her wealth to become a philanthropist who helped former slaves rebuild their lives in Colorado.</div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2019-08-20T14:48:48-06:00" title="Tuesday, August 20, 2019 - 14:48" class="datetime">Tue, 08/20/2019 - 14:48</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clara-brown" data-a2a-title="Clara Brown"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fclara-brown&amp;title=Clara%20Brown"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Clara Brown (c. 1803–85) was an ex-slave who became a philanthropist, entrepreneur, and humanitarian in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>. She is said to be the first African American woman to have traveled West during the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a>. While in Central City, she established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin County</strong></a>’s first laundry as well as <strong>Colorado’s first Protestant church</strong>. She opened her home to freed slaves and hosted church services, which earned her the nickname “Aunt” Clara. Brown was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong> in 1989. In 2012 a hill in Gilpin County formerly named “Negro Hill” was renamed “Clara Brown Hill” in honor of Brown’s contributions to the county’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Brown was born into slavery in Fredericksburg, Virginia, around 1803. She is presumed to have been separated from her father but remained with her mother for her entire childhood. Clara and her mother were later moved to Kentucky to work on a tobacco farm with their Virginian owners. By the age of eighteen, Clara was married to a fellow slave named Richard, and they had four children—Richard Jr., Margaret, and twins Paulina Ann and Eliza Jane. However, Brown was soon separated from her family; Paulina Ann drowned at a young age, and her husband and the rest of her children were sold after their owner passed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Beginnings</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859, at fifty-six years of age, Clara was freed by her owner, George Brown, according to Kentucky state law. Clara’s first and foremost objective was to be reunited with her family, but she eventually found out about their tragic fates. Her husband, Richard, and daughter Margaret had died in slavery, and her son, Richard Jr., had been sold so many times that he was no longer traceable. This left Brown to search for her youngest daughter, Eliza Jane.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859 Clara served as a midwife and cook for a wagon train headed West, eventually bringing her to Denver. She soon relocated herself to Central City, where she established the first laundry in Gilpin County. During her stay, Clara accumulated a large sum of savings and eventually acquired housing and mining properties worth around $10,000 (roughly $1,000,000 today) in both Denver and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>. From then on, Clara earned herself the nickname “Aunt” Clara for providing shelter and food for the local townspeople as well as help establish Colorado’s first Protestant church.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Long Journey’s End</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara eventually earned enough money to finally start searching for her family. Clara began her search as an official representative for <strong>Frederick Pitkin</strong>, a Republican governor of Colorado, helping former slaves establish themselves as freedmen and women. Her search first began in Kentucky, and she soon learned of her family’s mostly unfortunate fate. However, she was successful in helping freed slaves reestablish themselves in Colorado. Then, in 1882 Clara located her daughter Eliza Jane in Council Bluffs, Iowa. That same year, Clara returned to Denver with her granddaughter. She was voted into the <strong>Society of Colorado Pioneers</strong> in 1884. Clara Brown died on October 23, 1885. Her legacy lives on in the <strong>City Opera House</strong>, the state<strong> <a href="/article/colorado-state-capitol">capitol building</a></strong>, and in Central City, where she has a hill named in honor of her and the rest of Colorado’s black pioneers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from “</strong><a href="https://www.cogreatwomen.org/project/clara-brown/"><strong>Clara Brown</strong></a><strong>,” Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame, n.d.</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/clara-brown" hreflang="en">Clara Brown</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gilpin-county" hreflang="en">Gilpin County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/african-americans" hreflang="en">African Americans</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-history" hreflang="en">black history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/aunt-clara" hreflang="en">aunt clara</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/philanthropy" hreflang="en">philanthropy</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/central-city" hreflang="en">Central City</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver" hreflang="en">Denver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/frederick-pitkin" hreflang="en">frederick pitkin</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Patricia Calhoun, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/gilpin-countys-negro-hill-is-renamed-aunt-clara-brown-hill-finally-5116639">Gilpin County’s Negro Hill Is Renamed Aunt Clara Brown Hill. Finally</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, May 16, 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tricia Martineau Wagner, “<a href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/brown-clara-1803-1885/">Clara Brown (1803–1885)</a>,” The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shanti Zaid, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/Kids_Students/Bios/Aunt_Clara_Brown.pdf">Aunt Clara Brown</a>,” History Colorado, n.d.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Roger Baker, <em>Clara: An Ex-Slave in Gold Rush Colorado </em>(Black Hawk, CO: Black Hawk Publishing, 2003).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Patricia Calhoun, “<a href="https://www.westword.com/news/gilpin-county-manager-roger-baker-on-why-colorado-remembers-clara-brown-8655786">Gilpin County Manager Roger Baker on Why Colorado Remembers Clara Brown</a>,” <em>Westword</em>, January 4, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Cathy Luchetti, <em>Women of the West</em> (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS6%20Clara%20Brown.docx">Clara Brown Teacher Resource Set (Word)</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS6%20Clara%20Brown.pdf">Clara Brown Teacher Resource Set (PDF)</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>Clara Brown (c. 1803–85) was an ex-slave. She became a business owner in <strong>Denver </strong>and <strong>Central City</strong>. She is said to be the first African American woman to travel West during the <strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong>. Brown established <strong>Gilpin County</strong>’s first laundry as well as <strong>Colorado’s first Protestant church</strong>. She opened her home to freed slaves and hosted church services. This earned her the nickname “Aunt” Clara. Brown was inducted into the Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame in 1989.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Brown was born into slavery in Fredericksburg, Virginia, around 1803. She is thought to have been separated from her father. Brown remained with her mother for her entire childhood. Clara and her mother were later moved to Kentucky to work on a tobacco farm. By the age of eighteen, Clara was married to a fellow slave named Richard. They had four children—Richard Jr., Margaret, and twins Paulina Ann and Eliza Jane. Clara was separated from her family. Paulina Ann drowned at a young age. Her husband and the rest of her children were sold after their owner passed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Beginnings</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859, at age fifty-six, Clara was freed. She served as a midwife and cook for a wagon train headed West. The job brought her to Denver. She moved to Central City and established the first laundry in Gilpin County. Clara saved money. She used it to buy housing and mining properties worth around $10,000 (roughly $1,000,000 today) in Denver and <strong>Boulder</strong>. She earned the nickname “Aunt” Clara after providing shelter and food for the local townspeople. Clara also helped establish Colorado’s first Protestant church.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Long Journey’s End</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara finally earned enough money to start looking for her family. Her search began in Kentucky. However, her husband, Richard, and daughter Margaret had died in slavery. Her son, Richard Jr., had been sold so many times that he was no longer traceable. This left Brown to search for her youngest daughter, Eliza Jane.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Clara looked, she helped freed slaves reestablish themselves in Colorado. In 1882 Clara found her daughter Eliza Jane in Council Bluffs, Iowa. Clara came back to Denver with her granddaughter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Brown was voted into the <strong>Society of Colorado Pioneers</strong> in 1884. She died on October 23, 1885. A hill in Central City is named in honor of her.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>Clara Brown (c. 1803–85) was an ex-slave who became a philanthropist, entrepreneur, and humanitarian in <strong>Denver</strong> and <strong>Central City</strong>. She is said to be the first African American woman to have traveled West during the <strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong>. While in Central City, she established <strong>Gilpin County</strong>’s first laundry as well as <strong>Colorado’s first Protestant church</strong>. She opened her home to freed slaves and hosted church services, which earned her the nickname “Aunt” Clara. Brown was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong> in 1989. In 2012 a hill in Gilpin County was renamed “Clara Brown Hill” in honor of Brown.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Brown was born into slavery in Fredericksburg, Virginia, around 1803. She is presumed to have been separated from her father. Clara remained with her mother for her entire childhood. Clara and her mother were later moved to Kentucky to work on a tobacco farm with their Virginian owners. By the age of eighteen, Clara was married to a fellow slave named Richard. They had four children—Richard Jr., Margaret, and twins Paulina Ann and Eliza Jane. However, Brown was soon separated from her family. Paulina Ann drowned at a young age. Her husband and the rest of her children were sold after their owner passed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Beginnings</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859, at fifty-six years of age, Clara was freed by her owner, George Brown. Clara’s first objective was to be reunited with her family. She eventually found out about their tragic fates. Her husband, Richard, and daughter Margaret had died in slavery. Clara's son, Richard Jr., had been sold so many times that he was no longer traceable. This left Brown to search for her youngest daughter, Eliza Jane.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859 Clara served as a midwife and cook for a wagon train headed West. The job eventually brought her to Denver. She soon relocated to Central City. She established the first laundry in Gilpin County. During her stay, Clara accumulated a large savings. She acquired housing and mining properties worth around $10,000 (roughly $1,000,000 today) in both Denver and <strong>Boulder</strong>. From then on, Clara earned herself the nickname “Aunt” Clara for providing shelter and food for the local townspeople as well as help establish Colorado’s first Protestant church.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Long Journey’s End</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara eventually earned enough money to finally start searching for her family. Clara began her search as an official representative for <strong>Frederick Pitkin</strong>, a Republican governor of Colorado, helping former slaves establish themselves as freedmen and women. Her search first began in Kentucky, and she soon learned of her family’s mostly unfortunate fate. However, she was successful in helping freed slaves reestablish themselves in Colorado. Then, in 1882 Clara located her daughter Eliza Jane in Council Bluffs, Iowa. That same year, Clara returned to Denver with her granddaughter. She was voted into the <strong>Society of Colorado Pioneers</strong> in 1884. Clara Brown died on October 23, 1885. Her legacy lives on in the <strong>City Opera House</strong>, <strong>Denver’s capitol</strong> <strong>building</strong>, and in Central City, where she has a hill named in honor of her and the rest of Colorado’s black pioneers.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>Clara Brown (c. 1803–85) was an ex-slave who became a philanthropist, entrepreneur, and humanitarian in <strong>Denver</strong> and <strong>Central City</strong>. She is said to be the first African American woman to have traveled West during the <strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong>. While in Central City, she established <strong>Gilpin County</strong>’s first laundry as well as <strong>Colorado’s first Protestant church</strong>. She opened her home to freed slaves and hosted church services, which earned her the nickname “Aunt” Clara. Brown was inducted into the <strong>Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame</strong> in 1989. In 2012 a hill in Gilpin County formerly named “Negro Hill” was renamed “Clara Brown Hill” in honor of Brown’s contributions to the county’s history.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Life</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara Brown was born into slavery in Fredericksburg, Virginia, around 1803. She is presumed to have been separated from her father but remained with her mother for her entire childhood. Clara and her mother were later moved to Kentucky to work on a tobacco farm with their Virginian owners. By the age of eighteen, Clara was married to a fellow slave named Richard, and they had four children—Richard Jr., Margaret, and twins Paulina Ann and Eliza Jane. However, Brown was soon separated from her family; Paulina Ann drowned at a young age, and her husband and the rest of her children were sold after their owner passed.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>New Beginnings</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859, at fifty-six years of age, Clara was freed by her owner, George Brown, according to Kentucky state law. Clara’s first and foremost objective was to be reunited with her family, but she eventually found out about their tragic fates. Her husband, Richard, and daughter Margaret had died in slavery, and her son, Richard Jr., had been sold so many times that he was no longer traceable. This left Brown to search for her youngest daughter, Eliza Jane.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1859 Clara served as a midwife and cook for a wagon train headed West, eventually bringing her to Denver. She soon relocated herself to Central City, where she established the first laundry in Gilpin County. During her stay, Clara accumulated a large sum of savings and eventually acquired housing and mining properties worth around $10,000 (roughly $1,000,000 today) in both Denver and <strong>Boulder</strong>. From then on, Clara earned herself the nickname “Aunt” Clara for providing shelter and food for the local townspeople as well as help establish Colorado’s first Protestant church.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Long Journey’s End</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Clara eventually earned enough money to finally start searching for her family. Clara began her search as an official representative for <strong>Frederick Pitkin</strong>, a Republican governor of Colorado, helping former slaves establish themselves as freedmen and women. Her search first began in Kentucky, and she soon learned of her family’s mostly unfortunate fate. However, she was successful in helping freed slaves reestablish themselves in Colorado. Then, in 1882 Clara located her daughter Eliza Jane in Council Bluffs, Iowa. That same year, Clara returned to Denver with her granddaughter. She was voted into the <strong>Society of Colorado Pioneers</strong> in 1884. Clara Brown died on October 23, 1885. Her legacy lives on in the <strong>City Opera House</strong>, <strong>Denver’s capitol building</strong>, and in Central City, where she has a hill named in honor of her and the rest of Colorado’s black pioneers.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 20 Aug 2019 20:48:48 +0000 yongli 3069 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Carol Taylor http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/carol-taylor <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Carol Taylor</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3056--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3056.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/carol-taylor"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/carol-taylor_0.jpg?itok=NKKPqSJT" width="426" height="640" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/carol-taylor" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Carol Taylor</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/greg-vogl" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">admin</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2019-08-01T11:57:13-06:00" title="Thursday, August 1, 2019 - 11:57" class="datetime">Thu, 08/01/2019 - 11:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/carol-taylor" data-a2a-title="Carol Taylor"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcarol-taylor&amp;title=Carol%20Taylor"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Carol Taylor is a local historian and researcher with expertise creating compelling public programs and interpretive writing for historical exhibits. She has worked with partners such as the Native American Rights Fund, National Park Service, Colorado Music Hall of Fame, Boedecker Theater at The Dairy Center for the Arts, Colorado Chautauqua and others, to demonstrate history’s relevance to the present. Her interests include social justice, architecture, historic sites, women, artists and Boulder’s University Hill. She writes a monthly Boulder County history column for the Boulder Daily Camera newspaper. Follow her on Instagram @signsofboulderhistory.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Selected Columns</h2>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Editor’s note: These newspaper columns have been republished in their original form. The opinions expressed in them are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of <em>Colorado Encyclopedia</em>.</strong></p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Solar-Heated Home</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Nation’s first solar-heated home was in Boulder"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, August 10, 2008</h4>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1970s Boulder experienced a flurry of solar activity in response to the OPEC oil embargo and resulting gas shortage. There were solar talks at the library, solar workshops and conferences at the University of Colorado, solar homes and solar open houses. But the history of solar energy in Boulder began 30 years earlier in a cottage at 1719 Mariposa Ave. Dr. George Lof, an Aspen native who earned an undergraduate degree at the University of Denver and a graduate degree at MIT, was a chemical engineering professor at CU when he started a solar heating project.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The university received funds during World War II from the War Production Board’s Office of Scientific Research and Development. Officials were concerned about what might happen to the country’s fuel supply during another prolonged conflict. So, in 1943, Lof built a small one-story wood-framed house with an experimental solar heating system and lived there with his young family. After the war, the American Window Glass Company financed the project for an additional two years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The nation’s first solar home used a greenhouse-like solar heat collector of rooftop glass plates that were warmed by the sun and then heated the air, which then passed into the house. Lof boasted that the setup saved 20 percent on the heating bill of the home and he predicted a savings of 60 percent with technical improvements. He said he could keep his home at an even 70 degrees even in sub-zero weather as long as the sun was shining. In cloudy weather, at night or when snow covered the collector, a conventional furnace was substituted.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The research was so advanced that the home and CU received national publicity. Lof’s residence was featured in Business Week (March 15, 1947), the Christian Science Monitor (Aug. 14, 1947), the New York Herald Tribune, Architectural Forum and other national publications.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After leaving the CU faculty, Professor Lof dismantled the solar apparatus when Realtors found they couldn’t sell the house with its unconventional glass panels. He continued his research by building another solar house for his family of six in Cherry Hills, designed by Boulder architect James Hunter. The home was completed in 1957 and is reportedly the oldest known solar residence. Dr. Lof went on to chair the chemical engineering department at the University of Denver, create Solaron Corporation and win top honors in the field of solar energy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1974, Lof spoke at Boulder’s Rotary Club and predicted that the year would bring many more solar houses and said that moderately priced solar heating and cooling systems would be developed soon. In a 1983 story written by Paul Danish, Lof declared, “I’m bullish on solar heat.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The solar pioneer is 94 years old now, retired and still living in the home that he built in 1957 at 6 Parkway Drive in Cherry Hills. He remembers enjoying his time in Boulder in the small house, while his children were young. And yes, he’s still bullish on solar energy.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Mary Frances Berry</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Mary Frances Berry: CU’s First black chancellor"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, October 19, 2008</h4>&#13; &#13; <p>After the recent presidential debate, you might have heard commentary on CNN and NPR by former chair of the U.S. Civil Rights Commission, Mary Frances Berry. But did you know that Berry achieved a groundbreaking pair of firsts for the University of Colorado at Boulder?</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In January 1976, after an eight-month search, CU President Roland Rautenstraus recommended that regents offer Berry the job of chancellor of the Boulder campus. CU lured the rising star from a provost position at the University of Maryland. Berry accepted the offer and began her appointment July 1 of that year, becoming the first African-American and first woman in that office.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With a Ph.D. in history as well as a law degree, Berry was only 38 when she assumed chancellor duties. Before she even arrived in Boulder, Berry told a Daily Camera reporter that she was “bothered by the lack of minorities and women in the administration and faculty” at CU. She would later be criticized for granting amnesty to a group of minority students who staged at sit-in on campus at the Hellems building.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Berry was just getting started when President-elect Jimmy Carter’s administration began wooing her for an assistant secretary post at the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (now Health and Human Services). Berry negotiated a year’s leave of absence from CU and accepted the HEW position in January 1977. Berry told the regents that she would not stay longer than a year and had every intention of returning to the Boulder campus.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Two months later, the Denver Post reported that Berry told a Senate confirmation committee that she intended to serve at the HEW for all four years of the Carter administration. Berry denied the report. The statement, given under oath, that she would stay at the HEW as long as President Carter wanted, grew into a controversy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>She resigned from her CU job in May 1977, after less than a year in the position. President Rautenstraus announced her resignation with a deep sense of loss.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Berry was later appointed to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights under President Carter in 1979. She was fired from that post by President Ronald Reagan and appealed her dismissal. The six-member commission was expanded to eight-member, and she regained her seat. Berry served as chair of the commission under President Bill Clinton.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Since leaving CU for Washington, D.C., this powerhouse has earned more than 30 honorary doctorate degrees, published seven books and won countless awards. Now 70, Berry’s close-cropped hair is gray after a long and distinguished career in activism, law, writing, public service and Ivy League academics at the University of Pennsylvania.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thirty years after her appointment, she remains the first and only woman or person of color in the chancellor post at CU Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For a more detailed account of Berry’s tenure at CU, see “Glory Colorado! Volume II: A History of the University of Colorado, 1963-2000” by William E. Davis.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Los Seis de Boulder</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"'Los Seis de Boulder' died in '74 car bombings"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, May 17, 2009</h4>&#13; &#13; <p>At the end of May 1974, two car bombings rocked the city of Boulder, killing six young activists.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Most of the victims were politically involved in the struggle to improve conditions for minority students at the University of Colorado. They were working to achieve parity — a percentage of Chicanos enrolled at CU equal to the percentage of the state population. There was a 19-day sit-in in progress by the United Mexican-American Students at Temporary Building No. 1 (the old hospital on the Boulder campus). Tensions were high on campus as students and supporters sought changes in the faculty of the UMAS/ Equal Opportunity Program.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The blast on May 27, at Chautauqua Park, was heard all over Boulder. The three who died in the bombed car were Alamosa attorney and CU law school graduate Reyes Martinez, 26; Ignacio high school homecoming queen and CU junior Neva Romero, 21; and CU double major graduate Una Jaakola, 24, Martinez’s girlfriend.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Then, on May 29, another bomb went off in a car in the Burger King parking lot on 28th Street, killing Florencio Granado, 31, who once attended CU; former CU student Heriberto Teran, 24; and Francisco Dougherty, 20, a pre-med student from Texas. One survivor, who was outside of the car at the time, lost a leg and suffered severe burns.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hundreds participated in mourning ceremonies for the victims — known as “Los Seis de Boulder” in the days following the bombings. On July 4, 400 joined a memorial march from Crossroads Mall to Chautauqua Park.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Chicano community was fearful and angry after the bombings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Denver activist Corky Gonzales spoke at a demonstration at the Federal Courthouse in Denver in July. Chicanos were protesting the harassment by a federal grand jury of families and friends of “Los Seis.” Chicano leaders felt strongly that “Los Seis” were murdered as part of a conspiracy against the Chicano activists and they claimed evidence to prove it. The grand jury investigation was deemed racist.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Police believe that those who died were political militants who were working on bombs and were preparing to set off more explosions. They theorized that Neva Romero was holding the homemade bomb in her lap when it detonated. However, District Attorney Alex Hunter decided not to prosecute bombing survivor Antonio Alcantar, saying the evidence was not sufficient to support criminal charges.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The bombings left Boulder residents jittery. There were several more bomb scares in the city that year, sending Boulder’s newly formed bomb squad out on false alarms.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Artist Pedro Romero painted a mural of “Los Seis de Boulder” for the office of the United Mexican-American Students in the University Memorial Center at CU in 1987. That mural was removed during the recent UMC renovation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A Colorado Historical Society memorial plaque for “Los Seis,” about one mile up Boulder Canyon, was dedicated in 2003.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Clovis Artifacts</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Rare Clovis artifacts document Boulder's prehistory"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, September 11, 2011</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/boulder-artifacts"><img alt="Boulder Artifacts" src="/sites/default/files/Boulder-artifacts_0.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 199px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>Thirteen thousand years ago, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> people roamed The Hill, and there are 83 stone age tools to prove it. Archaeologists now believe the prehistoric people may have had an ice age megafauna butchering station along the banks of Gregory Creek, where the tools were discovered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In May of 2008, landowner and biotechnology entrepreneur Patrick Mahaffy hired landscapers to excavate part of his yard to create a pond. When one of the crew members heard an unusual chink, he stopped to investigate. They had stumbled upon a collection of 83 stone implements.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mahaffy was curious about the implements, which he thought might be Native American and possibly a few hundred years old. He telephoned the University of Colorado’s anthropology department. Luckily, he reached Dr. Douglas Bamforth, an expert on ancient people and their use of stone tools. Bamforth walked over to take a look.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>He was astounded at what Mahaffy had discovered. Experts at the Laboratory of Archaeological Science at California State University, Bakersfield were consulted. Analysis to determine the age of the implements would be costly, but Mahaffy gladly paid out of his own pocket.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After some months, the unprecedented results of the protein residue analysis were made public. The results were international news. The tools contained the blood of prehistoric mammals including camel, bear, horse and sheep, the megafauna that roamed over North America 13,000 years ago during the Pleistocene.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It was the first analysis to identify protein residue from an extinct camel on North American stone tools and only the second to identify horse protein on Clovis-age tools, according to Bamforth. The rare find, which was officially named the Mahaffy Cache, is one of only a few Clovis artifact group discoveries in North America.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Clovis people mysteriously disappeared from the earth about the same time as the ice-age mammals also became extinct.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>One scientific theory is that a group of comets exploded over North America, creating massive heat that caused the extinction of ice age mammals, and perhaps the Clovis people, too. Clovis people were once thought to be the first human inhabitants of the New World, but new archaeological discoveries have called that belief into question.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The 83 tools of the Mahaffy Cache themselves are made of Kremmling chert, rock material found on Colorado’s Western Slope. They are not hunting tools, but were probably used for butchering the animals for food.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mahaffy described the tools as perfectly ergonomic, fitting beautifully into a human hand.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2009, Patrick Mahaffy was recognized with a special project award, given by the Boulder Heritage Roundtable, for his dedication to preservation of the ancient historic materials.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shortly after the discovery, the biopharmaceutical entrepreneur named his new company Clovis Oncology.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although Mahaffy intended for most of the tools to be on exhibit for the public, they have not yet been made available.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Boulder Fluoridation</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"This Boulder controversy had some teeth"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, November 4, 2012</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/boulder-fluoridation"><img alt="Boulder fluoridation" src="/sites/default/files/Boulder-fluoridation_0.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 217px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>The U.S. Center for Disease Control cites fluoridation of drinking water among the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It took three elections to get fluoridation approved in Boulder. At one point there were so many letters to the editor, both for and against, that the Daily Camera called for a moratorium.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Groups in favor thought Boulder should join other progressive cities in fluoridating the water supply to prevent tooth decay. Opponents rejected chemical additives to their pure glacier water.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Interest in the topic was piqued after results of studies reported in the Daily Camera in 1952 revealed a high rate of tooth decay in Boulder, reportedly the result of a lack of the element fluorine in the city’s water supply. The National Institute of Dental Research conducted one study in Boulder and Colorado Springs and found Colorado Springs residents superior to Boulder’s in terms of dental health.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The variation was related to the amount of fluorine in each city’s water supply. Boulder’s natural water supply contained practically no fluorine, which was why the city was chosen for the study. Colorado Springs’ water supply had averaged 2.5 parts per million for many years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Upon the recommendation of dentists and public health officials, the Boulder city council passed an ordinance for water fluoridation in April 1954.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Not so fast, opponents said. A referendum petition forced the issue to a vote of the people. Mr. Archibald Lacy (A.L.) Camp headed the campaign against adding fluoride with The Committee for Pure Boulder Water. Camp wrote in a letter to the editor, “I believe we have the best and purest water in the world; it is the joy and pride of beautiful Boulder.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Camp and his ilk said adding the chemical fluorine to the public water supply was a form of mass medication with a poisonous substance and a violation of their human rights. If people really wanted this chemical for dental health, they could get it individually from their dentist, the group argued.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Proponents insisted there would be no ill effects from the addition of a small amount of the chemical and that research backed up their position.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In October 1954, the measure was defeated by 742 votes — 2,395 voted in favor of the measure, 3,137 against it.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder Citizens for Good Teeth petitioned fluoridation onto the ballot again in 1964. Nearly every medical, dental and public health group in the city endorsed adding fluoride to the water supply.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Committee for Pure Water again formed the opposition.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Daily Camera reported that the U.S. Surgeon General sent a wire to Boulder’s acting mayor, Robert W. Knecht, supporting fluoridation. Even so, the measure was defeated for a second time, 5,975 to 4,824.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1969, the measure was petitioned onto the ballot once more. The Fluoride Study Group staged a series of public information meetings at which they emphasized the harmful effects of adding the chemical.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, just before the election, the World Health Organization adopted a resolution calling on member nations to introduce fluoridation of community water supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With a large voter turnout, the measure was approved by 508 votes, 5,902 to 5,394 against.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder now fluoridates its drinking water to 0.9 parts per million, as recommended by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Closed Captioning</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Boulder played role in closed captioning"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, November 18, 2012</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/jim-jespersen"><img alt="Jim Jespersen" src="/sites/default/files/Jim-Jespersen_0.jpg" style="width: 200px; height: 300px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>The three Boulder researchers credited with developing closed captioning never set out to change the lives of the hearing-impaired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the early 1970s, Jim Jespersen, a physicist, and engineers George Kamas and Dick Davis were working in the Time and Frequency Division at the National Bureau of Standards. (The name of the institution was changed in 1988 to National Institute of Standards and Technology.)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The men were studying the spectrum usage of television broadcasts. To increase availability of accurate time signals, they developed a way to hide time codes in broadcast television transmission.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>That original project was abandoned because of the emergence of GPS (global positioning system) and other technologies, which proved better in delivering accurate time signals, according to engineer John Lowe of the Time and Frequency division at NIST.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, the scientists noticed that after the audio and video elements were accounted for, there was still a large portion of the spectrum that went unused, said James Burrus, public information and outreach coordinator at NIST.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The researchers decided to utilize that available space to transmit a printed transcript of dialogue simultaneously with the broadcast. After that was successful, they then developed a way to hide that information for the average viewer. A special decoder was created for those who would be interested in viewing the transcript.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sandra Howe, an NBS information specialist, practiced the technology with an episode of ABC’s “The Mod Squad.” The NBS scientists shared it at the National Conference on Television for the Hearing Impaired in 1971. NBS then partnered with the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), which made improvements to the technology.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The National Captioning Institute, a nonprofit organization, was established in 1979 with federal grant money to add closed captions to network television programs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1980, the television networks ABC, NBC and PBS began transmitting closed captions on programs such as “Three’s Company,” “Disney’s Wonderful World” and “Masterpiece Theatre.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The first children’s program with closed captions was “3-2-1 Contact.” The 1981 Sugar Bowl marked the first captioning of a live sports event.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Viewers wishing to receive closed captioning at that time could buy a small black box for a little more than $250 at Sears, Roebuck &amp; Co.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In September 1980, the National Bureau of Standards, along with ABC and PBS, received the Emmy Award for outstanding engineering development for the “closed caption for the deaf system” from the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Those involved in the project were invited to the White House to receive congratulations from President Jimmy Carter.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In a Daily Camera story about the award, Jespersen and Davis commented that the thrill of winning an Emmy was decreased a great deal because it was for work done a decade earlier.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1990, President Bush signed a bill requiring that all televisions 13 inches or larger sold in the United States after July 1, 1993, possess the capability for showing closed captions.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, the closed-captioning Emmy statue is proudly displayed in the lobby of Boulder’s NIST.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Same-Sex Marriage</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Boulder was trend-setter for same-sex marriage"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, May 26, 2013</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/boulder-marriage-license"><img alt="Boulder Marriage License" src="/sites/default/files/Boulder-marriage_0.jpg" style="width: 185px; height: 301px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>A milestone in Boulder’s gay-rights history took place in 1975 — at the El Paso County Clerk’s office.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Two Colorado Springs men who had been living together for four years, David McCord and David Zamora, approached their county clerk to obtain a marriage license.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The staff person told the couple they didn’t do that sort of thing in El Paso County, then suggested they might have luck in Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>McCord and Zamora traveled to Boulder and encountered Boulder County Clerk Clela Rorex, who had been on the job only a few months. Assistant District Attorney William C. Wise advised Rorex that there was nothing in the language of the law to prevent granting such a license.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“I am not in violation of any law, and it is not for me to legislate morality … ” Rorex said after the fact.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>And with that, McCord and Zamora received the first same-sex marriage license in Colorado on March 26, 1975. (The first marriage license in the nation was issued to two men in Maricopa County, Ariz., in January 1975 but was later revoked.)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The union of McCord and Zamora was front-page news in the Daily Camera on March 27, 1975.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A few days later, the Sunday Camera’s editorial proclaimed the issuance was a “flouting of accepted standards” and a “distortion of intent of the law.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“What average, normal American family would choose residence here on the basis of this type of conduct and the reflection it gives?” the article asked readers. “The unsavory publicity about Boulder and the damaging effects on its reputation do not reflect the true character of our community. The deviates, weirdos, drones and revolutionaries are in the rank of the minority.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder County received more than 100 phone calls and piles of letters. Later, Rorex said he received hate mail from entire church congregations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many letters to the editor were published in the Daily Camera, mostly against the groundbreaking action.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, on April 7, when the Camera reported that a second license had been granted, the story noted that calls and letters were running at a 2-1 ratio in favor of Rorex’s decision to issue the licenses.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A male couple from Laramie, Wyo., drove to Boulder to obtain a license. One member of the couple was later dismissed from his job, according to a story in the New York Times. The Times reported that the same-sex couples granted licenses in Boulder were subjected to “harassment and ridicule.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The marriage of Richard Adams and Anthony Sullivan is the subject of a documentary in production titled “Limited Partnership.” View the trailer, which references Boulder, by <a href="https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/limited-partnership-a-documentary-about-love-marriage-and-deportation">clicking here</a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder was a topic on late-night television when host Johnny Carson remarked about a wacky town in Colorado that was handing out marriage licenses to homosexuals. Richard Adams and his partner, Anthony Sullivan, watched the broadcast in California and decided to make a trip to Boulder. Their Boulder County marriage license, issued on April 21, 1975, was the fifth granted.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Adams and Sullivan were quickly married outside the county clerk’s office. Later that afternoon, they traveled to Denver and had a formal religious ceremony, performed by a minister of the Metropolitan Community Church at Denver’s First Unitarian Church. (The Metropolitan Community Church was founded in 1968 on the principle of inclusion with specific outreach to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender families and communities.) The First Unitarian Church in Denver remains proud of its inclusive history, having placed a banner on the side of the building proclaiming, “Civil Marriage is a Civil Right.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A total of six same-sex couples, four male and two female, were issued marriage licenses by Boulder County, before the Colorado Attorney General intervened and halted the practice.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the McCord-Zamora marriage was over in less than two years, Adams and Sullivan were married for 38 years. The marriage license they obtained in Boulder made national news again when Adams died in December 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The licenses issued in Boulder in 1975 stand as an important breakthrough in the struggle for LGBT rights.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Amid the fray caused by the licenses in 1975, Assistant District Attorney Wise, living up to his surname, remarked, “Who is it going to hurt?”</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Women Programmers</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Women found math careers at ‘the Bureau’"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, August 14, 2016</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/catherine-candelaria"><img alt="Catherine Candelaria" src="/sites/default/files/Catherine-Candelaria_0.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 228px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>Janet Falcon assumed she would become a teacher. One of the few female mathematics students at the University of Colorado in the late 1950s, she even did her practice teaching at Boulder High School.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, an unexpected opportunity presented itself and led her to a long and satisfying career at the National Bureau of Standards in Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the spring of 1959, before graduation, she heard they were hiring at “the Bureau.” Intrigued, she filled out the paperwork and took the required tests.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Afterward, she shared the good news with her classmates. The conversation went something like this:</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“I got a job!” she said.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“What’s the job?” they asked.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Computer programmer,” she replied.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“What’s that?” they inquired.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“I don’t know!” she answered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>So began Falcon’s 33-year career as a mathematician at Boulder’s first big science laboratory.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vi Raben also became a mathematician at the bureau, during the same time. While she was in college the typical career options for young women were nursing, teaching or secretarial work, Raben said. No one ever heard of computer programming. Raben came to Boulder through a summer program to attract NBS employees in 1965.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Students could request a job anywhere in the country, Raben recalled. She chose Colorado and was placed at NBS. Hired for a permanent job after she graduated from college in the midwest, Raben imagined that she would do it for one year. She stayed her entire career.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>She worked on cutting edge sunspot research in a group at the World Data Center, headed up by the late physicist J. Virginia Lincoln.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“The World Data Center was all women,” Raben said.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As programmers, they created equations to solve problems in the field of radio communications. They wrote programming steps on a sheet similar to graph paper. Those were turned over to keypunch operators who created punch cards. Sometimes they punched their own cards.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Large metal trays containing decks of cards were carried to the centrally located IBM 650 computer and fed into the card reader machine, Falcon explained. As there was one computer for the whole bureau, they were allowed only an hour of time, from noon-1 p.m. Variables and parameters were adjusted to find the solutions for the projects.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The pay was better than teaching, even though you had to work in the summers. The government had great benefits, such as vacation and sick time, and health care. An onsite nurse provided regular physical exams, vaccinations, and hearing, vision and blood tests.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neither woman felt special for working outside the home. They needed to work to pay their bills. When they had a baby, maternity leave was 90 days, unpaid. Babysitters were found and sometimes shared among female employees.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“We knew each other. Then we went home to our families. Life was full,” Falcon said.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Both chuckled when they recalled that women were required to wear skirts to work. Many let their objections to this policy be known. Some of the young women had to reach up to storage bins and thought slacks would be more modest and practical. Over the years, the dress code was revised so that pants for women were allowed, much to everyone’s relief.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Falcon was in a group with about a dozen other computer programmers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“There were lots of women working there,” Falcon said. She emphasized that women were paid well and treated with respect.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The environment was collaborative, she said. Lunchtime was a social affair with the women, and men, eating, talking, sharing their programming challenges, and offering possible solutions to one another.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Visiting scientists came in from all over the world. It was thrilling to be working on the latest science and there was always fresh technology to master.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“The whole computer world was changing and everyone was talking about what was new,” Raben remembered.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“It’s been a real ride, watching the computers change.” Falcon said. “It was a fun job.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Housewife Activists</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Hilma Skinner warned of ‘sex deviate mecca’"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, October 16, 2016</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/hilma-skinner"><img alt="Hilma Skinner" src="/sites/default/files/Hilma-Skinner_0.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 245px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>When I read that the <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2016/09/05/phyllis-schlafly-dies/">noted anti-feminist activist Phyllis Schlafly passed away recently</a>, an image of the late Hilma Skinner popped into my head. Skinner was Boulder’s Schlafly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A married mother of three, Skinner and her family moved to Boulder in 1960, according to a Daily Camera interview. She founded the local chapter of Happiness For Womanhood (HOW), which later became the League of Housewives. She was a 55-year-old housewife in 1973 when she made her first run for Boulder City Council. Opposing affirmative action, rent control and a proposed abortion clinic, she lost the election, placing 13th out of 17 candidates.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>She ran the following year with more on her agenda. Skinner favored dropping the city’s Human Resources Department as well as the Human Relations Commission. She stated that she was against free day care centers because day care centers would encourage women to abandon the home.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With her trademark beehive hairdo, she was a recognizable presence at public meetings. In 1974, she attracted attention at a hearing regarding Boulder’s Human Rights Ordinance and its protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation. Skinner presented a petition signed by over 1,500 people opposing the ordinance.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Skinner suggested that, if the ordinance passed, Boulder would be renamed “Lesbian Homoville,” the Camera reported: “Mrs. Skinner claimed that passage of the ordinance would result in the transformation of Boulder into a ‘sex deviate mecca that will become as corrupt and vile as Sodom and Gomorrah and Pompeii.'”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As part of the fallout from the ordinance, Mayor Penfield Tate II and Councilman Tim Fuller faced a recall election. Skinner stood in favor of recalling Tate and Fuller for leading the city toward socialism.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Her campaign was focused on leading Boulder back toward American values. She lost her second bid for city council as well.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Equal Rights Amendment in its modern form was approved by Congress and went to the states for ratification in 1972, according to a report by the Congressional Research Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado ratified the amendment in 1972.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Skinner spoke out against the amendment. Her opposition was picked up by the United Press International news service and her opinions were printed in other newspapers. Skinner reasoned that the ERA would lead to husbands not supporting their families and women would become “criminally liable for half of the family’s income,” UPI reported.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Locally, Skinner let the Boulder Valley school board know that she was against teacher training on sex role stereotyping and she requested that League of Housewives members be allowed to participate in textbook selection.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Her conservative values were Christian-based.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“My teacher is the Holy Spirit,” she stated in a newspaper interview. She believed that “the Christian faith made this the greatest nation in the world.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Skinner began spending a couple of days a week at the state legislature promoting the League of Housewives’ policies. In 1975, she attended the opening session of the Colorado Legislature armed with chocolate chip and oatmeal cookies to persuade legislators to rescind the ratification of the ERA. At the time, both Nebraska (in 1973) and Tennessee (in 1974) had rescinded their ratifications. In February, Skinner flew to Washington, D.C., to demonstrate against the ERA in her official capacity as Assistant State Director of the League of Housewives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Skinner’s activism gradually faded away from the news. The ERA failed to be ratified by the required number of 38 states, short by 3 states, and effectively expired in 1982.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>According to online obituary records, Skinner passed away in 2012 at the age of 93.</p>&#13; &#13; <h3>Ray’s Inn</h3>&#13; &#13; <h4>"Ray’s Inn was listed in the Green Book"<br />&#13; Boulder Daily Camera, February 24, 2019</h4>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/image/rays-inn"><img alt="Ray's Inn" src="/sites/default/files/Rays-Inn_0.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 246px; margin: 5px; float: left;" /></a>Ray’s Inn was Boulder’s only listing in “The Negro Motorist Green Book.” While many of us are inclined to associate the Green Book guide with the segregated South, the book included information on establishments in Colorado and other western and northern states.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The travel guide, published from 1936-1966, was named for its author, Victor Green, an African American postal carrier who worked in New Jersey and had experienced difficulty while traveling with his family.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Green modeled his book after similar guides published for Jewish travelers. For the first edition, Green gathered information about restaurants, hotels, motels and businesses in New York City that were friendly and safe for African American travelers. He expanded to include such establishments in other states in subsequent editions. The title later changed to “The Negro Travelers Green Book,” and some special issues focused on rail and air travel.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Green encouraged African American travelers to carry their Green Book with them everywhere, “as you never know when you might need it.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s Ray’s Inn was run by Delbert Ray, who grew up on Goss Street in an area that came to be known as “the little rectangle.” The little rectangle, now part of the Goss-Grove neighborhood, was where most African American Boulder residents lived and built homes.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Delbert’s father, Albert Ray, moved to Boulder from Missouri in 1914, with his wife and growing family when Delbert was 2 years old. Albert was a custodian and operated the shoeshine business in the lobby of the First National Bank in Downtown Boulder for 25 years. The Rays were well-regarded in town and served as leaders at the Second Baptist Church.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Rays’ son Delbert graduated from nearby Boulder High, attended college in Missouri and then returned to Boulder. He landed a job at Perry’s Shoe shop and married Annie, a woman from Texas.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1946, Delbert and Annie opened Ray’s Inn at 2038 Goss Street. The couple constructed a small building on the lot in front of their home on the corner of 21st and Goss, and filled it with booths, tables and a counter for seating customers.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“We will operate a clean, orderly place with the best of food, not only for the colored people but for the general public,” Delbert said in a 1946 newspaper article.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Annie knew a thing or two about southern cooking, as she had operated a restaurant in Wichita Falls, Texas, so she was in charge. Delbert soon resigned from his job at Perry’s and joined her in the restaurant’s daily operations.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ray’s Inn was included in The Negro Motorist Green Book beginning in 1951. (At that time, Boulder was a town of about 20,000 residents, including just 113 African Americans.)</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Advertisements in telephone and city directories described the casual restaurant as “A nifty place to eat,” serving home-cooked meals, steaks, southern fried chicken and pit-barbecued pork ribs.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Delbert’s brother, Anthony Ray, wrote a letter, now archived at the Carnegie Library for Local History, describing Ray’s Inn. Anthony Ray recalled that Ray’s Inn “became an ‘in place’ for CU students.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After nearly a decade in the restaurant business, Delbert Ray died in 1955, and was buried in Columbia Cemetery. Annie closed the inn for a few months after Delbert’s death. She re-opened and tried to make a go of it, but ultimately Ray’s went out of business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Annie later worked at Roger’s, a restaurant on Pearl Street, according to city directories, but eventually she moved back to Texas to care for her mother. Annie died in Texas in 1979 at the age of 71.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Green wrote in his introduction to the Green Book, “There will be a day sometime in the near future when this guide will not have to be published. That is when we as a race will have equal opportunities and privileges in the United States. It will be a great day for us to suspend this publication for then we can go wherever we please, and without embarrassment.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many editions of the Green Book have been digitized by the New York Public Library’s Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and are available online.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-history" hreflang="en">boulder history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county-history" hreflang="en">boulder county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-daily-camera" hreflang="en">Boulder Daily Camera</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/carol-taylor" hreflang="en">Carol Taylor</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/carol-taylor-30569a18/">LinkedIn: Carol Taylor</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/author/carol-taylor/">Boulder Daily Camera: Carol Taylor</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 01 Aug 2019 17:57:13 +0000 admin 3055 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Silvia Pettem http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silvia-pettem <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Silvia Pettem </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2966--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2966.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/silvia-pettem"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Silvia%20Pettem_0.jpg?itok=AP65SgjX" width="1055" height="1052" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/silvia-pettem" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Silvia Pettem </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2018-11-27T15:11:03-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 27, 2018 - 15:11" class="datetime">Tue, 11/27/2018 - 15:11</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silvia-pettem" data-a2a-title="Silvia Pettem "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsilvia-pettem&amp;title=Silvia%20Pettem%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Silvia Pettem is a longtime <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a> resident who has been poking around historic sites for at least forty years. Her research and writing has evolved into two niches –– Boulder County history and missing persons/unidentified remains –– and she has authored more than a dozen books including <em>Separate Lives: The Story of Mary Rippon</em> and <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City</em>. Silvia also writes a monthly history column for the Boulder Daily Camera.</p><h2>Selected Columns</h2><p><strong>Editor’s note: These newspaper columns have been republished in their original form. The opinions expressed in them are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of </strong><em><strong>Colorado Encyclopedia</strong></em><strong>.</strong></p><h3>Mary Rippon</h3><h4>"Mary Rippon Received Posthumous Honorary Degree"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, March 26, 2006</h4><p><a href="/image/mary-rippon"><img style="border-style:solid;border-width:0px;float:left;height:301px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Mary_Rippon_1.jpg" alt="Mary Rippon" width="240" /></a>Mary Rippon was the first woman professor at the University of Colorado where she taught for thirty-one years. Many of her students went on to earn advanced degrees, but “Miss Rippon” (as she always was called) never had a degree of her own, not even a bachelor’s. That would change. At the University of Colorado’s Commencement in Boulder, in May 2006, the Regents awarded a posthumous honorary doctorate to their legendary pioneer educator.</p><p>Said Regent Cindy Carlisle, “This award is long overdue.”       </p><p>Rippon was born in Illinois in 1850. Her father died when she was a baby, her mother abandoned her, and she was passed around an extended family. When the young woman graduated from high school in 1868, she inherited money from the sale of her late father’s farm. She planned to go to the University of Illinois, but it didn’t admit women.</p><p>Instead, Rippon traveled to Europe where she ended up staying for five years. While there, she attended university classes in Germany, France, and Switzerland. She also kept in contact with her former high school chemistry teacher, Joseph Sewall.</p><p>When the University of Colorado (CU) first opened in September 1877, Sewall was its first president, and he invited Rippon to join the faculty. At the time, there was only one other professor, and the entire University was housed in one building, now called Old Main.</p><p>Rippon, then twenty-eight years old, arrived on the train in January 1878 and lived in Boulder for the rest of her life. CU has always admitted women. The new professor was well-liked and quickly became a role model to female students. Beginning in 1891, she chaired the Department of Modern Languages (later the Department of German Language and Literature).</p><p>Before long, Rippon was known as an exceptional professor who was highly revered by both students and colleagues. And she kept a low profile––for good reason.</p><p>When Rippon was thirty-seven years old, she had a romantic relationship with a twenty-five-year-old student. She and the student, Will Housel, secretly married. Their daughter, Miriam Housel, conveniently was born in Germany while Rippon took a year’s sabbatical. The couple (who never lived together as man and wife) left the baby in a European orphanage. Determined to keep her job, Rippon resumed teaching at CU as if nothing in her life had changed.</p><p>From then on, Rippon led two separate lives. In the Victorian era, married women didn’t work, as society deemed it as taking a job away from a man with a family to support. Ironically, Rippon financially supported her daughter, even after Housel remarried and was able to give their daughter a home. </p><p>Rippon retired from CU in 1909, but she remained in Boulder until her death in 1935. Her private life was known only to two close friends, even during the years that her daughter (now deceased) also taught at CU. Miriam’s son, Wilfred Rieder, announced his relationship to the university community in the 1980s. And his son, Eric Rieder, came to Boulder to accept the long-sought degree for his great-grandmother.</p><p>“Rippon shattered the glass ceilings of the day,” said Carlisle. “Not only was she a scholar and a teacher, she was a revolutionary. She was a magnet for students who were ready to break the mold.”</p><h3>Ruth Cave Flowers</h3><h4>"Ruth Cave Flowers Was an Advocate for Human Rights"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, March 8, 2001</h4><p><a href="/image/ruth-cave-flowers"><img style="float:right;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Ruth_Cave_Flower_0.jpg" alt="Ruth Cave Flowers" width="240" /></a>When the late Ruth Cave Flowers completed high school in Boulder, in 1920, her high school principal refused to give her a diploma because of her race. Even so, she was admitted to the University of Colorado, from which she graduated in 1924. Many years later, in 1977, Flowers gave the commencement address at Boulder High School and was surprised with a diploma in her name––more than a half-century overdue.</p><p>Flowers once told an interviewer that all she asked was just to be considered another human being. Growing up in Boulder wasn’t easy for an Black woman, but she persevered and was showered with accolades in her eventual teaching career.</p><p>Born in Colorado Springs, the young girl was abandoned by her father and orphaned, at age eleven, by her mother. Flowers and her sister then moved to Cripple Creek to live with their grandmother. A few years later, in 1917, they all moved to Boulder, hoping for better educational opportunities.</p><p>At the time, most members of Boulder’s Black community lived in the flood-prone area of town known as the “little rectangle,” an area bounded by Canyon Boulevard and Goss, Nineteenth, and Twenty-third streets. There, at 2019 Goss Street, the family built their home, now a Boulder city landmark.</p><p>Flowers enrolled in the State Preparatory School (forerunner of Boulder High School) while she worked in a laundry and washed dishes in a restaurant in order to support herself, her sister, and their grandmother. Even without the diploma, she had completed the required high school credits and was admitted to CU, where she became a foreign language major.</p><p>At the university, she was allowed access to her classes but was denied food service on campus. President George Norlin (who defied the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a>) heard of her determination to stay in school, and provided her with a job. He also taught Greek and may have inspired her love for the classics that she retained throughout her career.</p><p>After graduation, and fired with ambition to become an educator, Flowers moved to Washington, D.C. where she earned a doctoral degree in Romance languages. She also earned a law degree, married a lawyer, and, for a time, practiced law––but she preferred teaching. She became a language professor in colleges in both North and South Carolina.</p><p>In 1959, Flowers returned to Boulder and taught Spanish and Latin at Fairview High School. She was the first Black teacher in the Boulder Valley School District. Ten years later, Harvard University selected her as one of four outstanding teachers in America.</p><p>Former colleague and past state legislator Dorothy Rupert spoke of Flower’s “infectious love of learning” and her “strength, gentleness, and clear intellect .” </p><p>When Flowers died in 1980, she had seen a lot of changes during her lifetime. But, they weren't enough. She once stated, "I really want to see a time when we won't have to be concerned with black awareness, brown awareness, women's rights, or whatever, but simply human rights and human awareness." </p><h3>Muriel Sibel Wolle</h3><h4>"Muriel Sibel Wolle Remembered as Her Namesake Is Demolished"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, November 11, 2007</h4><p><a href="/image/muriel-sibell-wolle"><img style="float:left;height:341px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Muriel%20Sibel%20Wolle.jpg" alt="Muriel Sibell Wolle" width="240" /></a>Muriel Sibell Wolle once stated that she was “not a historian nor a writer, but an artist gone slightly berserk.” Long before most people thought about historic preservation, she sketched Colorado mining towns to create a pictorial record of their often-decaying buildings before many of them disappeared.</p><p>If the former artist and University of Colorado fine arts professor were alive today, she probably would be sketching her namesake: the Sibell Wolle Building, until recently a part of the CU campus. The aging structure was most recently used for many years by the fine arts department until its demolition, in 2008, to make way for the new Visual Arts Complex.</p><p>The red brick building originally comprised the “shops” for engineering students, who contributed to its design. Light filtered through a modified saw-tooth roof considered state-of-the-art at the time.</p><p>Muriel arrived in Boulder by train, in 1926, when the building was only eight years old. The West was new to the petite and energetic New York native. Single and 28 years old, she had studied advertising and costume design and then came to Boulder to teach art at CU. </p><p>After a visit to Central City, she stated that she felt challenged and stirred by the echoes, memories, and history of the nearly deserted gold mining town.</p><p>During the school year, Muriel taught in the classroom. She never learned to drive, but every summer eager students chauffeured her around in the mountains where she made rough pencil sketches. She drew quickly, on the scene, then took her sketches home where she completed them with black crayon and occasionally water colors.</p><p>Her finished drawings were representative rather than detailed. Her intent, she wrote, was to “catch the mood and quality of the town... with a sympathetic and dramatic interpretation.”</p><p>Although Muriel’s first objective was to get the deteriorating buildings down on paper, she realized that she needed to record the towns’ histories, as well. Her first book, titled Ghost Cities of Colorado, depicted the towns of Central City, Black Hawk, and Nevadaville. The next year she published Cloud Cities of Colorado, primarily on Leadville.</p><p>Muriel married Francis Wolle (a CU English professor), then wrote, under the name of Wolle, her most popular book, Stampede to Timberline. It was first published in 1949 and has become the “Bible” of Colorado ghost town books. It’s still in print today and covers much on Boulder County.</p><p>By the time of the book’s release, Muriel was the head of the fine arts department, a position she held until her retirement in 1966. Within a year of her death in 1977, she was honored by the university as one of three “alumni of the century .” </p><p>Muriel Sibell Wolle is not likely to be forgotten. The bulk of her collection of drawings is located in the Denver Public Library. Also, some of the materials in the Sibell Wolle Fine Arts Building will be recycled in the building that replaced it. But those who want to remember the building as it was –– if they didn’t sketch it themselves –– will have to settle for old photographs. </p><h3>George Morrison</h3><h4>"Jazz Musician Morrison Got His Start in Boulder County"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, December 12, 2002</h4><p><a href="/image/george-morrison"><img style="float:right;height:339px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/George_Morrison.jpg" alt="George Morrison " width="240" /></a>George Morrison was only 9 years old in 1900 when he moved to Boulder with his mother, brothers, and sisters. Talent had come naturally to the youngest of 14 in a Missouri-born musical family. Before long, George and his brothers formed the Morrison Brothers String Band. It got its start in the mining camps west of Boulder</p><p>To earn money for guitar and violin lessons, Morrison worked in the kitchen of the Boulder’s Delta Tau Delta fraternity house and also took a job as a shoeshine boy in a Pearl Street barber shop. He later outshined his brothers and became a renowned jazz musician.</p><p>According to a newspaper interview from years ago, the naive, but eager, country boys slid up and down the dangerous canyon roads in a horse and buggy, playing in any kind of building they could find. By 1914, the band was renamed the Morrison Orchestra and had a local manager named Lester Rinehart. Notices in the Boulder Daily Camera often announced, “Music by the Morrison Brothers of Boulder” or advertised “dances by Rinehart and his colored company.”</p><p>On many occasions, these dances were held in the schoolhouses of Salina, Sunset, Gold Hill, and Sugar Loaf. Popular tunes at the time were “Silver Threads Among the Gold” and “After the Ball.” When the Morrison Brothers didn’t have a formal engagement, they played for donations on Pearl Street, just as street musicians do today. </p><p>Morrison eventually played in jazz bands all over the country and in Europe, but he fiddled away the better part of his career in Denver. For several years, he directed an orchestra at Denver’s Albany Hotel. In 1919, he and his band went to New York and made a series of recordings for Columbia Records.</p><p>In his later life, Morrison taught, composed, and arranged music, and he especially enjoyed arranging popular tunes for a full orchestra. He was said to have played late into the night, and then he would get up early on Sunday mornings to sing in his church choir.</p><p>In 1970, the late George Morrison told a Daily Camera reporter that he had always wanted to be a concert violinist, but he was barred from a career in a symphony orchestra because he was an African American. One of the conductors of the Denver Symphony even told him, “I’d have you as my concert master if you were a white man.”</p><p>One of Morrison’s protégés was Paul Whiteman, a white musician who was dubbed the “King of Jazz.” Ironically, Morrison later was called “the black Paul Whiteman.” Morrison, who died of cancer in 1974 at the age of eighty-three, included Jelly Roll Morton, Scott Joplin, and Duke Ellington among his friends.</p><p>If you would like to see one of the venues where George Morrison and his brothers got their start, take Boulder Canyon to Four Mile Canyon and turn right on Gold Run Road until you reach the Salina Schoolhouse. The restored building dates from 1885 and looks the same as when the Morrison Brothers played there many years ago.</p><h3>Andrew J. Macky</h3><h4>"Andrew J. Macky Was a Self-made Man"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, July 1, 2007</h4><p><a href="/image/andrew-j-macky-was-self-made-man"><img style="float:left;height:338px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Andrew_J_Macky%20.jpg" alt="Andrew J. Macky " width="480" /></a>Members of the University of Colorado Board of Regents recently resurrected a resolution passed nearly a century ago to place a wreath every year on the grave of Andrew J. Macky in Columbia Cemetery. Before the Boulder benefactor died in June 1907 he had willed his considerable estate to CU for the construction of Macky Auditorium.</p><p>According to the 1908 regents’ minutes, the wreath was meant as a gesture of appreciation for Macky’s generosity. But the Boulder pioneer left more to Boulder than his money and his name. He was a self-made man who worked hard to achieve the wealth that he ultimately gave away.</p><p>Macky had arrived in Colorado Territory in 1859 as one of a Wisconsin party of young men, all eager to strike it rich in Colorado’s gold rush. They searched for gold but got discouraged and decided to find other ways to make their livings.</p><p>Some of the men, including Macky, ended up in Boulder. When Macky arrived, the town was merely a cluster of log cabins. As a skilled carpenter, he built and lived in Boulder’s first frame house, then on the northeast corner of Pearl and 14th streets.</p><p>At the time, Macky’s house was the largest and nicest building in Boulder, so he made it available for court sessions, public meetings, and dances. For eight years, he ran the post office out of his home and served as postmaster. In 1866, he built Boulder’s first commercial brick building. Neither of these buildings are still standing today.</p><p>Before long, Macky emerged as a community leader and served on the school board. He also became town clerk and treasurer, justice of the peace, and clerk of the district court. He found time to marry and adopt a daughter, and he became active in several fraternal organizations, as well as the Boulder County Pioneers and the Association of Colorado Pioneers.</p><p>By the 1870s, Boulder County’s gold and silver discoveries began to pour money into the local economy. Macky helped to organize the First National Bank of Boulder in 1877. Eight years later, he became its president.</p><p>Macky also, on his own, provided investors with high-interest short-term loans. He was part owner of the Boulder Milling and Elevator Company and was secretary and treasurer of the company that platted and sold real estate on Mapleton Hill.  </p><p>At the age of 68, Boulder’s then-richest resident parted with some of his accumulated wealth when he paid the then exorbitant price of $1,345 for one of Boulder’s first automobiles, a 1902 Mobile Steamer. </p><p>Two years after Macky’s death, the University broke ground for the auditorium that would bear his name. The cornerstone was laid a year later, but his adopted daughter contested the will and delayed construction. The building was in use in 1912, but the offices and the 2,600-seat auditorium were not completely finished until 1922.</p><p>Macky did well in his life, but he had never had a university education. At the time of the auditorium’s completion, a reporter for a CU publication wrote that Macky “was among those rare persons who are willing to give their all that others might enjoy privileges that they had been denied.”</p><h3>Byron White</h3><h4>"Byron White Was CU’s Favorite Son"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, November 5, 2006</h4><p><a href="/image/byron-white-was-cu-favorite-son"><img style="float:right;height:330px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Byron_White%20.jpg" alt="Byron White" width="480" /></a>At a University of Colorado football game a sports writer noted that Byron White “seemed to whiz by people.” Before long, the star player had became known as “Whizzer.” Now deceased, the Colorado-born athlete and scholar never slowed down until he had served three decades in the U.S. Supreme Court. He excelled both on and off the field, continuing the pattern throughout the eighty-four years of his life.</p><p>“Byron is the ideal athlete,” wrote the athletic editor of CU’s yearbook in 1938. “A more modest and unassuming young man there never was. But above all these achievements stands Byron himself, a man of strong character.”</p><p>White grew up in the small town of Wellington, near Fort Collins. As a child he worked in the sugar beet fields, then helped his father who owned a lumber yard. After a public school education, White entered CU as an economics major and played basketball and baseball, as well as football.</p><p>At the close of the 1937 football season, CU’s team was untied and unbeaten. On New Years Day 1938, the newly named Buffaloes played Rice University in the Cotton Bowl, in Dallas. Even though CU lost the game, White was considered the most popular football player in the country. Stated a reporter, “He was as glorious in defeat as he had been in victory.”</p><p>The following spring, White graduated first in his class of 1938 of which he was president. He had earned a Rhodes scholarship to England’s Oxford University, but he postponed his graduate school education to sign on with the Pittsburgh Steelers. </p><p>The next year, White did begin his law studies at Oxford, but he returned to the United States, where he entered Yale Law School. Then he interrupted his education again to earn his tuition by playing for the Detroit Lions. Fellow players remembered him leaving practice with his law books under his arm.</p><p>Although his professional career lasted just three seasons, he was named to the National Football Hall of Fame.</p><p>White became a Naval intelligence officer in World War II and then returned to Yale and graduated magna cum laude in November 1946. That same year, in Boulder, he married Marion Stearns, daughter of then CU president Robert Stearns. After a year in Washington, he practiced law in Denver for fourteen years.</p><p>In 1962, President John Kennedy chose White as his first Supreme Court nominee. White was known to back strong law-and-order decisions and cast votes sympathetic to the civil rights movement. He retired in 1993 and was replaced by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.</p><p>CU hasn’t forgotten its favorite son. White was the inaugural inductee in the CU Athletic Hall of Fame. His jersey, number 24, is on display with photos and other memorabilia in the Heritage Center Museum on the third floor of Old Main on the CU campus.</p><p>A reporter once called White a “warm guy with a good sense of humor” and added that he didn’t care for the spotlight. Apparently, he didn’t care for “Whizzer” either. Whenever his secretary was questioned on its spelling, she was told to respond, “B-Y-R-O-N.”</p><h3>Scott Carpenter</h3><h4>"Rocket Ship Honors Hometown Hero Scott Carpenter"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, May 18, 2008</h4><p><a href="/image/rocket-ship-honors-hometown-hero-scott-carpenter"><img style="float:left;height:413px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/Rocket_Ship.jpg" alt="Playground Rocket Ship " width="240" /></a>Every day, children at Scott Carpenter Park climb on a piece of playground equipment designed to look like a rocket ship. Originally, the tower-like structure was planned for the summit of a play area to be called Moon Mountain, designed to acknowledge astronaut Scott Carpenter. The Boulder native orbited the Earth three times in May 1962.</p><p>Few of the kids running around the playground today know the history and background of the rocket ship, but its significance has been documented in a photography exhibit titled “Once Upon a Playground,” displayed in 2008 at the Dairy Center for the Arts.</p><p>According to Boulder Daily Camera articles from 1966, the large proposed space-themed playground was designed by Sam L. Huddleston of Denver. As originally planned, it would have included a third of an acre of concrete-covered forms, complete with a climbing area and slides meant to simulate the surface of the moon. The “moonscape” was envisioned with caves, tunnels, craters, and spires and even a “control center with sitting space for mothers.”</p><p>After Carpenter’s historic flight, the city of Boulder gave its native son a welcome-home ceremony, temporarily displaying a model of his Aurora 7 Mercury Spacecraft on Pearl Street in front of the Boulder County Courthouse. </p><p>While Moon Mountain was in the planning stages, city officials tried, unsuccessfully, to gain permanent possession of the space capsule and place that, too, in the park.</p><p>In 1967, the Boulder City Council approved architect Huddleston’s plans, but funding for the complete Moon Mountain project quickly became controversial. Opponents argued that funds could be better spent on acquiring park land or initiating more park planting.  Others feared that too much concrete would destroy the natural beauty of the area.</p><p>Parks and Recreation Director Dwain Miller, however, called the Moon Mountain proposal “a delight to children” and “unique and appropriate for a park named in honor of Scott Carpenter.” The astronaut was born in Boulder in 1925 and had graduated from both Boulder High School and the University of Colorado.</p><p>The city’s budget got scaled down, and the originally designed space-theme playground never materialized. Instead, only a few pieces of playground equipment were installed, including a “satellite climber” and a “radar tower and slide,” both donated to the city by the American Association of University Women.</p><p>Of the original proposal, the only surviving piece was the twenty-six-foot, four-level rocket ship. City councilman John Buechner and Parks and Recreation Advisory Board member Albert Bartlett, with their wives and children, were among those who gathered for the dedication on a chilly fall day in October 1970. The project’s total cost, including landscaping, came to $38,000, with half of the funds coming from the United States Department of Interior’s Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.</p><p>The photo of the Scott Carpenter Park rocket ship that was displayed was part of an exhibit on Colorado vintage playground equipment. Photographer Brenda Biondo used the opportunity to capture unique views of several well-loved childhood artifacts, many of which are fast disappearing from the American landscape.</p><p>Hopefully, the rocket ship honoring Boulder’s hometown hero will survive for more many more years.</p><h3>Boulder Counterculture</h3><h4>"Boulder Called a Counterculture Haven in 1980"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, May 25, 2008</h4><p><a href="/image/boulder-called-counterculture-haven-1980"><img style="float:right;height:288px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/2023-12/Counterculture_Haven.jpg" alt="Boulder drug busts" width="480" /></a>A few years ago, a New York Times Sunday Magazine article on Boulder described the city as “25 square miles surrounded by reality” and a “heaven on earth” for latte-lovers and others. It was not the first time that the national media has splashed the city’s image in clichés.</p><p>In July 1980, Newsweek magazine published an article on Boulder titled, “Where the Hip Meet to Trip.” The magazine’s writers described the city as one giant fern bar, a haven for the counterculture, and a place where “dropouts drop in.”</p><p>Instead of the recent focus on a lean, keen, and green population, the 1980 article concentrated on a perception of rampant drug use by local residents. According to the national magazine writers, Boulder had become so “hedonistic and laid-back” that it was in danger of becoming “strung-out.”</p><p>City officials were outraged. Mayor Ruth Correll and City Manager Robert Westdyke carefully crafted a letter to Newsweek’s editor, but only part of the letter was published in a subsequent issue.</p><p>Instead, the image of Boulder that magazine subscribers across the country read was the one given by a twenty-six-year-old real-estate salesman who described what was, for him, a typical Friday afternoon. “Male goes to the Harvest House [now the Millennium Harvest House Hotel] for female in Danskin top, short shorts, and impenetrable sun glasses,” he told a reporter. “Goes home and shoves 2.5 grams of coke up her nose and pops as many Flight 714 Quaaludes as necessary for an evening of sexual bliss.”</p><p>Another resident, a computer salesman, said he could “smoke dope anywhere and live a mellow uptown life.” In reference to the jail––then located in the Boulder County Justice Center––the article claimed that the winos all but beg to be busted, “the better to enjoy the volley ball clinic and savor the gourmet chow.”</p><p>Newsstands in Boulder quickly sold out of Newsweek. The depiction of Boulder as a drug center was controversial, with some residents in agreement with at least the tone of the article, while others were adamantly opposed. The Boulder Daily Camera solicited written comments and sent the letters in one large packet to the Newsweek editor. </p><p>The magazine published three paragraphs of Correll and Westdyke’s comments on the story’s blatant errors. They adamantly stated that neither the Boulder City Council nor the Boulder Police Department was, as reported, “dominated by former radicals.” And although nude swimming and sunbathing was allowed at Coot Lake, the Boulder representatives were quick to point out that “public nudity per se” was not illegal, and the lake was not near a school.</p><p>Environmental policies and growth management were the only stated topics that met Correll and Westdyke’s approval. Their rebuttal was published without their first sentence which read:</p><p>The factual inaccuracies and misleading innuendoes in your report on Boulder, Colorado, are shocking and disappointing to find in a national news publication which millions of Americans accept on faith as being fair and comprehensive in its coverage.</p><p>One Boulder local, however, whose letter was published, wrote that he was “screaming with laughter,” and that the story “needed to be told .” </p><h3>KKK</h3><h4>"KKK’s intimidation and bigotry didn’t sit well with Boulder residents"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, August 26, 2018</h4><p>In 1922, when more than 200 hooded and robed members of the Ku Klux Klan, in 63 automobiles, slowly drove down Pearl Street, a Daily Camera reporter called them “a mysterious shrouded mass.” Even the license plates on their cars were blacked out.</p><p>That same year, the Klan held its first initiation in Boulder. But the secret society’s presence in the city was short-lived, as its intimidation and bigotry didn’t sit well with the local residents. </p><p>“The Ku Kluxers didn’t hurt anyone or destroy property, but they scared people,” stated the late Gertrude Dunning. In an interview in 2000, the then-91-year-old Boulder resident explained that, as a teenager, she and her boyfriend had witnessed one of the KKK’s outdoor evening assemblies from a distance and from the safety of their car.</p><p>Boulder’s Klan meetings were held in various locations along the foothills. Some were reported west of Dakota Ridge, while others were “north of Boulder,” probably in the vicinity of Linden Avenue or Lee Hill Road.</p><p>Although most Klan members kept their identities secret, some Boulder businesses went public in their endorsements. One dry cleaner advertised “Klothing Karefully Kleaned,” while a local grocery store’s slogan was “Kash and Karry.”</p><p>Outspoken Daily Camera editor L.C. Paddock goaded the Klan whenever he could and referred to them as the “Komic Kapers Klub.” In its own briefly published newspaper, the Klan struck back by calling the Camera “the Daily, yet weakly, Clamera.”</p><p>In 1924, after the Klan burned a 53-foot cross on Flagstaff Mountain, Paddock wrote, “Five carloads of men attended the rite (or wrong).” The blaze fizzled out after it starting raining, but it had been visible on the plains for miles.</p><p>Although the Klan’s original, post-Civil War, focus had been white supremacy, its basically Protestant members, in the 1920s, turned their opposition to Catholics and Jews. Boulder’s only Catholic church at the time was Sacred Heart. Some of its members found burning crosses on their front lawns.</p><p> Meanwhile, the city only had a few Jewish residents, and Boulder had no synagogues, at all, at the time.</p><p>The Klan’s intolerance of Catholic and Jewish religious groups was more pronounced at the state level. By 1924, the Klan had infiltrated the Colorado state legislature. That same year, Denver judge Clarence J. Morley was elected as Colorado’s governor, serving one term, from 1925 to 1927.</p><p>As a Klan member, Morley was said to have taken orders from the Klan’s “Grand Dragon,” John Locke.</p><p>One of Locke’s orders went to University of Colorado President George Norlin whom he told to rid CU’s faculty of Catholics and Jews (if any). Norlin stood up to the Klan and refused. During Governor Morley’s term, the University received little or no funds from the Klan-controlled state legislature. </p><p>Boulder’s “Klavern No. 3,” as the local group was called, voted to dissolve in 1925. The following year, the Klan lost its strong grip on Colorado politics when the federal government investigated the “Grand Dragon” for income tax evasion. </p><p>“It was exciting while it lasted,” added Dunning, who came from a Catholic family. “There wasn’t much else to talk about in Boulder at the time.”</p><h3>Women Voters</h3><h4>"Appeals made to women voters–in 1894"<br />Boulder Daily Camera, October 28, 2012</h4><p><a href="/image/appeals-made-women-voters-1894"><img style="float:right;height:351px;margin:5px;" src="/sites/default/files/women_voters.jpg" alt="Women voters" width="240" /></a>Today’s politicians place a lot of importance on courting different segments of the voting public, and that includes women. The same was true in 1894, when women in Boulder and in the rest of Colorado went to the polls for the first time.</p><p>Although 1894 was not a presidential election year (that would come two years later when William McKinley was voted into office), newspaper editors in the days leading up to election day made a concerted effort to encourage, educate, and influence women voters.</p><p>At the time, Colorado (and Wyoming, even during its territorial days) was way ahead of the rest of the country. Women’s suffrage had been voted down in 1877, but it passed in 1893, a full 27 years before the 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted women all over the country the right to vote.</p><p>In October 1894, the Boulder Daily Camera was full of advice, assuring women that their votes were their own. Editorials explained that each voting place would be set off by railings, preventing those outside the rails from approaching within six feet of the ballot box.</p><p>Women, however, were given mixed messages. One editorial claimed that the Populist Party, more than any other, favored enfranchising women. Although told to vote their convictions, women were expected to “feel kindly” toward the party responsible for their new-found rights. </p><p>The female “novices” also were told that inside individual booths, they would be provided with pens, ink, and blotting paper.  They also were instructed that they “must use ink and be careful to blot it,” so that no other marks, other than their choices for offices, would mar the paper ballots.</p><p>Meanwhile, Kate Field, a Washington, D.C.-based writer, was the editor of a national political publication titled Kate Field’s Washington. Even though her residence made her unable to cast her own ballot, she exerted her influence by urging women of Colorado to think and to vote.</p><p>In 1894, the big Colorado race was for governor. The Daily Camera endorsed the Populist Party’s candidate, incumbent David Waite. Three thousand men, women, and children gathered on the lawn of the Boulder County Courthouse, where they patiently listened to his two-hour speech.</p><p>On election day, the Daily Camera reported that Boulder women were well-organized in getting their fellow citizens to the polls. Of the women, a writer noted, “They drove the carriages or ordered them, they knew where their voters were, they got them out, and in every respect developed political energy and talent of high order.”</p><p>Boulder County’s vote went mostly for Waite, the Populist Party candidate. Elsewhere in the state, others voted for the Democratic and Prohibitionist candidates, but Republican Albert McIntire won the state by a landslide.</p><p>According to a publication of the Non-Partisan Colorado Equal Suffrage Association, one of the early arguments against granting women the right to vote had been that it would rob them of their “essential womanliness .” </p><p>Field, in her article, countered that argument by insisting that Colorado women exercise their new right. “You cannot afford to make mistakes,” she wrote. “Your sex is on trial .” </p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-history" hreflang="en">boulder history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county-history" hreflang="en">boulder county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/missing-persons" hreflang="en">missing persons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-daily-camera" hreflang="en">Boulder Daily Camera</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mary-rippon" hreflang="en">Mary Rippon</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.silviapettem.com/">Silvia Pettem, author website</a></p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 27 Nov 2018 22:11:03 +0000 yongli 2967 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Colorado Chautauqua http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-chautauqua <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Colorado Chautauqua</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-17T16:26:44-06:00" title="Wednesday, May 17, 2017 - 16:26" class="datetime">Wed, 05/17/2017 - 16:26</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-chautauqua" data-a2a-title="Colorado Chautauqua"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcolorado-chautauqua&amp;title=Colorado%20Chautauqua"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Established in 1898 on what was then a barren mesa south of <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, Colorado Chautauqua has been providing education and entertainment programs for well over a century. Originally founded by Texas educators, the Chautauqua in Boulder was part of a nationwide movement emphasizing intellectual and moral improvement. Now a National Historic Landmark and a beloved local institution, it is one of only three Chautauquas in the country—and the only one west of the Mississippi River—still being used for its original purpose.</p> <h2>Texas Origins</h2> <p>The first Chautauqua was held in 1874 at Lake Chautauqua in western New York. It featured Bible study classes, as well as lectures on art, history, science, geography, and ancient languages. The concept soon proved popular, especially among rural Americans hungry for knowledge, entertainment, and some connection to the wider world. By 1898, more than 150 independent Chautauquas were in operation across the country—including Colorado’s first Chautauqua, Glen Park Chautauqua Assembly near <strong>Palmer Lake</strong>, which started in 1887. New Chautauquas usually sought to imitate the rural setting and rustic housing of the original, with an open tabernacle or auditorium to host speakers and performances.</p> <p>In 1897 the University of Texas hatched an idea to establish a summer school and Chautauqua for the state’s teachers in a cooler location somewhere in Colorado. Officials visited Boulder, were impressed by their <strong>University of Colorado</strong> hosts, and returned to Austin to incorporate the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua Association. They had not definitely decided on Boulder, however, and a competition for the Chautauqua soon emerged between Boulder, <a href="/article/colorado-springs"><strong>Colorado Springs</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>. <strong>Colorado &amp; Southern Railway</strong> officials on the association board preferred Boulder, which required a longer train trip from Texas. In April 1898, the city won over the rest of the board after residents overwhelmingly approved a bond to buy land for the Chautauqua. The city also agreed to build an auditorium and dining hall at the site, as well as a transit system to get people there from the railroad depot.</p> <p>Chautauqua planned to open its first season on July 4, 1898, leaving Boulder less than three months to prepare. The city failed to provide a transit system, but it followed through on its other promises. The city quickly bought seventy-five acres of Bachelder Ranch, just south of Baseline Road at the mouth of Bluebell Canyon. The triangular plot, then known as Texado Park, was the first parkland the city ever bought. On May 12, 1898, construction of the auditorium and dining hall began. The dining hall was finished first, in early June. The auditorium took longer and was ready just in time for opening day. Built in the Chautauqua style, it was open on three sides. More than 350 tent sites were platted for housing to accommodate Chautauquans coming from Texas and other distant locations, with some larger tents erected for use as classrooms and meeting halls.</p> <p>On July 4, 1898, 4,000 people gathered in the Chautauqua auditorium for the opening ceremony, which featured hours of speeches by the Boulder mayor, the Texas governor, the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> president, and Colorado governor <strong>Alva Adams</strong>. The Kansas City Symphony performed that day and remained in residence for the rest of the season.</p> <p>During Chautauqua’s first season, daily attendance averaged about 1,000. A daily fee of fifty cents covered all programs, which included dozens of speeches and musical programs, as well as art talks, speaking programs, and gymnastics. In addition, Chautauqua offered the first real summer school in Colorado, with fifty-one courses in sixteen different subjects, including literature, math, chemistry, botany, physics, psychology, education, and languages. Tuition cost $5 for one course or $10 for three. In their free time, Chautauquans took advantage of their proximity to the mountains by going on hikes to <strong>Royal Arch</strong> or riding the train along the <strong>Switzerland Trail</strong>.</p> <h2>Early Years</h2> <p>Chautauqua saw several improvements in its first few years. Before the 1899 season, Boulder built an electric railway, the city’s first mass-transit system, to ferry people between the railroad depot and Chautauqua along Ninth Street. At the Chautauqua site itself, a new Art Hall as well as an office and bathhouse opened in time for the second season. In 1900 Chautauqua added an Academic Hall with six rooms; the summer school soon had an enrollment of 600. Trees were planted around the tents and buildings, providing much-needed shade on the previously bare mesa.</p> <p>In addition, encouraged by the Chautauqua association and the Boulder City Council, local residents began to build cottages to replace the original tent housing. Locals built a few dozen cottages before the 1899 season, which they could occupy themselves or rent to visitors. Soon the association began to advertise in out-of-state towns to encourage school districts or groups of teachers to build their own cottages. The association itself also started to own and build cottages at the site; income from cottage rentals eventually became the association’s main source of income. By 1916, all the tent dwellings had been replaced by cottages.</p> <p>In the meantime, the Chautauqua association had undergone important administrative changes. From the start, the association had trouble breaking even, a problem that continued when Chautauqua grew more slowly than expected in the face of increased competition from new Chautauquas elsewhere. By the end of the third season, in 1900, the association’s total debt had grown to about $32,000. To deal with the ongoing deficit, the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua Association reorganized with greater local representation and was renamed the Colorado Chautauqua Association. The Colorado &amp; Southern forgave the association’s debt, and local businesses that benefited from the visiting Chautauquans were enlisted to make contributions to offset any future deficits.</p> <p>On this more secure foundation, Chautauqua continued to develop through the opening decades of the twentieth century. Opening day, always held on July 4 in those years, was an annual citywide celebration. Performers such as John Philip Sousa, who came to Chautauqua in 1904, drew huge crowds. <strong>Joseph Bevier “Rocky Mountain Joe” Sturtevant</strong> became Chautauqua’s official photographer, documenting the site’s development and activities during its early years from the small studio he built on the grounds.</p> <p>The Chautauqua movement grew into a nationwide phenomenon during the first quarter of the twentieth century. Thousands of Chautauquas opened in those years. In a time before easy transportation or mass communication, Chautauquas played a crucial role in connecting rural Americans to the national culture. By 1924, Chautauquas around the country attracted 40 million people.</p> <p>Colorado Chautauqua was also at its height in the 1910s and 1920s. In 1918 the Chautauqua association added the site’s last major building—the Community House—which served as a meeting place and club room, regularly offering free community activities. In the 1920s, the site had ninety-seven cottages and four lodges that could house 600 people. Chautauqua was so successful that it tried to expand, but the city of Boulder blocked it from increasing its footprint and eventually made the adjacent land part of the city’s Open Space and Mountain Parks system.</p> <h2>Decline of the Movement</h2> <p>The end of the 1920s saw the rapid collapse of the Chautauqua movement nationwide. Radio and television were beginning to provide new forms of entertainment, while the rise of automobile tourism gave people more options for traveling. In addition, the rural farmers who formed the heart of the Chautauqua movement were facing hard times, a problem that grew worse during the <strong>Great Depression</strong> of the 1930s. Eventually the only Chautauquas left standing were the original Chautauqua in New York, Lakeside Chautauqua in Ohio, and Colorado Chautauqua.</p> <p>Colorado Chautauqua shared in the misery of the Depression, but it limped along until economic recovery began in the late 1930s and quickly regained its footing after World War II. In 1946 the number of Chautauqua-owned cottages passed the number of privately owned cottages, and Chautauqua expanded slightly by filling in an old reservoir on its southern edge and adding a handful of new cottages.</p> <p>After surviving the movement’s decline, the Great Depression, and decades of changes in education, entertainment, and recreation, Colorado Chautauqua became nearly extinct in the early 1970s. Attendance and revenues were down. The city of Boulder developed a plan to tear down the auditorium and other original Chautauqua buildings and replace them with a city-owned resort and convention center. The president of the <strong>Boulder Historical Society</strong> and the editor of the <strong><em>Daily Camera</em></strong> quickly mobilized to get Chautauqua listed in the National Register of Historic Places, which successfully shifted the city’s focus from destruction to preservation.</p> <p>As a result of its new status as a historic site, Colorado Chautauqua experienced a revitalization in the late 1970s. In 1977 the Chautauqua association reorganized its board of directors, bringing new energy to the organization. The dining hall was renovated and the auditorium received a complete structural rehabilitation. In 1978 the <strong>Colorado Music Festival</strong> began to hold its annual summer concerts in the auditorium.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>In 2006 Colorado Chautauqua was declared a National Historic Landmark. That year the Chautauqua association began to put together the first master plan for the site, as it faced parking problems, mounting tax bills, and a variety of maintenance issues. Released in 2011, the Chautauqua 2020 Plan proposed several changes and additions, including the relocation of the picnic shelter and construction of a new 7,000-square-foot two-story building near the auditorium for use as offices and meeting space. The proposed building sparked strong opposition. Local residents organized a group called Boulder Friends of Chautauqua to fight the proposal and work for greater oversight of Chautauqua association activities and the US Department of the Interior submitted a letter urging the association not to move the picnic shelter or construct the new building. The association ultimately abandoned its plans.</p> <p>In 2015 the Boulder City Council began negotiations with the Chautauqua association for a new twenty-year lease at the site. The city annexed the forty-acre Chautauqua grounds in 1953 and leases twenty-six acres to the association, which operates public buildings such as the auditorium, dining hall, and community house as well as sixty of the site’s cottages. (The other thirty-nine cottages are privately owned.) The primary items at issue in the new lease included city representation on the Chautauqua board, cottage rents and taxes, and city oversight of Chautauqua construction and renovations.</p> <p>Chautauqua continues to offer a regular program of musical performances, films, discussions, and lectures.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chautauqua" hreflang="en">Chautauqua</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/national-historic-landmarks" hreflang="en">National Historic Landmarks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/texas-colorado-chautauqua" hreflang="en">Texas-Colorado Chautauqua</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/joseph-sturtevant" hreflang="en">Joseph Sturtevant</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountain-joe" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountain Joe</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Mary Galey, <em>The Grand Assembly: The Story of Life at the Colorado Chautauqua</em> (Boulder: First Flatiron, 1981).</p> <p>Thomas J. Noel and Dan W. Corson, <em>Boulder County: An Illustrated History</em> (Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media, 1999).</p> <p>Elizabeth Schlosser Eisenbud, “The Colorado Chautauqua,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form (March 9, 1977).</p> <p>Phyllis Smith, <em>A Look at Boulder from Settlement to City</em> (Boulder: Pruett, 1981).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Richard Fetter, <em>Frontier Boulder</em> (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1983).</p> <p>Maurice Frink, <em>The Boulder Story: Historical Portrait of a Colorado Town</em> (Boulder: Pruett, 1965).</p> <p>Mona Lambrecht and the Boulder History Museum, <em>Boulder, 1859–1919</em> (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2008).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 17 May 2017 22:26:44 +0000 yongli 2581 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Gold Hill http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-hill <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Gold Hill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2531--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2531.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/early-gold-hill"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold-Hill-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=1H4WZK12" width="1000" height="576" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/early-gold-hill" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Early Gold Hill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>After members of the Aikins party discovered gold in January 1859, prospectors rushed to Gold Hill, which became the first permanent mining camp in the Colorado mountains.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2532--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2532.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/revived-gold-hill"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold-Hill-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=NXF6xtct" width="1000" height="581" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/revived-gold-hill" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Revived Gold Hill</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Gold Hill declined in the late 1860s but experienced a new boom after 1872, when miners discovered gold and silver tellurides in the area.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2534--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2534.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/tourism-takes-hold"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Gold-Hill-Media-5_1.jpg?itok=95CoNwxR" width="1000" height="750" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/tourism-takes-hold" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Tourism Takes Hold</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the early twentieth century, mining declined and Gold Hill shrank. It turned into a small residential community and summer resort. The Blue Bird Lodge (bottom left) was owned by a Chicago women's group as a private retreat.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-05-03T16:54:46-06:00" title="Wednesday, May 3, 2017 - 16:54" class="datetime">Wed, 05/03/2017 - 16:54</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gold-hill" data-a2a-title="Gold Hill"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgold-hill&amp;title=Gold%20Hill"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Gold Hill was established in 1859 as the first permanent <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> camp in the Colorado mountains. Located at an elevation of about 8,300 feet in <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county">Boulder County</a></strong>, the town experienced several booms and busts before settling into a small-scale tourist economy in the twentieth century. Today Gold Hill—which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989—has about 200 residents and continues to represent perhaps the best intact example in the state of an early mining community.</p> <h2>Mountain District No. 1</h2> <p>In the fall of 1858, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush">Colorado Gold Rush</a> spurred Capt. <strong>Thomas Aikins</strong> to lead a party of about fifteen up the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river">South Platte River</a> toward Cherry Creek. On the way, they stopped at the ruins of <strong>Fort St. Vrain</strong>, an old fur <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts">trading post</a> along the river. Aikins supposedly climbed the fort’s crumbling walls and looked west, where he saw an inviting valley at the base of the foothills. He led his party to what is now Settler’s Park in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder">Boulder</a>, where the Southern <strong>Arapaho</strong> leader <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/niwot-left-hand">Niwot</a> (or Left Hand) allowed them to camp through the winter.</p> <p>During the winter, Aikins’s son, James, and other members of the party started to explore the creeks above their camp. On January 16, 1859, they found gold in a tributary of Fourmile Creek. They called the stream Gold Run, and the mining camp that took shape on a nearby ridge became Gold Hill. After news of the find reached <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver">Denver</a>, hundreds of prospectors rushed to Gold Hill, which became the first permanent mining town in the Colorado mountains. In February the Aikins party established Boulder City as a supply town, and on March 7, 1859, miners in Gold Hill organized Mountain District No. 1, the first mining district in what would become Colorado.</p> <p>Gold Hill soon swelled to 1,500 residents, who mined roughly $100,000 of gold in their first year. The most famous and productive early find in Gold Hill was the Horsfall Lode, discovered in June 1859 by <strong>David Horsfall</strong>, William Blore, and Matthew McCaslin. That fall, Thomas J. Graham built the area’s first stamp mill. In May 1860, a fire destroyed the camp, but it was soon rebuilt at a new, better-sheltered site on the saddle between Gold Run and Lick Skillet Gulch.</p> <p>As with many of Colorado’s earliest mining towns, Gold Hill declined quickly after its initial boom. The exhaustion of placer gold—easily accessible gold in streambeds—made mining more difficult and expensive, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a> drained the town of prospectors and capital. Over the next five years, the Horsfall Lode almost single-handedly kept Gold Hill alive. By 1870 the town had only a handful of residents left.</p> <h2>Tellurium Boom</h2> <p>Gold Hill experienced a second and more sustained boom starting in 1872, when miners discovered gold and silver tellurides in the area. Tellurides contain tellurium, an element used in alloys. Prospectors again flocked to the foothills above Boulder, founding new towns such as Sunshine and Salina. Gold Hill revived and grew to more than 1,000 residents who quickly put up dozens of log and frame buildings. The earliest surviving buildings in Gold Hill date to this period, including the log cabins at 210 and 240 Horsfall Street. By 1873, the newly bustling town had a store, a post office, a school, and several boardinghouses. Charles Wentworth built a three-story log hotel, sometimes called the Miners Hotel or Grand Mountain Hotel.</p> <p>Over the next decade, Gold Hill grew to include three general stores, a drugstore, a barbershop, a meat market, a pool hall, a livery stable, and seven saloons. The largest and most productive mine in Gold Hill during this era was the Slide Mine. Discovered by W. B. Pell in July 1875, it produced ores worth more than $2 million by 1910. Even during these years, however, Gold Hill’s growth was hampered by its remote location. All the approaches into town were too steep for a railroad, so the nearest station was two miles away. Without a railroad to haul ores and bring materials, the town’s development never took off.</p> <p>After 1900 the quantity and quality of the ores around Gold Hill declined. Mining activity slowed, and the population dropped to about 200 by 1910. By that time, the mines around Gold Hill had produced ores worth a total of about $13 million. Over the next decade, mining in Gold Hill essentially stopped, and the town shrank to only fifty people. Many houses and businesses were abandoned. Mining experienced a brief revival during the Great Depression, when gold prices were high and labor was cheap. That minor boom ended when the government shut down gold mines during World War II, and most mines never reopened.</p> <h2>Preservation</h2> <p>With the rise of automobiles in the 1910s and 1920s, Gold Hill started to attract tourists who drove up the steep canyon roads from Boulder. In 1921, for example, a Chicago women’s group called the Blue Birds bought the Wentworth Hotel and turned it into a private summer retreat called the Blue Bird Lodge. Five years later, they built a log dining hall next to the lodge. Some mining cabins started to be converted into summer homes, but the tourist economy sprouting in Gold Hill was soon squashed by the <strong>Great Depression</strong>. For the next generation, the town survived as a small residential community. In 1962 Barbara and Frank Finn bought the Blue Bird Lodge and dining hall, which they renamed the Gold Hill Inn.</p> <p>Gold Hill never died out. It also never experienced enough development to destroy the town’s early log buildings or change its mining-camp feel. In the 1960s, the growth of Boulder sparked concerns in Gold Hill about the effects of new development on the historic town. In 1968 residents banded together as the Gold Hill Organization to Safeguard the Town (GHOST), and in 1972 they won historic preservation zoning that allowed them to review and approve all permits for new construction in town. Gold Hill residents also have hindered development by resisting efforts to pave any of the approaches into town.</p> <p>Historic preservation in Gold Hill remains an active concern. In the late 1990s, Historic Gold Hill opened a local history museum and archive with the help of a <strong>State Historical Fund </strong>grant. In 2000 land containing the ruins of the original townsite and the Horsfall Mine were listed for sale and threatened with development. The nonprofit <strong>Colorado Preservation Inc.</strong> named the site one of the state’s most endangered places to draw attention to it, and Boulder County soon bought the land to preserve it as open space.</p> <p>The town faces threats from natural disasters as well as economic development. In September 2010, the massive <strong>Fourmile Canyon Fire</strong> broke out near Gold Hill. The fire burned a total of 168 houses and caused more than $200 million in damages across nearly 6,200 acres, making it one of the most destructive <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wildfire-colorado#page-title"><strong>wildfires</strong></a> in Colorado history. The historic Gold Hill townsite was on the edge of the fire but survived without losing any houses.</p> <p><a class="colorbox colorbox-insert-image" href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/image/gold-hill-today"><img alt="Gold Hill Today" class="image-large" src="/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/Gold-Hill-Media-6_0.jpg?itok=TjDyFLCl" style="float:right; height:319px; margin:15px; width:480px"></a> Today Gold Hill has about 200 residents and more than 30 historic buildings, many of which are made of logs and date back to the town’s late nineteenth-century mining boom. The town’s two main businesses are the Blue Bird Lodge and Gold Hill Inn—still run by the Finn family—and the Gold Hill General Store, which serves meals, sells a wide variety of items, and houses the town library. The town’s 1874 schoolhouse is still in use.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/gold-run" hreflang="en">Gold Run</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horsfal-lode" hreflang="en">Horsfal Lode</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/slide-mine" hreflang="en">Slide Mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cash-mine" hreflang="en">Cash Mine</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/tellurium" hreflang="en">tellurium</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thomas-aikins" hreflang="en">thomas aikins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fourmile-canyon-fire" hreflang="en">Fourmile Canyon Fire</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/endangered-places" hreflang="en">Endangered Places</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Deborah Edge Abele, “Gold Hill,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (October 1987; rev. November 1988).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Balsley, <em>Early Gold Hill</em> (n.p.: Storyteller Images, 1992).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charlie Brennan, <a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2015/09/04/fourmile-fire-five-years-of-progress-but-dangers-linger/">“Fourmile Fire: Five years of progress, but danger lingers,”</a> <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, September 6, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel and Dan W. Corson, <em>Boulder County: An Illustrated History</em></p>&#13; &#13; <p>(Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Red Rocks to Riches: Gold Mining in Boulder County, Then and Now</em> (Boulder: Stonehenge, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Snider, <a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2009/08/12/gold-hill-celebrates-150th-birthday/">“Gold Hill celebrates 150th birthday,”</a> <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, August 12, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Laura Snider, <a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2009/08/14/theres-still-gold-in-them-hills/">“There’s (still) gold in them hills,”</a> <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, May 11, 2008.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>John K. Aldrich, <em>Ghosts of Boulder County: A Guide to the Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of Boulder County, Colorado</em> (Lakewood, CO: Centennial Graphics, 1986).</p> <p><a href="https://coloradopreservation.org/programs/endangered-places/endangered-places-archives/original-gold-hill-townsite/">“Original Gold Hill Townsite,”</a> Colorado Preservation Inc., Endangered Places Archives.</p> <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Guide to Historic Western Boulder County</em> (Evergreen, CO: Cordillera, 1989).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 03 May 2017 22:54:46 +0000 yongli 2530 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Boulder http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Boulder</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-02-22T12:34:17-07:00" title="Wednesday, February 22, 2017 - 12:34" class="datetime">Wed, 02/22/2017 - 12:34</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder" data-a2a-title="Boulder"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fboulder&amp;title=Boulder"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Boulder is Colorado’s eleventh-most populous city, twenty-five miles northwest of <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a><strong>, </strong>nestled against the foothills of the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>. Home of the <strong>University of Colorado</strong> (CU), the city has a population of 97,385 and is the seat of <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a>. Boulder was founded during the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59, and the university was established in 1861.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the educational capital of Colorado for more than 150 years, Boulder has fostered a unique cultural amalgam of middle- and upper-class intellectuals, enthusiasts of the arts and outdoors, entrepreneurs, and college students. The counterculture of the 1960s found a comfortable niche in Boulder, and the area became a haven for hippies and socially liberal politics. Of course, Boulderites may fit all, some, or none of those categories, but the city’s culture is nonetheless distinct from the rest of the state and has earned it the nickname, “the People’s Republic of Boulder.”</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Ancient and Indigenous Boulder</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s unique landscape is the result of tens of millions of years of mountain-building and thousands of years of human habitation. The <strong>Flatirons</strong>, Boulder’s iconic triangular mountains, are remnants of a prehistoric seafloor pushed up by the same geologic forces that built the Rocky Mountains between 60 and 70 million years ago. With the uplift of the mountains came streams such as Boulder Creek, which carried snowmelt down from the <strong>Indian Peaks </strong>and carved today’s Boulder Canyon.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 2009 workers at a west Boulder residence found primitive tools that date aboriginal occupation of the Boulder valley to the late Pleistocene, or at least 13,000 years ago. Native American occupation continued uninterrupted from the late Pleistocene to the present. During the <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> (9500 BC–5500 BC), <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> (5500 BC–AD 1), and Late Prehistoric Period (AD 1–1550), hunters and gatherers moved seasonally between the mountains and plains. Many of these groups spent the harsh Colorado winters in the shelter of the natural trough along the Front Range, where Boulder now sits. By the sixteenth century, <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people occupied what is today western Boulder County, and by the early nineteenth century they were joined by the <strong>Arapaho</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Boulder</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Modern Boulder got its start in late fall of 1858, when <strong>Thomas Aikins </strong>and his group of Anglo-American prospectors arrived at <strong>Boulder Canyon</strong> during the Colorado Gold Rush. Aikins’s group built log cabins for shelter just below the mouth of the canyon. <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a> (“Left Hand”), a local Arapaho leader, allowed the prospectors to stay for the winter as long as they promised to leave in the spring. The decision would eventually cost his people their land and many of their lives.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On January 16, 1859, Aikins’s son James and several others found placer (surface) gold along a fork of Boulder Creek. The group set up a mining camp called <a href="/article/gold-hill"><strong>Gold Hill</strong></a>. In June, drawn by news of Aikins’s discovery, prospector David Horsfal arrived and found an even larger deposit: a massive, gold-bearing quartz seam that he named the Horsfal Lode. These discoveries not only brought more miners to the area but also merchants, farmers, and others looking to cash in on the newest pin on the gold-rush map.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 10, 1859, Tom Aikins, A. A. Brookfield, and fifty-three other men formed the Boulder City Town Company, platting a small settlement at the mouth of the canyon to serve the mining camps. The town had its first irrigation ditch later that year, and by 1860 it boasted some seventy cabins, mostly occupied by Anglo-American families of miners and merchants. Non-whites were part of Boulder’s early history, but they are rarely pictured. Chinese miners kept to themselves in mountain communities. Few blacks or Asians hired photographers to have their portraits taken, and photos of Boulder prostitutes were even rarer.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1861 Boulder County was formed as one of the original seventeen counties of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, and the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a> led to the removal of the Arapaho people from the Front Range. With their numbers thinned by disease and their resource base dwindling on account of mining and other white activities, Niwot’s band held out as long as they could but soon moved to the new Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in southeastern Colorado. By 1862 the Boulder Creek deposits had already yielded $100,000 in gold, and more than 300 people lived in the modest community at the canyon’s mouth.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The town, consisting of a few log cabins, was centered around Twelfth (Broadway) and Pearl Streets. Except for a few cottonwoods, willows, and box elders along Boulder Creek, there were no trees. <strong>Isabella Bird</strong>, an adventurous Englishwoman who traveled through Boulder on horseback a few years later, called Boulder “a hideous collection of frame houses on the burning plain.” By contrast, the City of Boulder’s Forestry Division estimates that there are about 650,000 trees in the city today, supported by more than a century’s worth of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> delivery projects.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Horsfal mine supported both Gold Hill and Boulder for several years. Then came what is known as “the slump of 1863.” Gold ore farther from the surface required more sophisticated milling, and gold was lost in the processing. Meanwhile, American Indian uprisings on the plains, spurred by the <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong></a> in 1864, interrupted shipments of supplies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many of the miners left to prospect elsewhere or fought in the <a href="/article/civil-war-colorado"><strong>Civil War</strong></a>.  Others saw their future in agriculture and <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homesteaded</strong></a> farms around Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Civil War ended in 1865, many former slaves and their children moved west, and some settled in Boulder. The 1880 census listed blacks as approximately 1 percent of Boulder County’s 3,069 residents, but they nonetheless had formed their own thriving community in the city. Many of Boulder’s early black residents lived on the city’s west side, in a section of the Goss-Grave neighborhood known as the “Little Rectangle.” There, several houses originally built by former slaves still stand, including the home of Ruth Cave Flowers, one of the first black graduates of CU, as well as the home of musician John Wesley McVey.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Among the most prominent black Boulderites was <a href="/article/oliver-toussaint-jackson"><strong>Oliver Toussaint Jackson</strong></a>, the son of former slaves from Ohio who bought a farm outside the city in 1894. Jackson built a home at 2228 Pine Street, and he also opened a restaurant on Thirteenth Street, the Stillman Café and Ice Cream Parlor. Later, he opened a restaurant at Fifty-fifth and Arapahoe Streets that was famous for its seafood. Jackson went on to found the all-black agricultural settlement of <a href="/article/dearfield"><strong>Dearfield</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As African Americans built a community in Boulder, prospectors continued to search for gold in the mountains. In 1869 they found silver near present-day <strong>Nederland</strong>, setting up a small town called <strong>Caribou</strong>. A road up Boulder Canyon was completed to get supplies to Caribou, and revenues from the new mines began pouring into the city. By November 1871 Boulder’s economy was much improved, and the city was incorporated. In 1872 gold-bearing telluride ore was discovered near Gold Hill, and prospectors again rushed to the mountains west of Boulder to stake their claims. Mines cropped up all over the area, from Jamestown to Sunshine to <strong>Ward</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Miners west of Boulder depended on the city for supplies, and it grew steadily. Brick and stone commercial buildings began to replace the frame businesses on Pearl Street. Street merchants delighted Pearl Street crowds with flaring gaslights and displays of ventriloquism in order to sell hair restoratives, electric belts for rheumatism, and other cure-alls. The <strong>Colorado Central </strong>and Denver &amp; Boulder Valley Railroads arrived in 1873, and in 1878 another line connected the city to the coalfields several miles to the south. As its commerce and culture coalesced in the 1870s, Boulder continued its push to build Colorado’s first university.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>University of Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As early as 1861, when the University of Colorado was officially founded, Boulderites took steps to ensure that their community would house the first university in the fledgling Colorado Territory. It took more than a decade to build the campus, however, as Boulder struggled to stay afloat after the first mining boom subsided. The town survived by catering to the needs of neighboring farmers and coal miners. To build the initial campus, the Territorial Legislature gave the city $15,000 on the condition that residents match that amount. Boulderites raised the money, and by the time Colorado became a state in 1876, the city finished Old Main, CU’s first building. Dr. <strong>Joseph Sewall</strong>, the university’s first president, and his family lived in the building, which also hosted the first classes. In the spring of 1882, CU graduated its first class, an all-male group of six. The university augmented Boulder’s industry-related growth, attracting people from elsewhere in the state. By 1890, Boulder had a population of 3,330.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The 100-Year Flood</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s late-nineteenth century growth was interrupted by a so-called 100-year <a href="/article/boulder-flood-1894"><strong>flood in 1894</strong></a>. The deluge completely severed Boulder from the rest of Colorado, wiping out all road and rail bridges and telegraph lines. It also destroyed farms and irrigation infrastructure. Most of the city’s red light district, which covered the area along Water (Canyon) Street between the current Municipal Building and the Boulder Public Library, was destroyed. Madams promptly moved their girls to upstairs rooms in the downtown business district.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Goss and Grove Street neighborhood, home to most of the city’s minorities and immigrants, fared little better. Although the neighborhood was rebuilt, the majority of large homes, churches, and public buildings built after the flood were located north of downtown or on higher ground. It took the city several years to fully recover from the flood.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>“Athens of the West”</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>After recovering from the catastrophic flood, Boulder became a sophisticated city in the early 1900s, calling itself “the Athens of the West” and “the Place to Be.” The business district, comprising late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings, was located between the new residential areas on Mapleton Hill and University Hill. Hardwoods and fruit trees were imported from the East.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>CU was also growing. By 1902 the university had many more buildings, including dormitories, a president’s house, and a library. Its student body had grown to 550, taught by 105 faculty members. At the outbreak of <a href="/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> in 1914, barracks were established at CU, and the university became one of the first college campuses to have a Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). It was also during this period that CU buildings began taking on their signature look: flagstone walls covered by red-tile roofs, a style referred to as Tuscan Vernacular and chosen by Day and Klauder, the architectural firm hired to homogenize the campus buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Along with the university, temperance was a key part of Boulder’s identity as a sophisticated city. Although the city featured nineteen saloons by 1883 and was not known as a particularly drunken city, a significant segment of the citizenry opposed drinking establishments. Organizations such as the Golden Sheaf Lodge (1869), the local chapter of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (1881), and the Better Boulder Party (1900) vigorously opposed saloons and drinking by working to raise liquor license fees.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1907 the Better Boulder Party and nativists played on the moralist fears of many Boulder County citizens when they argued that going dry would curtail the licentious activities of prostitutes and alcohol-drinking immigrant groups such as the Germans, Irish, and Italians. That year, Boulder County approved a ban on alcohol that lasted until the repeal of federal prohibition in 1933. Boulder itself was a dry city until 1967.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As temperance advocates won prohibition, Boulder set its sights on obtaining the best drinking water for its growing population. The city purchased the watershed of the <strong>Arapaho Glacier</strong>, and later the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a> itself. A $200,000 steel pipeline brought the nearly flawless water from an intake pipe on Boulder County Ranch (now <strong>Caribou Ranch</strong>), to the Chautauqua and Sunshine Reservoirs in Boulder. All over Boulder, drinking fountains were installed that read “Pure Cold Water from the Boulder-Owned Arapahoe [sic] Glacier.” The only drinking fountain still marked today is in the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hotel-boulderado"> <strong>Hotel Boulderado</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Between Boulder’s drinking fountains lay stores that held just about anything a shopper wanted. Dress goods for both sexes and ready-to-wear clothing were available, and women could buy imported perfumes, diamond lockets, plumed hats, button shoes, and even rust-proof corsets. Stores stocked gourmet foods such as oysters and a wide selection of coffees, as well as choice and smoked meats. In the 1930s, nineteenth and early twentieth century storefronts were lowered and modernized.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Shoppers in early twentieth-century Boulder often rode streetcars, while boys on bicycles darted around early automobiles. In 1909 the automobile was still a novelty, but people were taking notice. Meanwhile, the Denver &amp; Interurban’s electrically powered trains made sixteen round-trips per day between Boulder and Denver. From 1908 to 1917, this cheap, clean, and efficient means of public transportation ran down Pearl Street on its way to <strong>Louisville</strong>, <a href="/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a>, and Denver. Between 1917 and 1926 the Interurban trains stopped at the Union Pacific depot and alternated their routes with runs through the university and Marshall. Narrow-gauge railroads, meanwhile, provided access to Nederland and other mountain towns to the west. Soon, automobiles began to replace stagecoaches, and trucks instead of wagons carried freight.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Postwar Growth</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of World War II, its chief support lay with the university. Enrollment at CU doubled over the course of a single year after World War II, going from 5,483 in 1946 to 10,421 in 1947. Over the next several decades, the university added new facilities to keep pace with increasingly higher enrollment, and the school was admitted to the American Association of Universities in 1967. The university had an enrollment of 20,000 by 1980.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the broader cityscape, postwar growth and the increasing popularity of the automobile took businesses away from downtown. The North Broadway, Arapahoe Village, and Basemar Shopping Centers were built in the 1950s. By 1955 Boulder was a city of nearly 30,000 people.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1960s Boulderites talked about revitalizing downtown, buying open space, and limiting growth. In 1963, when the first segment of Crossroads Shopping Center was built, Boulder merchants and property owners organized “Boulder Tomorrow, Inc.” to help plan the redevelopment of the downtown area. Construction of a downtown pedestrian mall began in 1976 and was completed in 1977. The mall eliminated traffic on <strong>Pearl Street</strong> between Eleventh and Fifteenth Streets.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Historic preservation</strong> also came into style. Businesses and street merchants returned downtown. Many of Boulder’s original buildings were restored. In the early 1970s Historic Boulder, Inc. was formed to recognize and preserve Boulder’s historic buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Since then, Boulder has become an indisputable high-tech mecca, with entrepreneurs drawn to the town for its combination of a skilled workforce, ambitious entrepreneurs, available venture capital—and healthy mountain living. <em>Inc.</em> magazine recently reported that Boulder has more startups per capita than any city in the United States—six times more startups than the national average. Companies like the tea maker <strong>Celestial Seasonings</strong> and the biotech firm Amgen have led the way.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder’s reputation as a citadel of freethinking has also continued to grow apace. With the pedestrian mall of Pearl Street as the physical focal point and the university as the draw, the city continues to evolve as a petri dish for new ideas. But Boulder has expanded carefully, keeping nearly 100,000 acres of open space under city management.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder remains so attractive that real estate prices can be 1.5 times more expensive than nearby Denver. Commuters between the two cities are often frustrated by high congestion rates on US Highway 36, which was expanded in 2016 to include HOV and bus lanes. As of 2016 Denver’s <a href="https://www.rtd-denver.com"><strong>Regional Transportation District</strong></a> (RTD) is extending the B Line of its light rail system to Boulder, with an eye toward relieving some commuters.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Parts of this essay adapted from Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, eds., <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 5th Ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013) and Robert R. Crifasi, <em>A Land Made from Water</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015).</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/history-boulder" hreflang="en">history of boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-gold-rush" hreflang="en">Colorado Gold Rush</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flatirons" hreflang="en">flatirons</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-creek" hreflang="en">boulder creek</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thomas-aikins" hreflang="en">thomas aikins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/niwot" hreflang="en">Niwot</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/david-horsfal" hreflang="en">david horsfal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/isabella-bird" hreflang="en">isabella bird</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oliver-toussaint-jackson" hreflang="en">Oliver Toussaint Jackson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cu" hreflang="en">cu</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1894-boulder-flood" hreflang="en">1894 boulder flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/better-boulder-party" hreflang="en">better boulder party</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho-glacier" hreflang="en">arapaho glacier</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pearl-street-mall" hreflang="en">pearl street mall</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/celestial-seasonings" hreflang="en">celestial seasonings</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>David Baron, <em>The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature (New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company</em>, 2010).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Burt Helm, “<a href="https://www.inc.com/magazine/201312/boulder-colorado-fast-growing-business.html">How Boulder Became America’s Startup Capital</a>,” <em>Inc.</em>, December 2013-January 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>John Kieffer, <em>Boulder, Colorado</em><em>:</em> <em>A Photographic Portrait</em> (Rockport: Twin Lights Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erica Meltzer, “<a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2013/04/24/boulder-weighs-fate-of-historic-house-in-little-rectangle-neighborhood/">Boulder Weighs Fate of Historic House in ‘Little Rectangle’ Neighborhood</a>,” <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, April 24, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel and Dan Corson, <em>Boulder County: An Illustrated History </em>(Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Silvia-Pettem/e/B001JSA6II/ref=dp_byline_cont_book_1">Silvia Pettem</a>, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, “<a href="https://www-static.bouldercolorado.gov/docs/J_Tracking_Down_Boulder,_Colorado%E2%80%99s_Railroads-1-201509031602.pdf">Tracking Down Boulder, Colorado’s Railroads” and “Roads of the Mountains and Plains</a>,” Boulder Historic Context Project (Boulder, CO: Silvia Pettem, 1996).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/pearl-street-mall-beloved-boulder-attraction">Pearl Street Mall: Beloved Boulder Attraction</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://boulderdowntown.com/visit">Explore Downtown Boulder</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.cu.edu/cu-careers/cu-boulder">University of Colorado</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 22 Feb 2017 19:34:17 +0000 yongli 2378 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Front Range http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Front Range</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-23T16:06:17-07:00" title="Monday, January 23, 2017 - 16:06" class="datetime">Mon, 01/23/2017 - 16:06</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range" data-a2a-title="Front Range"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffront-range&amp;title=Front%20Range"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The Front Range is a corridor of the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> and surrounding land stretching 200 miles from the Wyoming border on the north to the<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"> <strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> on the south. The western border of the Front Range consists of a collection of high mountain ranges, from the Medicine Bow and Laramie Mountains in the north to the <a href="/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a> massif in the south. The western border of the Front Range consists of an assortment of mountain ranges, including a group of peaks between <a href="/article/georgetown%E2%80%93silver-plume-historic-district"><strong>Georgetown</strong></a> and <strong>Silverthorne</strong>, as well as the <strong>Indian Peaks</strong>, <strong>Mummy Range</strong>, Laramie Mountains, Medicine Bow Mountains, Kenosha Mountains, Tarryall Mountains, Rampart Range, and Pikes Peak. The region’s eastern boundaries are somewhat less clear, generally consisting of the foothills of the mountains and the western edge of the <a href="/article/colorado’s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Front Range has a long history of human migration and habitation, as it offers access to the resources of both mountains and plains, as well as shelter from the extreme weather of both environments. Today, the corridor has a population of 4.5 million and is the site of Colorado’s largest cities, including <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>, <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, and <strong><a href="/article/colorado-springs">Colorado Springs</a>.</strong></p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early Inhabitants</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Stone tools and other artifacts found at the <a href="/article/lindenmeier-folsom-site"><strong>Lindenmeier</strong></a> archaeological site in northern <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a> indicate the presence of indigenous hunter-gatherers along the Front Range as early as 12,300 years ago. On the eastern slope of Pikes Peak, archaeologists have found evidence of human occupation dating to 5,000 years ago, and some etchings in the rocks at <strong>Garden of the Gods</strong> date back at least 1,000 years.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By AD 1500, the Front Range was home to the Nuche (<a href="/article/northern-ute-people-uintah-and-ouray-reservation"><strong>Ute</strong></a><strong> </strong>people), who spent the summers hunting in the high country and wintered in camps at the base of the mountains. After the Ute obtained horses in the mid-seventeenth century, some bands began hunting buffalo on the plains. In the early nineteenth century the Utes along the Front Range were joined by the <strong>Arapaho</strong> and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, two peoples who had been pushed out of their homeland in the upper Midwest. The Arapaho ranged farther into the mountains than the Cheyenne and became enemies of the Ute as the two groups competed for game and other resources in the high mountain valleys. Other indigenous groups that frequented the Front Range plains in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries included the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, <strong>Kiowa</strong>, and <strong>Lakota</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>These people’s identities are inextricably linked to the geography and ecology of the Front Range. Pikes Peak, for instance, figures prominently in the Ute creation story in which the Creator built their nation around the mountain. The band that most commonly frequented the area around Pikes Peak knew the mountain as “Tava,” or “sun mountain,” and called themselves the “Tabeguache,” the “People of Sun Mountain.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Arapaho shared with the Ute a reverence for the mountains of the Front Range. They knew Pikes Peak as “heey-otoyoo’,” or “long mountain,” and at least one Arapaho hunter made a habit of ascending <a href="/article/longs-peak"><strong>Longs Peak</strong></a> in today’s <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a> to hunt eagles. Meanwhile, the identity and spirituality of both the Cheyenne and Arapaho were tied to the plains, the realm of the all-important <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> and horse.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early American Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early American explorers such as Lieutenant <a href="/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> in 1806–7 and Major <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/stephen-h-long"><strong>Stephen Long</strong></a> in 1820 saw the Front Range as part of the so-called <a href="/article"><strong>Great American Desert</strong></a> and unfit for farming. What Pike and Long had seen was a land baked by sun, with too little moisture to sustain the agricultural way of life they were familiar with in the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From the summit of Pikes Peak in 1893, <strong>Katharine Lee Bates</strong> saw the region differently. She was so impressed by the view that she penned the words to “America the Beautiful.” The 20,000 square miles of Front Range before her had indeed changed in seventy-five years since Major Long had seen it. Farmers had come to seed the “amber waves of grain” and irrigated agriculture had supplanted <a href="/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a> and bison pelt hunting primary industry on the “fruited plain.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>When <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold</strong></a> was discovered on Ralston, Dry, and Clear Creeks in 1859, the region’s economy and history were forever altered. Thousands of would-be miners swarmed into the Front Range, propelling Denver’s growth and sparking the emergence of towns such as Boulder, <strong>Idaho Springs</strong>, <a href="/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Central City</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/central-city%E2%80%93black-hawk-historic-district"><strong>Black Hawk</strong></a>. The gold boom was short lived, but miners and the men who supplied them were here to stay.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Agriculture</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>To support the mining boom, Front Range towns imported tools, clothing, and building materials from Midwestern cities such as St. Louis and Chicago. But food was more difficult to import, so farmers followed the gold seekers to Colorado to work the land along the streams of the Front Range.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Growing crops in Colorado was not easy. The Front Range offered plenty of sunshine and warm winter Chinook winds, but the growing season was short, rainfall was scarce, and unpredictable spring blizzards wiped out many harvests. Though it was difficult, farming along the Front Range had its rewards. Miners were hungry, railroad crews needed provisions, and land was plentiful thanks to a campaign that relocated the Ute, Cheyenne, and Arapaho to surrounding states. Propaganda from Colorado’s earliest boosters maintained that <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> was “not a burden but a pleasure” and that <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> constantly flowed from the mountains to the plains, furnishing a reliable supply of nutrient-rich soil. Later generations would find that this was mostly untrue—the water supply was hardly limitless—but in the early days of settlement the propaganda made life on the Front Range seem downright Edenic. Believing the area to be free from “Hay Asthma,” where one could be cured of chronic bronchitis and “<a href="/article/tuberculosis-colorado"><strong>tubercular</strong></a> or scrofulous consumption,” land-hungry easterners suffering from the repeated economic recessions of the nineteenth century poured into Colorado seeking a healthful and productive place to live.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>But the real stimulus to irrigated agriculture came from those who believed that cooperative agricultural societies in the west could be a profitable and harmonious alternative to the industrial competition and aggressive individualism of the east. Although he knew relatively little of the west, <a href="/article/nathaniel-meeker"><strong>Nathan Meeker</strong></a>, the agricultural editor of the <em>New York Herald Tribune</em>, led a committee to Colorado in search of a site for a farming community in 1869. They found a 12,000-acre parcel on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a>, four miles upstream from its junction with the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>. Before the year was out, ground had been broken on the <strong>Union Colony</strong>, the beginnings of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>. Towns such as <strong>Arvada</strong>, Boulder, <a href="/article/city-and-county-broomfield"><strong>Broomfield</strong></a>, and <strong>Wheat Ridge </strong>all developed along a similar model—growing crops to feed miners—in the mid- to late nineteenth century. In 1870 the Colorado territorial legislature designated Fort Collins as the site of the Agricultural College (now <strong>Colorado State University</strong>), which researched and helped implement best practices for irrigation and crop production across the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As overhunting led to a sharp decline in the buffalo herds during the late nineteenth century, rangy longhorn cattle began to fill the empty space on the plains. Driven up from Texas in herds of 2,000 to 3,000 along the Goodnight-Loving Trail, the cattle were sold to Indian reservations, mining communities, and railroad crews or driven east to markets in Kansas City or Chicago. The era of large-scale, free-range ranching along the Front Range was short lived, however; a severe summer drought in 1886 was followed by early<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong> snows</strong></a> and freezing temperatures that decimated the cattle herds, paving the way for much of the former grazing land to be fenced off and sold into private ownership.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Gold, Steel, and Beets</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early twentieth century, three major developments injected new life into the Front Range economy, broadening the region’s financial and industrial base: a new gold rush at <a href="/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a>, <a href="/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a>’s <strong>steel mill </strong>in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>, and the rise of the <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beet industry</strong>.</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>The gold discoveries in the Cripple Creek and <a href="/article/victor"><strong>Victor</strong></a> areas in 1890 came at just the right time. The great silver boom of the 1870s and 1880s was snuffed out when the nation returned to the gold standard in 1893, but Cripple Creek was a gold strike, and its mines were the single most important reason for Colorado’s rapid emergence from economic depression. The money that poured into Colorado Springs from the mines on the other side of Pikes Peak financed the <a href="/article/broadmoor"><strong>Broadmoor Hotel</strong></a>’s construction and covered the dome of the <a href="/article/colorado-state-capitol"><strong>capitol</strong></a> building in Denver with gold leaf. It also created millionaires who went on to build department stores, railroads, tunnels, and other industries and infrastructure in the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>To the south, <a href="/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel and Iron</strong></a> (CF&amp;I) turned Pueblo into the “Pittsburgh of the West.” Through employment in its mines and mills, the company attracted thousands of immigrants to Colorado and permanently altered the social milieu of the southern end of the Front Range.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the Cripple Creek mines and CF&amp;I placed their faith in the seemingly endless mineral wealth of the Rockies, the Great Western Sugar Company gambled on a crop that was unfamiliar to most Colorado farmers in the early twentieth century. Sugar beet agriculture had not been a great success in <a href="/article/grand-junction"><strong>Grand Junction</strong></a>, where Great Western built its first factory in 1899, but the altitude, soil, and mild winters of the Front Range seemed ideally suited to this crop. Front Range farmers were eager to plant beets because they were a cash crop whose market price was guaranteed at the time of planting. In 1909 farmers harvested 108,000 acres of beets; ten years later they harvested 166,000 acres. In just one decade, Colorado had become the largest producer of sugar beets in the nation.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>However, converting fields from cereal grains to water-intensive beets and other vegetable crops put a strain on the available water supply. From 1925 to 1933, many of these crops received less than half the water they required, and sizable acreages received no water at all. When a drought hit in the 1930s, Great Western Sugar became one of the principal proponents of the <a href="/article/colorado–big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado–Big Thompson</strong> <strong>project</strong></a> (C-BT) a transmountain water diversion project that imported water from Colorado’s <strong><a href="/article/western-slope">Western Slope</a> </strong>by pumping it under the <strong><a href="/article/great-divide">Continental Divide</a>. </strong>When it was completed in the mid-1950s, the C-BT not only allowed farmers to continue growing water-intensive crops along the Front Range but also increased the supply of drinking water for the region’s expanding urban population.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth Century</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The 1920s and 1930s were hard times for the Front Range and the state as a whole. The <strong>Great Depression</strong> and the <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> decimated the region’s agricultural industry, and thousands of farmers and ranchers were forced to abandon their homes and fields. In the late 1930s, <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> programs addressed problems of unemployment, overused land, schools, airports, roads, and other public facilities. But it was not until World War II that the Front Range experienced its next economic boom. This time, assistance came from the Department of Defense.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>World War II launched Colorado into the industrial age. The <a href="/article/denver-ordnance-plant"><strong>Denver Ordnance Plant</strong></a>, <strong>Rocky Mountain Arsenal</strong>, <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-fleet"><strong>Denver Shipyard</strong></a>, and <strong>Lowry Air Field </strong>were all established in Colorado by the Department of Defense as part of the war effort. Front Range universities received funds for training soldiers in language and intelligence specialties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Following the war, the Front Range received national attention during the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–61), partly because the president and his wife spent a lot of time in Colorado and partly because federal funds continued to pour into the area. The <a href="/article/norad"><strong>North American Air Defense Command (NORAD)</strong></a> built its missile detection center in the bowels of <a href="/article/cheyenne-mountain"><strong>Cheyenne Mountain</strong></a> near Colorado Springs, while Denver became the regional home of a variety of federal agencies. Meanwhile, Denver’s position as a regional transportation hub brought <a href="/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> and <strong>Interstate 25</strong> together just north of the city’s rapidly expanding downtown.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Population Pressure</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1960, Colorado was the ninth fastest-growing state in the nation with the fourth-largest population increase since 1950. Ninety percent of the gain was confined to the Front Range between Pueblo and Fort Collins, while many counties on the Western Slope continued to lose population. A backlash to the progrowth doctrine of the mid-twentieth century occurred in the 1970s. Recognizing the steep environment costs of progrowth policies, antigrowth coalitions came together to shut down Colorado’s bid to host the <a href="/article/1976-winter-olympics"><strong>1976 Winter Olympics</strong></a> in protest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1989 more than 2.3 million people called the Front Range home. Securing an adequate water supply for such a quickly growing population had always been a major concern, but under President Jimmy Carter (1977–81), federal money for water projects was almost entirely cut off. Colorado was on its own and was unprepared to pay the full cost of the diversion, storage, and treatment projects that seemed necessary to support sustained population growth and a booming agricultural economy.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The biggest problem the Front Range faced at the time was that most of the state’s water fell in the form of snow on the other side of the Continental Divide. Diversion projects that drew water from the Western Slope successfully secured enough water to sustain the Front Range, but they also led to animosity between those living on the west and east side of the Continental Divide. Those living on the western side believed the Front Range was sucking up all of their water. Tensions still run high over the issue of how much water should be diverted from the Western Slope to the Front Range, resulting in fierce debates between farmers, environmentalists, recreationalists, and city and county officials over how to manage such a critical and scarce resource.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Toward the Future</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The Metro Denver area continues to expand, and communities such as Broomfield and Thornton have purchased water rights from farmers to meet their growing urban needs. As farmers evaluate options for the future, local communities may have to come up with plans to prevent the remaining prime agricultural land along the Front Range from drying up.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Some Coloradans are less than enthusiastic about spending taxpayer money to promote tourism, but people who are familiar with state finances know that it is a multibillion-dollar industry that is increasingly becoming the lifeblood of many communities. In 2014, for instance, the tourism industry set records by attracting 71.3 million visitors who spent a total of $18.6 billion in Colorado. Since 2014, revenue associated with the state’s legalization of recreational <a href="/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>marijuana</strong></a> has also helped the tourism economy, especially in Denver.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As the Front Range continues to grow, questions remain about how to secure an adequate water supply and how to address the unequal distribution of economic growth in the state. As Colorado faces the challenges of a changing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> and an uncertain future, residents will need to figure out how to forge a more solid sense of unity and cooperation. Still, with the state’s reputation for producing hearty, pragmatic citizens, Colorado’s future shines almost as brightly as its capitol’s gilded dome in the summer sun.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><em>This article is an abbreviated and updated version of the author’s essay “The Colorado Front Range to 1990,” distributed in 2006 as part of <strong>Colorado Humanities</strong>’ “Five States of Colorado” educational resource kit.</em></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/tyler-daniel" hreflang="und">Tyler, Daniel</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-springs" hreflang="en">colorado springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ranching" hreflang="en">ranching</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/farming" hreflang="en">farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-big-thompson-project" hreflang="en">colorado-big thompson project</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weld-county" hreflang="en">weld county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/larimer-county" hreflang="en">larimer county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/broomfield" hreflang="en">broomfield</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/el-paso-county" hreflang="en">el paso county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/castle-rock" hreflang="en">Castle Rock</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/douglas-county" hreflang="en">Douglas County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State </em>5th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2013).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“After the Crisis,” <em>Coloradoan </em>(Fort Collins, CO), February 28­–29 and March 1–3, 1988.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jason Blevins, “Colorado Tourism Numbers Set Record in 2014,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, June 23, 2015.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Denver Could Drink Deep from Wells,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, December 5, 1987.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Front Range Futures,” December 1981.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mel Griffiths and Lynnell Rubright, <em>Colorado </em>(Boulder: Westview Press, 1983).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Letter, Charles Hansen to D. W. Aupperle, July 29, 1937, Northern Colorado Water Users Association folder, Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District Archives, Loveland, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Letter, March 11, 1936, Frank Delaney to Dan Hughes, Delaney Papers, Norlin Library, University of Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Letter, F. J. Bancroft, M.D., to the Territorial Board of Immigration, November 15, 1873, in <em>A Colorado Reader</em>, ed. Carl Ubbelohde (Boulder: Pruett Press, 1962).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Western Slope Protective Association, “Minutes,” March 20, 1935 (Glenwood Springs: Colorado River Conservation District Archives).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gleaves Whitney, <em>Colorado Front Range: A Landscape Divided </em>(Boulder: Johnson Books, 1983).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kathleen A. Brosnan, <em>Uniting Mountain and Plain: Cities, Law, and Environmental Change along the Front Range </em>(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado.com, “<a href="https://www.colorado.com/region/denver-cities-rockies">Front Range</a>.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ben Fogelberg, <em>Walking into Colorado’s Past: 50 Front Range History Hikes </em>(Boulder, CO: Westcliffe Publishing, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Patricia N. Limerick and Jason Hanson, <em>A Ditch in Time: The City, the West and Water </em>(Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2012).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas T. Veblen and Diane C. Lorenz, <em>The Colorado Front Range: A Century of Ecological Change </em>(Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ellen Wohl, <em>Virtual Rivers: Lessons from the Mountain Rivers of the Colorado Front Range</em> (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 23 Jan 2017 23:06:17 +0000 yongli 2208 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Oliver Toussaint Jackson http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/oliver-toussaint-jackson <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Oliver Toussaint Jackson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-09-29T14:47:20-06:00" title="Thursday, September 29, 2016 - 14:47" class="datetime">Thu, 09/29/2016 - 14:47</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/oliver-toussaint-jackson" data-a2a-title="Oliver Toussaint Jackson"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Foliver-toussaint-jackson&amp;title=Oliver%20Toussaint%20Jackson"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Oliver Toussaint “O. T.” Jackson (1862–1948) was an entrepreneur and prominent member of black communities in <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1910 he founded <a href="/article/dearfield"><strong>Dearfield</strong></a>, an-all black agricultural settlement some twenty-five miles southeast of <a href="/article/greeley"><strong>Greeley</strong></a>. Jackson firmly believed that successful blacks should work to help poorer blacks and that land ownership and agriculture were keys to a prosperous future for African Americans. Although Dearfield is a ghost town today, the community’s success from 1915 through the 1930s was a testament to Jackson’s leadership and solidified his place among Colorado’s notable visionaries of the twentieth century.</p> <h2>Early Life</h2> <p>Oliver Toussaint Jackson was born on April 6, 1862, in Oxford, Ohio, the son of former slaves Hezekiah and Caroline Jackson. They named him after Toussaint L’Ouverture, the maroon slave who successfully overthrew the French in Haiti in 1804. In 1887 O. T. Jackson moved from the Midwest to the Denver area, where he worked as a caterer.</p> <p>In 1889 he married Sarah “Sadie” Cook, aunt&nbsp;of the famous composer Will Marion Cook. By 1894 Jackson had made enough money to buy a farm outside Boulder, which he owned for sixteen years. He lived at 2228 Pine Street in Boulder and, in addition to his farm, he began operating the Stillman Café and Ice Cream Parlor on Thirteenth Street. In 1898 he became a staff manager at the<a href="/article/colorado-chautauqua"><strong> Chautauqua</strong></a> Dining Hall, supervising seventy people (and possibly owning the food concession). Jackson also owned and operated a restaurant at Fifty-fifth and Arapahoe Streets that became famous for its seafood. The eatery remained popular until it closed when Boulder went dry in 1907.</p> <p>Confusion exists about whether Jackson and his first wife divorced or if she died. In either case, he married Minerva J. Matlock, a schoolteacher from Missouri, on July 14, 1905. In 1908 Jackson returned to Denver, where he began a twenty-year career as a messenger for Colorado governors.</p> <h2>Dearfield</h2> <p>In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, some 20 percent of blacks in the United States worked in agriculture, but few owned the land they worked on. Inspired by Booker T. Washington’s <em>Up From Slavery </em>(1901), Jackson believed that farming their own fields would empower black Coloradans, and he tried to start an all-black agricultural colony. The state land office, however, often ignored his requests because he was black. Jackson eventually secured the help of Governor <strong>John F. Shafroth</strong>, for whom he worked as a messenger, and obtained land for his colony. In 1909, after considering three tracts of <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>homestead</strong></a> land in <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a>, <a href="/article/elbert-county"><strong>Elbert</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld</strong></a> Counties, Jackson selected a 320-acre tract in Weld County near present-day Orchard. Like other agricultural communities along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>, Jackson’s would be modeled after the <strong>Union Colony</strong>, founded in 1870. But unlike the Union Colony, which was backed by wealthy newspaperman Horace Greeley, Jackson’s colony did not garner financial support from prominent black organizations, so he was left to realize his dream on his own.</p> <p>In December 1909, Jackson formed the Negro Townsite and Land Company to develop the colony. That year, Dr. Joseph H.P. Westbrook of Denver, one of the colony’s first settlers and most ardent supporters, remarked that the colony “will be very dear to us,” thus bestowing a name, Dearfield, on the new community. Dearfield was officially established in 1910.</p> <p>Jackson’s family and the rest of Dearfield’s early settlers had many problems. Some were so poor they could not afford to ship their possessions from Denver, so they walked part of the distance. Among this group only two families could afford to erect a twelve-by-fourteen-foot building with a fence. The other five families had to live in tents or in holes dug in a hillside. Sometimes the men had to work on other farms to earn spending money while their wives and children worked the land. There were also continual shortages of fuel—many residents burned buffalo chips to keep warm—and water.</p> <p>Over time, however, the colony prospered. Residents raised a variety of crops and livestock, including corn, melons, squash, hay, sugar beets, alfalfa, ducks, chickens, and turkey. A surge in prices for agricultural products during World War I helped the community, and by 1921 Dearfield’s land was valued at $750,000 and supported a population of 700. But despite the determination of Jackson and the rest of Dearfield’s residents, the <strong>Great Depression</strong> and <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> of the 1930s decimated the colony. By 1940 only twelve residents remained.</p> <p>As people left, Jackson sold Dearfield’s buildings for lumber because it was so scarce. Some folks in the 1930s sold out for five dollars a house. Even before he became ill in 1946, Jackson had been searching for a young black man to keep his dream alive. He told a returning World War II serviceman who had lived with the Jacksons as a boy that “he could have the whole thing” if he would come out to Dearfield and run the place for him. The young man’s new bride did not want any part of it, so he declined.</p> <h2>Later Life</h2> <p>Jackson’s wife Minerva died in 1942. When he could not find any willing buyers for the property, in 1943 he asked his nieces, Jenny Jackson and Daisy Edwards, to come to Dearfield. Daisy came for a short time, while Jenny stayed to nurse her uncle in his last years.</p> <p>Illness and age had overtaken Jackson’s messianic zeal. In 1946, at the age of eighty-four, he again tried to sell Dearfield with an advertisement in the <em>Greeley Tribune</em>. He had no takers. The land remained in Jackson’s possession until his death in a Greeley hospital on February 8, 1948. He had lived in Dearfield for thirty-eight years. His dutiful niece Jenny, who had cared for him the last five years of his life, remained alone in Dearfield for more than twenty years until her death in 1973.</p> <p>The Dearfield site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. Today, several preservation organizations, including Denver’s <strong>Black American West Museum</strong>, are working to restore the site’s six original buildings and develop Dearfield into an interpretive historical site.</p> <p><strong>Adapted from Karen Waddell, “Dearfield . . . A Dream Deferred,” <em>Colorado Heritage</em> no. 2 (1988).</strong></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ot-jackson" hreflang="en">o.t. jackson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/oliver-toussaint-jackson" hreflang="en">Oliver Toussaint Jackson</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dearfield" hreflang="en">Dearfield</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/african-american-history" hreflang="en">african american history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-history" hreflang="en">black history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/all-black-settlements" hreflang="en">all-black settlements</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/agriculture" hreflang="en">agriculture</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/farming" hreflang="en">farming</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/agricultural-colony" hreflang="en">agricultural colony</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dearfield-colorado" hreflang="en">dearfield colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dearfield-history" hreflang="en">dearfield history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/stillman-cafe" hreflang="en">stillman cafe</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sadie-cook" hreflang="en">sadie cook</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-f-shafroth" hreflang="en">john f. shafroth</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/weld-county" hreflang="en">weld county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/negro-townsite-and-land-company" hreflang="en">negro townsite and land company</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/black-american-west-museum" hreflang="en">Black American West Museum</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George Junne, Jr., Ostia Ofoaku, Rhonda Corman, and Rob Reinsvold, “Dearfield, Colorado: Black Farming Success in the Jim Crow Era,” in <em>Enduring Legacies: Ethnic Histories and Cultures of Colorado</em>, ed. Arturo Aldama (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2011).</p> <p>William Loren Katz, <em>The Black West: A Documentary and Pictorial History of the African American Role in the Westward Expansion of the United States</em> (New York: Broadway Books, 2005).</p> <p>Melvin Edward Norris, Jr., <em>Dearfield, Colorado—The Evolution of a Rural Black Settlement: An Historical Geography of Black Colonization on the Great Plains</em> (PhD dissertation, University of Colorado–Boulder, 1980).</p> <p>Quintard Taylor, <em>In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 </em>(New York: W.W. Norton, 1998).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Thu, 29 Sep 2016 20:47:20 +0000 yongli 1887 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Boulder Flood of 1894 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-flood-1894 <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Boulder Flood of 1894</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T14:28:49-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 14:28" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 14:28</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-flood-1894" data-a2a-title="Boulder Flood of 1894"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fboulder-flood-1894&amp;title=Boulder%20Flood%20of%201894"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The 1894 Boulder flood was a natural disaster that reshaped the landscape of <a href="/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder County</strong></a>, wiping out some communities and forcing others to come together to rebuild. Like other extreme weather events, the 1894 deluge played an integral role in the development of the affected communities. Some, particularly mining camps in the high canyons, were lost immediately, while others eventually failed after years of futile struggle. Still others, including Boulder and its surrounding communities, made slow, difficult recoveries.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Beginning</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On May 30, 1894—Memorial Day—in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, a rainstorm persisted throughout the day and continued into the night, saturating the ground and choking streams already swollen with runoff following the winter’s heavy <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snowfall</strong></a>. At around 10 pm, some residents noticed that Boulder Creek was quickly rising, and with the rain still coming down, the flood threat became serious. That night, in the canyon above town, <strong>Boulder Creek</strong> rose out of its banks, carrying huge boulders in the current as the <a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flood</strong></a> gained momentum. The water tore through the canyon, laying waste to mines, railroad bridges, and settlements along the way. By daybreak, it had begun pouring out of the narrows and onto the flats, debris crashing down with earth-trembling force.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Boulder Hit</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Early that morning, Harvey Poole and a friend stood on the Sixth Street Bridge as Boulder Creek surged rapidly under their feet. There was a sudden loud crash and a tearing sound, and both men leaped to the north bank of the creek as the bridge broke in half behind them. The current pulled the twisted wreckage about 100 feet downstream, where it lodged against the bank. A short time later, a man named J. B. Andrews had a similar narrow escape on the Twelfth Street Bridge. He had gone out to post a sign warning teamsters not to cross the structure, but before he could put up the sign the bridge disintegrated underneath him. A desperate jump to the riverbank kept the water from enveloping him as well.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>High school student Harriet Roosa came upon the shattered Sixth Street Bridge while walking her usual route to class that morning. Stranded, she walked back and forth on the north bank of the stream as crowds of people gathered around, looking on in disbelief. Boulder Creek, normally thirty feet wide, had widened to an angry river several hundred feet across. The rubble-strewn waters battered the city all morning, tearing down telegraph and telephone poles, crashing into creekside buildings, and laying waste to railroad tracks.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The current forced its way through the headgate of Beasley Ditch—a small irrigation channel for local farmers—and obliterated its banks, tearing apart the farmland and homes adjacent to the ditch. The effect was devastating in Poverty Flats, a subdivision housing many of Boulder’s poorer families. Bordered on the north and south by Water and Arapahoe streets and on the west by Seventeenth Street, this low-lying area had accumulated almost six feet of standing water by the end of the day.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Around noon, a crowd gathered at Water and Twelfth (today’s Canyon and Broadway) to watch the water hammer away at the foundation of Jacob Faus’s house. A well-known blacksmith, Faus lived on the banks of a sharp bend in Boulder Creek (the present-day site of Civic Park), and the water roared into the crook of the curve and ate away at the banks. After several hours, the earth gave in, and Faus’s house floated off its foundation. It lodged against the bank 200 yards downstream and was smashed to kindling by the force of the current.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the midst of the destruction, some residents took heroic steps to rescue the stranded and save lives. Boulder police officer Ed Knapp came to the aid of Madame Kingsley, one of Boulder’s more disreputable citizens, by wading to her island bordello near Tenth and Water Streets and carrying out her—and her two pugs—on his shoulders. Knapp later tried to persuade Marinus G. “Marine” Smith to leave his house near Water and Sixteenth. Smith, a prominent Boulder pioneer, refused to leave his home that lay half underwater. Holing up on his second floor, Smith ranted that his enemies would take his home if he were to leave it. Later, he ended up in the State Insane Asylum in Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In Poverty Flats and other areas threatened with total submersion, twenty men with teams and wagons ferried people to higher ground. As the water continued to rise and the roads became muddy slicks, they set the wagons aside and carried out passengers on horseback. Some owners hauled off heavy furniture before the floodwaters could claim it, while many others moved goods out of threatened storerooms. As the flood raged, Boulder’s top two photographers—rivals Lawrence Bass and “Rocky Mountain” Joe Sturtevant—scrambled to document the catastrophe as best they could. Sturtevant lived south of Boulder Creek in Gregory Canyon, and with all of the bridges out, he had no way to reach his studio on the north side of Boulder Creek. Sturtevant eventually crossed the creek and helped to record the disaster and its aftermath.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By day’s end, the flood had washed the city right off the map, taking every road, railroad, and bridge with it. “All telegraph and telephone communication was cut off,” <em>The</em> <em>Denver Republican</em> would later report, “and there was no egress in any direction.” Boulder had become an island, hopelessly cut off from all neighbors and completely alone.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The Day After</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The morning of June 1 brought sunny skies, making the flood’s toll painfully clear. The Sixth, Ninth, Twelfth, and Seventeenth Street bridges over Boulder Creek were completely gone. Although the Fourth Street Bridge still stood, parts of it had twisted into a sagging semicircle, impassable by foot or team. The loss of these spans cut Boulder in half, with the north and south sides isolated from each other. The passenger train depot stood under more than three feet of water, with one narrow-gauge engine still parked in the building’s new moat. The Union Pacific, Denver &amp; Gulf Railway line that connected the city to Denver suffered grievous damages, not only in town but also on the prairies east of Boulder. Surprisingly, for all its ferocity, the flood did not kill a single resident of Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The floodwaters had fanned out as they moved downstream, forming a lake nearly a mile wide between Boulder and Valmont—right on top of many farmers’ plots. The flood deposited a thick layer of sand, rocks, and branches that completely covered the fertile soil east of town. Beasley Ditch was a total loss; the many farmers who relied on it for irrigation wondered if their crops would survive. The damage in the nearby mountains far exceeded that in Boulder or the farming regions. Some reports claimed that the water had come down the canyons in a wall ten or twelve feet high. Jamestown was virtually destroyed and the hamlets of Crisman, Glendale, and Springdale sustained severe damage. Many of the houses and stores in Crisman were entirely gone, and the town’s narrow-gauge railroad—its lifeline—had disappeared downriver. Many of Glendale’s buildings were swept away and three residents were killed when the main road washed out. Very little remained of Springdale, known for its mineral springs. Its main tourist attraction—the Seltzer House Hotel—tumbled away in the raging floodwaters. <strong>Niwot</strong> resident Frank Bader reported that part of Springdale’s bowling alley washed up in his town, located on the prairie several miles northeast of Boulder.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With roads and bridges out throughout the county, deliveries of food, water, and medicine could not get through. Offers of assistance came as early as 5 p.m. on the day of the flood, but moving any supplies to the south side of town required a bridge of some kind. Edwin J. Temple, a Boulder alderman, solved that problem by rigging up a rope and pulley system between some <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood trees</strong></a> near Sixth Street. Using this precarious conveyance, people and supplies could shuttle back and forth across the still-raging Boulder Creek. James H. Baker and a team of residents raised a second rope bridge at Twelfth Street. Though somewhat flimsy, these homemade connections at least put the stranded southsiders back into contact with the rest of the town and provided a short-term solution to the supply problem.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Upon further inspection of the damages to Boulder and its infrastructure, a daunting picture emerged. The flood had taken Boulder County’s railroads, mines, and farms—three pillars of the regional economy—out of commission. Thousands of workers in those industries stood idle, and their jobs were in jeopardy. Most of the small farming towns around Boulder needed supplies, and the mountain towns were completely cut off and desperate for help. In <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>, the Electric Light Company ran out of coal and had to borrow from private bins; six days later, still waiting on a coal shipment, it prepared to shut down.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Recovery</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On June 2, two days after the flood, the Union Pacific, Denver &amp; Gulf attempted to restore service between Denver and Boulder. Repairing the extensive track damage would take weeks, but as a stopgap the railroad sent a train around the flood and into Boulder by way of <strong>Brighton</strong>, <strong>Greeley</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a>. This circuitous route put every possible connection to the test, but the train still had to turn back, to everyone’s great disappointment. In addition to their labor, the people of Boulder donated money to help out in the crisis. Fundraising efforts managed to pull in nearly $2,000 in less than a day. Still, the city of Boulder was unable to hire a contractor to rebuild the Twelfth Street Bridge until July 20. The firm would not finish its work until November 8—nearly two months overdue—and the new Ninth Street Bridge was not ready for traffic until January 3, 1895, nearly seven months after the flood.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>As Boulder got back on its feet, the nearby mountain towns continued to struggle. Some of the mines eventually reopened and resumed production, but most of the stamp mills operating in support of those mines had been destroyed entirely. The flood had occurred immediately after the <strong>Silver Panic of 1893</strong>, which devastated the state’s silver industry and proved to be another disastrous event for the mining towns. Approximately 60 percent of Boulder County’s ore production was in gold, but those camps struggled nonetheless. To make matters worse, the Union Pacific Railroad announced that it would not rebuild its narrow-gauge Greeley, Salt Lake &amp; Pacific Railroad line up Boulder and Four Mile Canyons. The railroad had little choice, as the flood destroyed all but two miles of the track and nearly sixty bridges had washed away.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The consequences of the flood were felt for a long time, and some communities, including Balarat, Springdale, and Jamestown, were either wiped out completely or never made a full recovery. The loss of rail and road connections also put the Four Mile Canyon mining camps of Sunset, Copper Rock, Wall Street, and Crisman on the path to failure. Boulder eventually made a full recovery. Its citizens found ways to solve the town’s problems together and to do so with determination, resourcefulness, and a little bit of humor. A <em>Daily Camera</em> editor remarked that “one thing is worthy of note, however, as it shows the spirit of our people. I have not seen a gruesome face or heard an oath or any expression showing a spirit of dejection. In the midst of ruin, we laugh and joke while repairing the waste.”</p>&#13; &#13; <p><strong>Adapted from Mona Lambrecht, “‘Good Baptist Weather’: Boulder County and the Flood of 1894,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 20, no. 4 (2001).</strong></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-flood" hreflang="en">Boulder Flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flood" hreflang="en">Flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1894" hreflang="en">1894</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-flood-1894" hreflang="en">Boulder Flood of 1894</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Maurice Frink, <em>The Boulder Story: Historical Portrait of a Colorado Town</em> (Boulder: Pruett Press, 1965).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Silvia Pettem, <em>Boulder: Evolution of a City</em> (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 20:28:49 +0000 yongli 1680 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Boulder County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Boulder County </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1112--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1112.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/boulder-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/BoulderCounty.svg__0.png?itok=WvvlfA8X" width="800" height="579" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/boulder-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Boulder County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Boulder County, in north central Colorado, encompasses 740 square miles of diverse geography, including mountains, plains, and foothills. It is home to nearly 300,000 Coloradans.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2015-12-28T15:47:34-07:00" title="Monday, December 28, 2015 - 15:47" class="datetime">Mon, 12/28/2015 - 15:47</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county" data-a2a-title="Boulder County "><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fboulder-county&amp;title=Boulder%20County%20"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Boulder County encompasses 740 square miles of the western plains and <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> in north central Colorado. The county straddles three unique geographic zones: mountains in the west, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>plains</strong></a> in the east, and a natural trough that runs between the plains and foothills. Its western boundary, which it shares with <a href="/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand County</strong></a>, follows a jagged line of peaks in the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> of the Rocky Mountains. The northwest corner of the county holds the southern reaches of <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>, including <a href="/article/longs-peak"><strong>Longs Peak</strong></a>. Its eastern boundary, which it shares with <a href="/article/weld-county"><strong>Weld</strong></a> and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> Counties, runs along the plains on the eastern edge of the city of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/longmont"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>. Boulder County borders <a href="/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a>, <a href="/article/jefferson-county"><strong>Jefferson</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> Counties to the south and shares its northern boundary with <a href="/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer County</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The county supports a population of 294,567, with much of it concentrated in the county seat of <a href="/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a> and the city of <a href="/article/longmont-0"><strong>Longmont</strong></a>. Nestled against the foothills, the city of Boulder is home to the <strong>University of Colorado</strong>, the flagship campus of the University of Colorado system. The county is known for being the site of the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59</strong></a>. It was created in 1861, two years after prospectors discovered gold about a dozen miles up Boulder Canyon. Before the discovery of gold, the Boulder County area was frequented by several Native American groups, mainly the Ute, Arapaho, and Cheyenne.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Native Americans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Archaeological evidence suggests that <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indians</strong></a> roamed the mountains of the Boulder County area as early as 7,000 BC. These people likely followed seasonal migration patterns and employed hunting strategies established by older groups of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clovis"><strong>Clovis</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/folsom-people"><strong>Folsom</strong></a> hunter-gatherers: they used creeks and streams to follow game to higher elevations during the summer, and when the first snows came, they retreated back down those same waterways to the natural sanctuary of the foothills. Near the mountain peaks, Paleo-Indians built huge stone corridors where they funneled and cornered large game; they also built stone blinds where they waited, bait in hand, to pick feathers from swooping eagles.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the mid-sixteenth century, <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute peoples</strong></a> had occupied the whole of Colorado’s Rocky Mountains for nearly a century. Several distinct Ute bands roamed the Front Range in what would become Boulder County: the Parianuche, or “Elk People,” the Tabeguache, or “People of Sun Mountain (<a href="/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>)<strong>,</strong>” and Muaches, or “Cedar Bark People.” Expert hunters, Ute subsisted on <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>, deer, and other mountain game. They also gathered a wide assortment of roots, including the versatile yucca root, and wild berries. In the summer, they followed elk and <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> into high mountain parks, such as Allen’s Park (8,500 feet). In the winter, they followed the game back to the sanctuary of lower elevations in the foothills and river valleys (5,000–7,000 feet). After the 1640s, when the Ute obtained horses from the Spanish, river bottoms became important wintering grounds, as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> twigs and roots provided food for ponies.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the early nineteenth century, the Ute found their hunting and wintering grounds contested by the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, a group of Plains Indians that had been forced out of a sedentary life in the upper Midwest by the powerful Lakota. Unlike the Ute, who rarely left their mountain homeland, the Arapaho ranged across all three ecological zones in present-day Boulder County. In the spring and early summer, they hunted buffalo on the plains; in late summer, they followed the herds into cooler, higher elevations, camping and hunting as far as the Continental Divide; in winter, they returned to the natural shelter of the trough along the foothills, where milder weather prevailed. For most of the year, Arapaho and Ute occupied the same territory, and this put them in a near-constant state of warfare.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, another equestrian group of buffalo hunters, joined the Arapaho on the western plains north of the Platte River in the early 1820s. The two groups formed an alliance and fought the Ute not only for rights to hunting and wintering grounds, but also for access to the growing French and Anglo trade networks along the Front Range and western plains. But exposure to white trade goods came with a price—exposure to European <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/impact-disease-native-americans"><strong>diseases</strong></a>, such as smallpox. These diseases, against which no American Indian had immunity, decimated populations of all three prominent native groups in the Boulder County area. For example, in 1800 one group of Arapaho numbered some 10,000; by 1858, when <a href="/article/niwot-left-hand"><strong>Niwot</strong></a>, or Left Hand, led the group, disease had brought their numbers down to fewer than 3,000.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot attended the signing of the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-laramie"><strong>Treaty of Fort Laramie</strong></a> in 1851, which preserved Arapaho rights to the Boulder Creek area. The treaty was brokered by his niece’s white husband, Thomas Fitzpatrick, who died in 1854. After gold was found along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>, few whites felt obligated to obey the treaty. As they moved into the foothills, they chopped down cottonwood trees and killed game, adding lack of shelter and starvation to the growing list of threats to all native groups in the region.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>County Establishment</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the fall of 1858, Chief Niwot encountered Thomas Aikins and his group of <a href="/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>gold prospectors</strong></a> camped near the mouth of Boulder Creek. Niwot had learned English from his brother-in-law, a Kentuckian who traded at <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> on the upper Arkansas, and put it to use. Aware of the Americans’ intentions but preferring diplomacy to warfare, the Arapaho leader told the Aikins group in English to leave his people’s territory immediately. The prospectors told Niwot they had only come for the winter and promised to leave in the spring. Against the wishes of some of his people, Niwot relented and let the prospectors stay.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>That decision would prove invaluable to the prospectors and devastating to Niwot’s Arapaho. On January 16, 1859, while prospecting at a site along a Boulder Creek fork, Aikins’s son James and several others found gold. News of their discovery brought David Horsfal to the area, and he found an even larger deposit, the Horsfal Lode. A year later, the Boulder Creek deposits had already yielded a combined $100,000 in gold. <a href="/article/gold-hill"><strong>Gold Hill</strong></a>, as the area of discovery came to be known, soon attracted not just gold seekers but also miners of clay—used to make brick—limestone, coal, and granite.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>On February 10, 1859, not even a month after his son’s discovery, Aikins founded the Boulder City Town Company. The city of Boulder was then platted on a two-mile stretch near the mouth of Boulder Canyon. In 1861, the new <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> was established, and Boulder County became one of its original seventeen counties. The same year, Arapaho leaders Niwot and <strong>Little Raven</strong> were forced to negotiate another treaty, the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Fort Wise Treaty</strong></a>, which surrendered the Front Range to the whites and carved out a small reservation for the Arapaho and Cheyenne in southeast Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Niwot did not sign this new treaty. Unwilling to simply abandon their once-plentiful land, Niwot’s and Little Raven’s people spent two more lean and violent years in the Boulder Creek area before they moved to the Sand Creek camp, near Fort Lyon in present-day <a href="/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a>. Whites consistently assured the Arapaho and Cheyenne that they were safe near the fort; the near-starving Indians, for their part, also assured whites that they wished to camp peacefully and trade for supplies. But in 1864 Colonel John M. Chivington’s 550 volunteers smashed into the Cheyenne-Arapaho camp at Sand Creek, slaughtering between 150 and 200 women, children, and elders and scalping and disfiguring the bodies. Niwot was shot down as he held up his hands and called out in English for the troops to stop. He later died at an Indian camp on the Smoky Hill River.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The southern Arapaho under Little Raven were removed to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) after the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> of 1867. In 1875 the founders of a railroad town northeast of Boulder named their new community Niwot after the fallen Arapaho leader.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Flood of 1894</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>On May 30, 1894, heavy rain caused Boulder Creek to <a href="/article/boulder-flood-1894"><strong>rise out of its banks</strong></a>. The water tore through the canyon, laying waste to mines, railroad bridges, and settlements. By dawn the next day, the floodwaters crashed out of the canyon, inundating the city of Boulder. Rail and road bridges, as well as telegraph lines and many houses, were swept away, and farmland and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches were destroyed. The city's Red Light District and other poor neighborhoods bore the brunt of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a>, while surrounding towns, including Jamestown, Crisman, Glendale, and Springdale, also sustained severe damage. Many of those towns never recovered, as the deluge brought the county's three main industries--coal, metal mining, and agriculture--to a standstill. It took several years for the city of Boulder to fully recover.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Caribou, Nederland, and Longmont</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite the devastating flood, by 1900 Boulder County's population had grown to more than 21,500; the mining communities of <strong>Caribou </strong>and <strong> Nederland</strong>, as well as the agricultural settlement of Longmont, were an essential part of that growth. In the mountains west of Boulder City, Nederland was founded in 1871 as Middle Boulder, serving as a mill and supply town for the nearby mining community of Caribou; that same year, on the plains some sixteen miles northeast of Boulder, the <a href="/article/chicago-colorado-colony"><strong>Chicago-Colorado Colony</strong></a> founded Longmont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ohioan prospector Sam Conger organized the town of Caribou around his silver strike in 1870. The multiple blizzards that pounded the area during the long winter made life in early Caribou famously harsh; in addition to bracing their buildings to withstand the destructive winds, snowbound residents often had to exit their homes through second-story windows. The same year his town was organized, Conger sold his mine to Abel Breed, another Ohio investor, for $50,000. An influx of British miners skilled in ore extraction made the mine exceptionally profitable in its early years, and in 1873 Breed sold the Caribou mine to the Nederland Mining Company for the enormous sum of $3 million. As part of the purchase the Dutch group also obtained Middle Boulder, which they renamed Nederland after their home country.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While multiple fires and the crash in silver prices in 1893 doomed the town of Caribou over the next two decades, Nederland blossomed as a tourist town, offering picturesque views of the nearby mountains and Boulder Canyon. Then, in the early 1900s, Nederland again became a hotbed of mining activity as the fortunate Conger again struck a precious metal—this time it was tungsten, a hard metal used to make incandescent light bulbs and strengthen steel. Conger’s tungsten mines hummed until demand fell off with the end of <a href="/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I</strong></a> in 1918. Tourism again took over as the town’s economic backbone.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Longmont, named for its view of <a href="/article/longs-peak"><strong>Longs Peak</strong></a>, began as an agricultural colony on land granted to the Denver Pacific Railroad. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-n-byers"><strong>William N. Byers</strong></a>,<em> Rocky Mountain News </em>founder and agent for the railway’s land company, brokered a deal for some 23,000 acres near St. Vrain, Left Hand, and Boulder Creeks with Seth Terry, a representative from the Chicago-Colorado Colony. The colony bought an additional 37,000 acres in the area from the federal government and other parties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In contrast to saloon-ridden mining towns like Boulder and Caribou, Longmont’s founders envisioned their town as a sober agricultural community. Deeds to land in the colony originally forbade the consumption or sale of alcohol on the property. By June 1871, three months after its initial settlers arrived, Longmont had twenty-three miles of irrigation ditches and seventy-five buildings, including Boulder County’s first library. After the turn of the century, Longmont farmers were producing profitable crops of wheat, pumpkins, peas, and sugar beets. Longmont was also one of the first Colorado settler towns to plot out parks, including Lake Park—subsequently renamed Roosevelt Park—the site of the <strong>Boulder County Fair</strong> from 1891 to 1978.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Coal Strikes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In addition to the metal mining around Boulder, Caribou, and Nederland, coal mining became an important part of the Boulder County economy, especially in the early twentieth century. By that time, however, exploited coal miners began to organize in unions such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/united-mine-workers-america"><strong>United Mine Workers of America</strong></a> to lobby for better pay and working conditions. This led to a series of ugly strikes in Boulder County’s coal mining towns in 1903, 1910–14, and 1927.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>First, coal miners in Louisville won an eight-hour day, a 15 percent raise, and safer working conditions in 1903. Then, from 1910–14, some 2,700 Boulder County miners struck, with violence between strikers, guards, and scabs curtailed by the appearance of state and federal troops. At the end of this strike, miners won a 20 percent wage increase and more improvements in mine safety. During yet another strike, in 1927, blood was spilled when company guards at the Columbine Mine fired on strikers, killing six and wounding twenty. Again, federal troops intervened to quell the violence. Ownership of the Columbine Mine passed to <a href="/article/josephine-roche"><strong>Josephine Roche</strong></a>, the previous owner’s daughter, who raised wages, improved mine safety, and championed workers’ rights as the state’s first female gubernatorial candidate in 1934. Later in the twentieth century, the Boulder County economy shifted from mining to education and agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>University of Colorado</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Founded in 1861, the University of Colorado­–Boulder (CU) is the state’s flagship university. To build the initial campus, the Territorial Legislature gave the town $15,000 on the condition that Boulder residents match that amount themselves. The residents matched the appropriation and by 1876 had finished construction on Old Main, CU’s first building. Its first president, Dr. Joseph Sewall, and his family lived in the building, which also hosted the first classes. In the spring of 1882, CU graduated its first, all-male, class of six.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1980, CU-Boulder’s student population had reached 20,000 and faculty members worked with many prominent research institutes, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Today, the University of Colorado has campuses throughout the state, including the <strong>University of Colorado–<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-springs">Colorado Springs</a></strong>, <strong>University of Colorado–Denver</strong>, and the Health Sciences Center in Denver. With a combined enrollment of 44,500, the University of Colorado system remains a prestigious and nationally respected academic institution.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder County remains culturally and economically diverse. A liberal pocket in an otherwise conservative state, the so-called "People’s Republic of Boulder" has evolved into an active, wealthy suburban community that also prioritizes conservation; the city maintains 145 miles of hiking trails and attracts hundreds of outdoor enthusiasts each year.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Giant tech companies such as IBM and Ball Corp., an aerospace company, are headquartered in Longmont. The town has reaped the benefits of being near a major university, as it recruits many CU graduates for its burgeoning biotech, aerospace, and software and IT industries. In 2015 CU Health, citing a lack of access to emergency care across the state, began construction on a $160 million hospital at County Line Road and Ken Pratt Boulevard in Longmont.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Hay and other forage crops are the county’s primary agricultural products by a wide margin; in 2012 hay and forage crops covered 23,397 acres, while the next-most plentiful crop, wheat, covered only 1,764. Boulder County is also among the top-ten poultry-and-egg-producing counties in the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Although it has yet to endure a catastrophe like that of the 1894 flood, Boulder County remains vulnerable to flood events. After several days of heavy rain beginning on September 9, 2013, Boulder County was one of fourteen Colorado counties to experience historically destructive <a href="/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flooding</strong></a>. Within Boulder County alone, floodwaters damaged more than 1,200 homes; took down ten bridges; washed out dozens of miles of roads, power lines, and open space trails; and killed three people, stranded over 100 more, and forced 1,600 to evacuate the flood zone. Immediately after the floods, Governor <a href="/article/john-hickenlooper"><strong>John Hickenlooper</strong></a> declared a state of emergency and funneled $6 million in state funds to pay for flood response and recovery.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Total repair costs from the flood are estimated at $217 million over a five-year period. Of that total, $56 million will be the responsibility of Boulder County; the rest will be reimbursed by state and federal agencies. As of September 2014, Boulder County workers, volunteers, and residents had removed 4,870 truckloads of debris, rebuilt five of the ten bridges destroyed during the storm, and repaired twenty-two miles of open space trails. In the wake of the floods, a coalition of state and local politicians, community leaders, and church leaders formed the Long-Term Flood Recovery Group of Boulder County. The group’s website also provides links to mental health agencies, support groups, and financial resources to help flood victims who continue to struggle in the aftermath of the floods.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county" hreflang="en">boulder county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county-history" hreflang="en">boulder county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder" hreflang="en">boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-history" hreflang="en">boulder history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado-boulder" hreflang="en">university of colorado boulder</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/university-colorado" hreflang="en">university of colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/longmont" hreflang="en">longmont</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-county-flood" hreflang="en">boulder county flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/thomas-aikins" hreflang="en">thomas aikins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/nederland" hreflang="en">nederland</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range" hreflang="en">front range</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbot, Stephen Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Anticipated Costs for Unincorporated Boulder County,” Boulder County, September 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Eugene H. Berwanger, <em>The Rise of the Centennial State: Colorado Territory, 1861–76 </em>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“Boulder County,” <em>Colorado County Histories Notebook </em>(Denver: History Colorado, 1989–2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Boulder County Open Space and Mountain Parks, “<a href="https://bouldercolorado.gov/locations/trail/search/trail">Basic Trail Information</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Frank H. Gille, ed., <em>Indians of Colorado: Past and Present </em>(St. Clair Shores, MI: Somerset, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Celinda Reynolds Kaelin, “Tava: A Ute Cultural History,” <em>A Sense of Place in the Pikes Peak Region</em>, Colorado College (Colorado Springs, 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Mona Lambrecht, “‘Good Baptist Weather’: Boulder County and the Flood of 1894,” <em>Colorado Heritage Magazine</em> 20, no. 4 (2001).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Longmont Area Economic Council, “<a href="http://longmont.org/Existing-Industries.aspx">Existing Longmont Industries</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Suzanne M. Marilley, <em>Woman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism in the United States </em>(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://niwot.com/discover-niwot/">Niwot History</a>,” Town of Niwot.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas J. Noel and Dan Corson, <em>Boulder County: An Illustrated History </em>(Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“One Year Later: Moving Forward—Recovery and Repairs,” Boulder County, September 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Blair Shiff, “Boulder County: Number of Missing Drops to 4,” <em>9 News</em>, September 18, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Boulder County, Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Alicia Wallace,  “<a href="https://www.dailycamera.com/2013/09/08/boulder-and-broomfield-counties-top-50-employers-ibm-still-largest-local-company/">Boulder and Broomfield counties’ Top 50 employers: IBM still largest local company</a>,” <em>Boulder Daily Camera</em>, September 6, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Vince Winkel, “<a href="https://www.timescall.com/2015/09/10/new-er-construction-underway-in-north-longmont/">New ER construction underway in North Longmont</a>,”<em> Longmont Times-Call</em>, September 10, 2015.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.bouldercounty.org/">Boulder County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://bouldercolorado.gov/">City of Boulder</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://www.longmontcolorado.gov/">City of Longmont</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://bocofloodrecovery.org/">Long-Term Flood Recovery Group of Boulder County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Erik Mason, “<a href="https://www.longmontcolorado.gov/departments/departments-e-m/museum/collections/history-of-longmont">History of Longmont</a>,” City of Longmont, Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliot West, <em>Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado </em>(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 28 Dec 2015 22:47:34 +0000 yongli 1062 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org