%1 http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/ en Salida http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Salida</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--994--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--994.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/salida-steam-plant"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/AUR-987_0.jpg?itok=ce9VdXC0" width="1000" height="669" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/salida-steam-plant" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Salida Steam Plant</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>An early Edison electric plant built in 1887, the Salida Steam Plant was converted into a theater and event center in 1989. The façade still boasts the names of the Salida Steam Plant and the Public Service Company of Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-06-18T16:27:47-06:00" title="Friday, June 18, 2021 - 16:27" class="datetime">Fri, 06/18/2021 - 16:27</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida" data-a2a-title="Salida"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fsalida&amp;title=Salida"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Salida is a city of about 6,000 in the Upper <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley, surrounded by Colorado’s central <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. It is the county seat of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee County</strong></a>. Salida is named for the Spanish word for “exit,” as it is located near the mouth of a canyon of the Arkansas River. Major thoroughfares include US Highway 50, known in town as Rainbow Boulevard, and State Highway 291 (West First Street). Formed as a railway depot town in May 1880, Salida developed into an industrial hub of the central Rockies and is now known as a center for outdoor recreation and tourism.</p> <h2>Origins</h2> <p>The Tabeguache band of Nuche (<a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) inhabited the present-day area of Salida for centuries before whites began to arrive after the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. In the 1863 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-treaty"><strong>Conejos Treaty</strong></a>, the Tabeguache gave up their claims to all lands east of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, including the Upper Arkansas Valley, and agreed to move west of the divide. The treaty, however, was controversial among Colorado’s other Ute bands, who did not attend the negotiations nor agree with the land giveaway. The Tabeguache, along with other Ute bands, were ultimately forced out of the state in September 1881.</p> <p>In the 1870s, white <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/homestead"><strong>homesteads</strong></a> cropped up in the Upper Arkansas Valley, while farther east, railroads competed for the right to build a line from <strong>Ca</strong><strong>ñon</strong><strong> City</strong> to mining districts in <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a> and today’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison County</strong></a>. By the end of the decade, successful <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a> had led to the development of the town of <strong>Gunnison</strong>, incorporated about fifty miles west of present-day Salida in March 1880.</p> <h2>South Arkansas</h2> <p>Later that spring, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a>’s <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad</strong> (D&amp;RG) won the railroad battle and built a line west from Cañon City through <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/royal-gorge"><strong>Royal Gorge</strong></a> and <strong>Cotopaxi</strong>. The line would eventually continue west over <strong>Marshall Pass</strong> and into Gunnison. Along the way, on May 1, 1880, the railroad reached the site of present-day Salida, where it established a town called “South Arkansas.” <strong>Alexander C. Hunt</strong>, former territorial governor of Colorado and a board member of the D&amp;RG, had already begun platting the new town in April.</p> <p>By June 12, 1880, South Arkansas had more than 100 buildings spanning both sides of the Arkansas River, according to the <em>Gunnison News</em>. The paper added that “several hotels are completed and already overcrowded.” The<em> Mountain Mail</em> served as the town’s first newspaper, printing its first edition on June 5, 1880, and reporting a week later that dozens of families were camped near the river, “some of them waiting for houses” in “the liveliest town in Colorado.” The <em>News</em> attributed the new town’s fervent early growth to its being “the nearest railroad and shipping point to the Gunnison country.”</p> <h2>Early Salida</h2> <p>On July 24, 1880, the <em>Mail </em>reported that “our town is to be hereafter known as Salida,” a name “christened” by Hunt and based on the town’s location and function as an “outlet for the numerous mining camps over the range and on the South Arkansas River”; the paper even provided its pronunciation, “Sah-lee-dah,” though today residents pronounce it “Sah-lie-dah.” In August the D&amp;RG completed a line north to Leadville, solidifying Salida’s role as a rail hub.</p> <p>Salida grew quickly from 1880 to 1883 but saw many of its earliest buildings consumed by fires in 1886 and 1888. After the fires, the city passed an ordinance banning wood-frame buildings in its downtown commercial district. Important early buildings included the D&amp;RG’s Monte Cristo Hotel (1883) as well as the railroad’s employee hospital (1885), and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida-steam-plant"><strong>Salida Steam Plant</strong></a> (1887), one of the first Edison electric plants in the country. Prominent early citizens included N.&nbsp;R. Twitchell, who was involved in many of the city’s earliest land transactions; Louis Wenz, a German immigrant who owned a furniture store; S.&nbsp;W. Sandusky, who had a dry goods store; and Peter Mulvany, who sold hardware as well as groceries and clothing.</p> <p>While the city served as a hub for regional mining, railroad, and banking activity, the land surrounding Salida quickly became recognized for its agricultural potential. Hay and grain shipments were sent to Gunnison as early as July 1880, and an 1891 edition of <em>Colorado Farmer </em>praised the area’s “well tilled ranches” and “thousands of acres of splendid stock range.” In 1898 the <em>Chaffee County Record </em>reported that farmers around Salida were producing “excellent crops of wheat, oats, peas, potatoes, and alfalfa.”</p> <p>By that time, Salida had a population of around 2,000, with two public schools, an opera house, several churches, and a host of surrounding mines pulling out iron, gold, and silver ore.</p> <h2>Twentieth Century</h2> <p>As <strong>precious metal mining</strong> continued in the surrounding area in the early 1900s, Salida added new buildings and infrastructure to support the mines. In 1902 the Ohio and Colorado Smelting Company built a smelter about one mile from the city, and by 1904 it was processing gold, silver, lead, and copper ore from ten different Colorado counties. The smelter’s fortunes waned as the decade wore on, however, and it operated at a loss for several years before closing in 1920. Today, the smelter’s most visible legacy is its towering brick smokestack, which rises above Salida at a height of 365 feet.</p> <p>By the early twentieth century the town had also developed a granite industry, with multiple quarries in operation by 1908. As early as 1911, the Salida Granite Company operated a granite-finishing plant in the city, which was expanded several times to meet increasing demand for the area’s high-quality stone. Salida’s granite, which received much attention at a 1920 expo, was used in monuments across the country.</p> <p>In 1928 the bitter rivalry between Salida and <strong>Buena Vista</strong> over the title of county seat—which stretched back to the early 1900s—was finally settled. Chaffee County residents voted to move the county seat to Salida from Buena Vista, with the former having nearly four times the population of the latter.</p> <p>Salida’s population hovered around 5,000 during the ensuing decade, when many other rural communities suffered population loss during the <strong>Great Depression</strong>. Federal <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> projects in the city included development of a hot springs center on the southwest side of town, just off US Highway 50. In 1936 some 200 men employed by the federal Works Progress Administration dug a pool and a five-mile underground pipeline to fill it with water from the nearby Poncha hot springs; the facility is now known as the Salida Hot Springs Aquatic Center.</p> <p>In 1941, with rail transportation giving way to the automobile, the famed Monte Cristo Hotel was torn down, as was the adjacent D&amp;RG rail depot.</p> <p>The Salida Museum began in 1954 with a collection begun by Harriet Alexander, the city’s first councilwoman. When she died in 1971, her will provided money for the construction of a new, two-room museum building, which houses the Salida Museum today.</p> <p>In the late 1980s, the city acquired the steam plant building and converted it into a community theater and events center that maintains the look and feel of the old power plant. By that time, Salida’s days as an industrial rail hub were long behind it; the city had evolved into a bustling tourist town, with outfits such as River Runners introducing visitors to some of the best whitewater rafting in the nation.</p> <p>In 2008 the old D&amp;RG hospital, which had been expanded and renovated several times throughout the twentieth century, moved to a new, modern medical campus off Highway 291 and became known as Heart of the Rockies Regional Medical Center.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Browns Canyon, north of Salida, had long been a popular destination for outdoor recreators before President Barack Obama declared the area a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/browns-canyon-national-monument"><strong>national monument</strong></a> in 2015. Today, Salida serves as a gateway to not only Browns Canyon but also <strong>Monarch Ski Area</strong> to the west and several <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fourteeners"><strong>Fourteeners</strong></a>, including the Collegiate Peaks and Mounts Shavano, Tabeguache, and Antero, to the northwest.</p> <p>The Salida economy is further anchored today by retail and real estate businesses, as well as the Heart of the Rockies Regional Medical Center, which employs nearly 650. Although the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/coronavirus-colorado"><strong>COVID-19 pandemic</strong></a> of 2020–21 has dealt a major blow to tourism, Salida’s location and myriad attractions make it well positioned for recovery in the postpandemic economy.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salida" hreflang="en">Salida</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salida-history" hreflang="en">salida history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaffee-county" hreflang="en">chaffee county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salida-smelter" hreflang="en">salida smelter</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/salida-smokestack" hreflang="en">salida smokestack</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/denver-and-rio-grande-railroad" hreflang="en">Denver and Rio Grande Railroad</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sawatch-mountains" hreflang="en">sawatch mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=EVE19281109.2.1&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=--1928---1928--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22county+seat%22-------0------1">Buena Vista Loses County Seat Fight</a>,” <em>Eagle Valley Enterprise</em>, November 9, 1928.</p> <p>Chaffee County Economic Development Corporation, “<a href="https://chaffeecountyedc.com/wp-content/uploads/Chaffeecounty2020demographicupdateoutlook032020.pdf">2020 Chaffee County Update and Outlook</a>,” March 2020.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=GNN18800612-01.2.14&amp;srpos=7&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">Clippings From the South Arkansas ‘Mail,’</a>” <em>Gunnison News</em>, June 12, 1880.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SRE19200827-01.2.7&amp;srpos=6&amp;e=--1900---1920--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22granite%22-------0--Salida----1">The Future Outlook of Granite Industry</a>,” <em>Salida Record</em>, August 27, 1920.</p> <p>Heart of the Rockies Regional Medical Center, “<a href="https://www.hrrmc.com/about-us/hrrmc-history/">HRRMC History</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://salidamuseum.org/history/">History of the Salida Museum</a>,” the Salida Museum, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SDM19020103-01.2.2&amp;srpos=1&amp;e=--1902---1920--en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22smelter%22+salida-------0--Salida----1">Independent Smelter Was a Necessity</a>,” <em>Salida Mail</em>, January 3, 1902.</p> <p>“<a href="https://chaffeecountyedc.com/wp-content/uploads/EMSIIndustry_Snapshot_1082-22020.pdf">Industry Snapshot (Chaffee County)</a>,” Emsi Q1 2020 Data Set (Denver: Colorado Work Force Center, March 2020).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CCE18981111-01.2.35&amp;srpos=17&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">Inquiring About Salida</a>,” <em>Chaffee County Record</em>, November 11, 1898.</p> <p>Joy Jackson, “<a href="https://www.themountainmail.com/free_content/article_564c6568-ee97-11e9-96c0-9f12892d4c58.html">‘The Innkeeper and the Ambassador,’</a>” <em>Mountain Mail</em> (Salida), October 14, 2019.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SRE19130228-01.2.7&amp;srpos=13&amp;e=--1900---1920--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22granite%22-------0--Salida----1">A Little Industry That Has Become Great</a>,” <em>Salida Record</em>, February 28, 1913.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SRE19080710-01.2.3&amp;srpos=5&amp;e=--1900---1920--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22granite%22-------0--Salida----1">More Granite Quarries to Open</a>,” <em>Salida Record</em>, July 10, 1908.</p> <p>Sarah J. Pearce, “Downtown Salida Historic District,” National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form (November 27, 1983).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=CFR18910305-01.2.28&amp;srpos=9&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">Salida</a>,” <em>Colorado Farmer</em>, March 5, 1891.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=MMS18800724-01.2.6&amp;srpos=2&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">Salida</a>,” <em>Mountain Mail</em>, July 24, 1880.</p> <p>“<a href="https://salidamuseum.org/history/salida-smokestack/">Salida Smokestack</a>,” the Salida Museum, n.d.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico </em>(Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=SRE19041230-01.2.6&amp;srpos=6&amp;e=--1900---1920--en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22salida%22+%22smelter%22-------0--Salida----1">The Smelter’s Year’s Work</a>,” <em>Salida Record</em>, December 30, 1904.</p> <p>Beth Smith, “Salida Hot Springs,” National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form (2000).</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=GNN18800612-01.2.24&amp;srpos=5&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">South Arkansas</a>,” <em>Gunnison News</em>, June 12, 1880.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=GNR18800703-01.2.11&amp;srpos=13&amp;e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-%22south+arkansas%22-------0------1">South Arkansas Items</a>,” <em>Gunnison Review</em>, July 3, 1880.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Kay Marnon Danielson, <em>Salida, Colorado </em>(Charleston, SC: Arcadia Press, 2002).</p> <p>Dick Dixon, <em>Smokestack: The Story of the Salida Smelter </em>(Salida, CO: Gold Belt Publishing, 1987).</p> <p><a href="https://www.salidawalkingtours.com/">Salida Walking Tours</a></p> <p>Ruby G. Williamson, <em>“Down With Your Dust”: A Chronicle of the Upper Arkansas Valley</em> (Gunnison, CO: B&amp;B Printers, 1973).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 18 Jun 2021 22:27:47 +0000 yongli 3573 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Cottonwood Trees http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Cottonwood Trees</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3517--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3517.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plains-cottonwood"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Populus_deltoides_monilifera_USDA_0.jpg?itok=eoUdN_BP" width="1090" height="656" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plains-cottonwood" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden"> Plains Cottonwood</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides monolifera), seen here along the <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southern Colorado, is among the most important tree species in Colorado. Historically, it provided food, shelter, timber, medicine, and forage for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and American immigrants alike. </p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2021-01-29T17:18:28-07:00" title="Friday, January 29, 2021 - 17:18" class="datetime">Fri, 01/29/2021 - 17:18</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees" data-a2a-title="Cottonwood Trees"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcottonwood-trees&amp;title=Cottonwood%20Trees"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>One of the most ecologically and culturally significant trees in Colorado, the plains cottonwood (<em>Populus deltoides monilifera</em>) thrives near rivers and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian</strong></a> areas throughout the state. It is one of the only tree species to grow on Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a>, which made it an important source of forage, fuel, timber, and medicine for Indigenous people, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/terminology-latino-experience-colorado"><strong>Hispanos</strong></a>, and white immigrants. The cottonwood gets its name from the millions of cotton-like seeds that female trees release each spring.</p> <h2>Description</h2> <p>Cottonwoods are tall, deciduous trees commonly found along riverbanks and other high-moisture areas, with broad leaves and dark gray bark. They thrive at altitudes of 3,500 to 6,500 feet and reach a maximum height of around 190 feet.</p> <p>Seeding and sprouting are the cottonwood’s two major avenues of reproduction. Cottonwoods are dioecious, meaning individual trees are either male or female. Females grow necklace-like strings of seedpods that release millions of white, cottony seeds into the air, typically in June. Males grow purple flowers. Like their mountain-dwelling cousins the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen-trees"><strong>aspen</strong></a>, cottonwoods are members of the poplar family, but unlike the aspen, cottonwoods do not produce clone trees from a single root system. However, like other poplars, cottonwoods will readily resprout if broken or cut down—a trait that has coevolved with breaking and browsing animals such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/beaver"><strong>beaver</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a>, and <strong>horses</strong>.</p> <p>Cottonwoods live just over 100 years—a fairly short lifespan for a tree. Sometimes large branches and the inner core of the tree will die before the rest of it, contributing to its common half-dead appearance. Cottonwoods in this condition represent a hazard, as branches can break and fall at any moment.</p> <h2>Ecology</h2> <p>As the vertical sentinels of the largely horizontal plains, cottonwoods provide habitat and food for many animals, from bison to birds, squirrels, and ponies. Eagles, blue jays, magpies, and woodpeckers are among the avian species that find respite in the cottonwood’s branches. Beaver stimulate cottonwood growth by gnawing down trunks, and bison, horses, and ponies eat the tree’s bark. Smaller trees, including willow and box elder, and shrubs thrive in the shade produced by the cottonwood.</p> <h2>Indigenous Culture</h2> <p>Indigenous people who lived on the plains and in the southwest part of the state—including the <strong>Apache</strong>, <strong>Arapaho</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, and <strong>Navajo</strong>—revered the cottonwood as a source of medicine and for its many practical uses, especially forage and food for horses. Sun Dance artifacts were carved from cottonwood. Perhaps the most famous grove of cottonwoods in the state was the Big Timbers, a thick stand along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> in southeast Colorado. In the early 1800s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho fought the Comanche and Kiowa for control of the sacred grove, with all four nations brokering a peace in 1840. Meanwhile, an old, thick cottonwood along the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cache-la-poudre-river"><strong>Cache la Poudre River</strong></a> near present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> served as a Council Tree, a meeting spot for a local band of Arapaho led by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teenokuhu-friday"><strong>Teenokuhu</strong> <strong>(Friday)</strong></a>.</p> <p>In one Arapaho story, a girl named Sapana climbs a tall cottonwood into the sky itself, where she is then put to work skinning bison hides by an old man who takes the form of a porcupine. The girl is helped back to earth by a buzzard and a hawk. In return for their help, the Arapaho always left at least one bison carcass for the buzzards and hawks after their hunts.</p> <h2>Hispano Culture</h2> <p>Cottonwood trees were also a prominent part of early Hispano culture. In southern Colorado’s <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hispano-settlement-purgatoire-valley"><strong>Purgatoire</strong></a> valley, members of the Catholic Penitente Brotherhood carved <em>santos</em>, or holy images, into cottonwood roots and trunks. In the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a>, where permanent Hispano settlements began in the 1850s, cottonwood beams supported adobe buildings, including the many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/iglesia"><strong><em>iglesias</em> and <em>capillas</em></strong></a>—churches and chapels—established across the valley. The town and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alamosa-county"><strong>county</strong></a> of <strong>Alamosa</strong> were named after the Spanish word for cottonwood grove.</p> <h2>American Culture</h2> <p>In 1807 American explorer <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> built his <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pike%E2%80%99s-stockade"><strong>stockade</strong></a> in the San Luis Valley out of cottonwood logs. Other whites quickly realized the importance of cottonwoods when they began crossing the plains to Colorado during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Gold Rush of 1858–59</strong></a>. In addition to being the only fuel aside from bison droppings, cottonwoods provided shelter and food for draft animals and acted as guideposts for immigrant parties who needed to stick to the river paths, lest they become lost in the monotonous landscape of the plains. When immigrants reached the area of present-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a>, they found building materials scarce; as such, the first house in what became Denver City, on today’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-square"><strong>Larimer Street</strong></a>, was built of “round cottonwood logs” and “roofed with earth.”</p> <p>One of the first editions of the <strong><em>Rocky Mountain News</em></strong>, printed on May 14, 1859, reflects white immigrants’ views of the cottonwood as part of the strikingly beautiful scenery of springtime along the eastern slope of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>:</p> <p style="margin-left:.5in;">The prairies are putting on their robes of green and the bright verdure of the cottonwood and alder contrasts beautifully with the dark sombre [<em>sic</em>] hue of the evergreen forests.</p> <p>White immigrants’ consumption of cottonwood groves only increased as more Americans traveled west over the ensuing decades. The depletion of this important resource, as well as the simultaneous and related decline of the bison, contributed to starving conditions among many Indigenous bands in the mid- to late nineteenth century.</p> <h2>Threats</h2> <p>Since they are water-loving trees, cottonwoods are especially susceptible to drought. Millions died during the 1930s drought that contributed to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a>, and many more could be lost in the twenty-first century as a warming <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-climate"><strong>climate</strong></a> increases drought frequency and length. In addition, dams built since the beginning of the twentieth century have lowered flow rates in the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a>, Arkansas, and other rivers, leading to a decline in cottonwood reproduction.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood" hreflang="en">cottonwood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwoods" hreflang="en">cottonwoods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cottonwood-trees" hreflang="en">cottonwood trees</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa" hreflang="en">alamosa</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/alamosa-county" hreflang="en">alamosa county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hispano" hreflang="en">hispano</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/iglesia" hreflang="en">iglesia</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/capilla" hreflang="en">capilla</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/zebulon-pike" hreflang="en">zebulon pike</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ecology" hreflang="en">ecology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/riparian" hreflang="en">riparian</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rivers" hreflang="en">rivers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beaver" hreflang="en">beaver</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/horses" hreflang="en">horses</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/comanche" hreflang="en">comanche</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/apache" hreflang="en">apache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/navajo" hreflang="en">navajo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/san-luis-valley" hreflang="en">San Luis Valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/council-tree" hreflang="en">council tree</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-collins" hreflang="en">fort collins</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chief-friday" hreflang="en">chief friday</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Michael Burman and Larry Larson, “<a href="https://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pub/em-8800-cottonwood-establishment-survival-stand-characteristics">Cottonwood: Establishment, Survival and Stand Characteristics</a>,” Oregon State University Extension, March 2002.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-trees/colorados-major-tree-species/#1466529004857-b98c0fa7-79c5">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Colorado State University, n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18600215.2.18&amp;srpos=11&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">First House</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, February 15, 1860.</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).</p> <p>Indigenouspeople.net, “<a href="http://www.indigenouspeople.net/heron.htm">The Girl Who Climbed to the Sky</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=RMW18590514.2.51&amp;srpos=3&amp;e=-------en-20--1-byDA-img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA-cottonwood-------0-----">Local Items</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, May 14, 1859.</p> <p>Native Languages, “<a href="http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cottonwood.htm#:~:text=The%20cottonwood%20tree%20was%20sacred,cottonwood%20boughs%20in%20funeral%20rituals.">Native American Cottonwood Tree Mythology</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Joe H. Offer, “<a href="https://wou.edu/geography/files/2015/05/Offer2014CapstoneFinal.pdf">Relating Upriver Dam Creation to the Regeneration of Cottonwoods (<em>Populus deltoids </em>Subsp. <em>monilifera</em>) Within the Upper Missouri River Breaks National Monument</a>,” Capstone, Western Oregon University, 2014.</p> <p>S. K. Wier, “<a href="http://www.westernexplorers.us/PlainsCottonwood.pdf">Plains Cottonwood</a>,” Western Explorers, 2014.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/colorado-forests/">Colorado Forests</a>,” Colorado State University.</p> <p>Colorado State Forest Service, “<a href="https://csfs.colostate.edu/media/sites/22/2015/06/Cottonwood_Management_QuickGuide_26June2015.pdf">Cottonwood Management</a>,” Colorado State University, 2015.</p> <p>George L. Trager, “<a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/463823?journalCode=ijal">’Cottonwood Tree,’ A South-Western Linguistic Trait</a>,” <em>International Journal of American Linguistics</em> 9, no. 2, 1938.</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Eastern Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> <p>William A. Weber and Ronald C. Whitman, <em>Colorado Flora: Western Slope</em>, 4th ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Sat, 30 Jan 2021 00:18:28 +0000 yongli 3515 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org 1921 Pueblo Flood http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">1921 Pueblo Flood</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-06-08T16:50:33-06:00" title="Monday, June 8, 2020 - 16:50" class="datetime">Mon, 06/08/2020 - 16:50</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood" data-a2a-title="1921 Pueblo Flood"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2F1921-pueblo-flood&amp;title=1921%20Pueblo%20Flood"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The worst <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>flood</strong></a> in the history of <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo">Pueblo</a>, and one of the worst in Colorado history, struck on June 3–5, 1921. Between 150 and 250 people died in the deluge along the Arkansas River. The flood caused more than $25 million in damage, leading the entire town to be reshaped in its aftermath. In the wake of the disaster, engineers changed the path of the Arkansas River through town to prevent further flooding. Later improvements came as a result of the city, state, and federal government’s decision to reevaluate its flood-control infrastructure and general disaster preparedness.</p> <h2>A Devastating Cloudburst</h2> <p>Like all rivers on Colorado’s <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range">Front Range</a>, the Arkansas River was prone to severe seasonal flooding as melting snow from the mountains combined with spring rains to produce high waters. The flood risk was especially pronounced in places such as Pueblo, located just east of where the river swiftly exits the mountains and joins with Fountain Creek, one of its major tributaries. There had been serious floods in 1864, 1881, 1893, and 1894. However, none of those involved the huge volume of water or caused as much economic damage as the flood in 1921.</p> <p>The heavy rains began in Dry Creek, west of Pueblo, on June 2, 1921. The river in Pueblo swelled to more than thirteen feet on the gauge at the Main Street Bridge. Intense rains in Pueblo, which began the afternoon of June 3, caused the river to overtop the levees at just over eighteen feet. By midnight on June 4, the flooding peaked at more than twenty-four and a half feet. While the water quickly receded afterward, this immense volume was enough to break levees in several spots, inundating the city’s downtown. It took only two hours before the entire business district was underwater.</p> <p>Most of the damage occurred on the second day, when both the Arkansas River and Fountain Creek overran their banks. A local lumberyard caught fire, sending burning lumber down flooded city streets. The high-water mark on the Union Depot, at Victoria and “B” Streets, was nearly ten feet. The Western National Bank at Main and Second Streets was more than thirteen feet underwater. The entire Arkansas Valley, from thirty miles west of Pueblo to the Colorado-Kansas state line, was severely affected.</p> <h2>Aftermath</h2> <p>The flood’s catastrophic damage became visible shortly after the flooding ended on June 5. Buildings had collapsed; train cars that were swept up in the flood had crashed into many of those structures. There were no power and no electric light in the center of town because the generating station had been inundated with water. Debris littered all the streets. The spark from a downed power line had ignited the boards of a local lumber company, creating a fire that damaged many of the remaining structures. After the water receded and the fire went out, Puebloans had to deal with all the mud left behind.</p> <p>All told, the flood had inundated 300 square miles. More than 500 houses were carried away, along with 98 businesses or industrial buildings, 61 stores, 46 locomotives, and 1,274 railroad cars. Telephone lines were destroyed, so there was little to no communication between Pueblo and the rest of the state. Decomposing bodies of livestock littered the valley. The flood’s total damage of around $25 million, is the equivalent of about $358 million in 2019.<br /> To this date there is no universally accepted death toll for the 1921 flood. Many Puebloans did not have family looking for them, because they were single immigrants who came to work for the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron">Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron Company</a>. In addition, bodies were still showing up downstream from Pueblo months after the flood. Others were never found or went unrecognized when they did come in. The list of missing people was nearly twice as long as the list of the deceased, ranging from 50 in the days after the flood to nearly 300 in the following weeks. In addition, some of those who were reported missing but escaped the deluge were never acknowledged as found. These complications made it difficult to determine how many lives were lost.</p> <h2>Rebuilding</h2> <p>The rebuilding and restructuring of Pueblo to prevent future disasters began almost immediately after the waters receded. The city council appointed a committee of three leading citizens to allocate state recovery funds and money from a city bond issue approved by voters immediately after the flood. Within months of the disaster, the committee contracted to have a new flood wall built west of Pueblo. This action, which reduced the river channel near the point where it met Fountain Creek, lessened the likelihood of the flooding of local businesses. Major improvements were in place as early as 1923. By 1961, various entities—including the city, the state, and the new Pueblo Conservancy District—had spent approximately $50 million rebuilding industry and infrastructure within the flooded areas. In addition to creating new flood-prevention infrastructure, the city also rearranged existing infrastructure. It built seven new bridges and moved many miles of utility lines and railroad tracks to make city infrastructure safer in the event of future flooding.<br /> The 1921 flood was the worst of many floods on the Arkansas River, which averaged one every ten years until the building of the Pueblo Dam in 1970–75. That effort, part of the larger Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, created Lake Pueblo to allow for the storage and controlled release of water coming down the Arkansas River. While flooding on the Arkansas remains possible, the kind of flood that devastated Pueblo in 1921 would require enough water to overwhelm flood-protection infrastructure that can withstand five times as much water as in 1921. Water arriving along the river can also be held behind the 250-foot dam that created the lake.</p> <p>Many businesses were rebuilt. Parkview Hospital, for example, did return. But it moved to a location north of downtown so it would remain operational in case downtown ever flooded again. Other businesses never returned to downtown Pueblo because they suffered irreparable damage. Many of Pueblo’s earliest buildings could not be saved, which permanently affected the city’s architectural heritage. It is impossible to tell how many businesses the city lost. The city’s population decreased in the wake of the flood, and growth remained slow until after World War II. While other factors contributed to the population decline, the long recovery from the flood likely played a role in that trend.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/rees-jonathan-h" hreflang="und">Rees, Jonathan H.</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/armijo-stephanie" hreflang="und">Armijo, Stephanie</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-flood" hreflang="en">Pueblo Flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fountain-river" hreflang="en">Fountain River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/flood-control" hreflang="en">flood control</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/moffat-tunnel" hreflang="en">Moffat Tunnel</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-chieftan" hreflang="en">Pueblo Chieftan</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1921" hreflang="en">1921</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river-flood" hreflang="en">arkansas river flood</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>City of Pueblo, “<a href="https://www.pueblo.us/DocumentCenter/Home/View/605">The Great Flood of 1921</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>“Figures Becoming Available of Pueblo’s Property Loss,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, June 11, 1921.</p> <p>Guy Macy, “Flood of 1921 Most Destructive in the Entire History of Pueblo,” <em>Pueblo Star-Journal</em>, March 27, 1938.</p> <p>“Miracle of 1921 Flood Was Relatively Few Deaths,” <em>Pueblo Star-Journal</em>, June 4, 1961.</p> <p>National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “<a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/news/month-climate-history-june-3-1921-colorado-flooding">This Month in Climate History: June 3, 1921 Colorado Flooding</a>,” NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, n.d.</p> <p>“Pueblo Still Paying for $30,000.000 Flood of 1921,” <em>Pueblo Star-Journal</em>, January 2, 1955.</p> <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pX9CNMFG7Dc">Colorado Experience: Pueblo</a>,” <em>Colorado Experience</em>, April 15, 2013.</p> <p>Ralph C. Taylor, “Pueblo’s Great Flood: Tale of a City Rebuilt,” <em>Rocky Mountain News</em>, June 4, 1961.</p> <p>US Bureau of Reclamation, “<a href="https://www.usbr.gov/projects/index.php?id=232">Pueblo Dam</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Geological Survey, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0487/report.pdf">The Arkansas River Flood of June 3–5, 1921</a> (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922).</p> <p>Chris Woodka, “The Flood of 1921,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, June 3, 1994.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Tom McGhee, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2013/09/19/colorados-flood-history-led-to-changes/">Colorado’s Flood History Led to Changes</a>,”<em> The Denver Post</em>, September 19, 2013.</p> <p>“<a href="https://mountainscholar.org/handle/10217/100612">Pueblo Flood</a>,” Mountain Scholar, Colorado State University–Pueblo.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 08 Jun 2020 22:50:33 +0000 yongli 3261 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Great Divide http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Great Divide</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3157--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3157.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/continental-divide-rabbit-ears-pass"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great%20Divide%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=vYvuXiu1" width="1090" height="610" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/continental-divide-rabbit-ears-pass" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Continental Divide at Rabbit Ears Pass</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Continental Divide is a geologic crest running through Colorado's Rocky Mountains. Rivers on the west slope of the divide drain into the Pacific Ocean, and water on the east slope drains into the Atlantic.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--3158--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--3158.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/north-american-continental-divides"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Great%20Divide%20Media%202_0.png?itok=fcLj92wA" width="900" height="900" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/north-american-continental-divides" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">North American Continental Divides</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The Great Divide, shown here in red, is one of many Continental Divides in North America. Divides are geologic formations that separate watersheds. On the east side of the Great Divide, water flows to the Atlantic Ocean; on the west side, it flows to the Pacific.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2020-01-15T13:44:13-07:00" title="Wednesday, January 15, 2020 - 13:44" class="datetime">Wed, 01/15/2020 - 13:44</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide" data-a2a-title="Great Divide"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fgreat-divide&amp;title=Great%20Divide"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>The beautiful and imposing <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>mountain scenery</strong></a> of Colorado’s Great Divide has led to the common belief that the state is home to a singular “Continental Divide.” The divide in Colorado, however, is only a piece of the larger Great Divide, a geologic crest that runs from Alaska through South America. The larger Great Divide separates the North American continent into eastern (Atlantic) and western (Pacific) watersheds. It runs some 650 miles through the heart of Colorado, crossing twenty-one counties and many of the state’s famous mountain peaks.</p> <p>Colorado’s Great Divide has played a prominent role in the history of both the state and the nation. As an immense, living barrier, it has determined the routes of rivers, railroads, highways, and county lines. It has also been the scene of immense feats of engineering, including the <strong>Moffat Tunnel</strong>, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%e2%80%93big-thompson-project"><strong>Colorado­–Big Thompson</strong></a> (C-BT) <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> project, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eisenhower-tunnel"><strong>Eisenhower-Johnson</strong></a> highway tunnels. Meanwhile, the divide’s spectacular, snowy vistas attract millions of tourists each year. Parts of the 3,000-mile Continental Divide National Scenic Trail run along or near the Great Divide in Colorado.</p> <h2>Colorado’s Divide</h2> <p>Within the state, the area east of the Great Divide is generally referred to as the Eastern Slope—or the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a>—while the area west of the divide is known as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a>. At 14,278 feet, <strong>Grays Peak</strong> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/clear-creek-county"><strong>Clear Creek</strong></a>-<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/summit-county"><strong>Summit County</strong></a> border is the highest point of the Great Divide in North America.</p> <p>From north to south, the Great Divide in Colorado follows a serpentine path through <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/routt-county"><strong>Routt</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/jackson-county"><strong>Jackson</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/larimer-county"><strong>Larimer</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/grand-county"><strong>Grand</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder-county"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gilpin-county"><strong>Gilpin</strong></a>, Clear Creek, Summit, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/lake-county"><strong>Lake</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/eagle-county"><strong>Eagle</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pitkin-county"><strong>Pitkin</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-county"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/hinsdale-county"><strong>Hinsdale</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-juan-county"><strong>San Juan</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mineral-county"><strong>Mineral</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rio-grande-county"><strong>Rio Grande</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/conejos-county"><strong>Conejos</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archuleta-county"><strong>Archuleta</strong></a> Counties. The divide forms part of the boundaries of each county it touches. Major passes along the divide include <strong>Rabbit Ears, </strong><strong>Berthoud</strong>, Loveland, Independence, Cottonwood, Monarch, and Wolf Creek.</p> <p>The Great Divide in Colorado is the source of the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-river"><strong>Colorado</strong></a>, <strong>Rio Grande</strong>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas</strong></a> Rivers, three of the continent’s most important waterways. It also contains headwaters of the Colorado River’s major tributaries, such as the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/gunnison-river"><strong>Gunnison</strong></a> and <strong>San Juan</strong> Rivers. The altitude and environment of the divide ranges from high alpine tundra at places like Grays Peak and the flanks of <strong>San Luis Peak</strong> (14,022 ft) to lower-elevation basins, such as the area just east of <strong>Rabbit Ears Pass</strong> at the southern end of <strong>North Park</strong>. In most parts of the state, the route of the divide is flanked by coniferous forests and inhabited by a variety of flora and fauna, including marmots, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a>, and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a>.</p> <h2>Human History</h2> <p>Humans have relied on the high-altitude resources of Colorado’s Great Divide for millennia. Beginning around 1400, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people lived and hunted along the divide, making seasonal treks across its many passes and forging trails that later became the routes of railroads and highways.</p> <p>The Great Divide in what became Colorado played a pivotal role in national politics during the 1840s and 1850s, when the United States was considering routes for a transcontinental railroad. American explorers such as <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-c-fremont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> and <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/john-w-gunnison"><strong>John W. Gunnison</strong></a> probed the divide for railroad routes, but ultimately the towering granite wall proved impassable at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad eventually settled on a far easier route through Wyoming’s South Pass.</p> <p>People began tapping the mineral wealth of the divide’s mountains in the 1850s, most famously during the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59. Discoveries of gold, silver, lead, and other valuable metals drove the creation of settlements near or along the Great Divide, including <strong>Grand Lake</strong>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/breckenridge-historic-district"><strong>Breckenridge</strong></a>, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>, <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/silverton-0"><strong>Silverton</strong></a>, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/creede"><strong>Creede</strong></a>.</p> <p>The twentieth century saw the Great Divide’s status as a great barrier somewhat diminished, as Coloradans and the federal government used new technology and advanced engineering to bore through its granite flanks and create tunnels for rails, roads, and water. In 1922 the state legislature passed a bill to create a 6.2-mile tunnel through the Great Divide for the Denver, Northwestern &amp; Pacific Railway; the tunnel had long been planned as part of the late businessman <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/david-h-moffat"><strong>David H. Moffat</strong></a>’s rail line, nicknamed the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver-northwestern-pacific-railway-hill-route-moffat-road"><strong>Moffat Road</strong></a>. The Moffat Tunnel, as it came to be known, was completed in 1928, with its east portal located along South <strong>Boulder Creek</strong> west of <strong>Rollinsville</strong> and its west portal located in <strong>Winter Park</strong>.</p> <p>Between the 1930s and 1950s, the Colorado–Big Thompson Project was completed, bringing water from the Colorado River on the Western Slope to thirsty farms and cities along the Front Range. The lynchpin of the project is the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alva-b-adams-tunnel"><strong>Alva B. Adams Tunnel</strong></a>, bored through the Continental Divide under <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>. Water passes through the tunnel on its way to a labyrinth of reservoirs, canals, and ditches along the Front Range. Built to provide additional water to the more populous Front Range, the C-BT fomented resentment among many living on the Western Slope, who felt (and still feel) that self-serving urban governments and state politicians forced them to agree to funneling away a large amount of their water.</p> <p>In the 1960s and 1970s, Coloradans again bored through the Great Divide, this time to run <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/interstate-70"><strong>Interstate 70</strong></a> underneath the Front Range near Loveland Pass at an elevation of about 11,155 feet. The Eisenhower-Johnson Tunnels took more than ten years to build, with the first completed in 1973 and the second opening to traffic in 1979.</p> <h2>Recreation</h2> <p>The twentieth century also saw the rise of recreational development along Colorado’s Great Divide. Today, skiing, hiking, and camping are among the most popular activities. The <strong>Loveland</strong> <strong>Ski Area</strong> in Clear Creek County was founded in 1936, followed by <strong>Wolf Creek</strong> in Mineral County (1938), <strong>Monarch</strong> in Chaffee County (1939),<strong> Winter Park Resort</strong> in Grand County (1939–40), and later <strong>Arapahoe Basin </strong>(1946) and <strong>Copper Mountain</strong> (1972) in Summit County. Today, skiers can take the Ski Train from <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> to Winter Park via the Moffat Tunnel.</p> <p>Large sections of Colorado’s Great Divide are part of federally managed <strong>wilderness areas</strong>, such as the Indian Peaks Wilderness and the San Juan Wilderness, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>national forests</strong></a>, such as the Arapaho, Roosevelt, and Rio Grande National Forests. The part of the divide near the Colorado River headwaters is managed by Rocky Mountain National Park.</p> <p>Colorado’s Continental Divide also contains approximately 650 miles of the more than 3,000-mile <strong>Continental Divide Trail</strong>, which was approved by an act of Congress in 1978 and mostly built by the late 1990s. With input from the <strong>National Park Service</strong> and <strong>Bureau of Land Management</strong>, the <a href="http://www.coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>US Forest Service</strong></a> approved a comprehensive management plan in 1985. Initial construction was overseen by the Continental Divide Trail Association (CDTA), a public-private group formed in 1995 to build the trail and generate public support.</p> <p>Today, the Continental Divide Trail in Colorado and elsewhere is maintained and managed by volunteers with the Continental Divide Trail Coalition, a group organized in 2013 after the closing of the CDTA. Parts of the trail are still not complete, requiring hikers to cut their own way through or walk around incomplete sections.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide" hreflang="en">continental divide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-divide" hreflang="en">great divide</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rio-grande-river" hreflang="en">rio grande river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geology" hreflang="en">geology</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/geography" hreflang="en">Geography</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-river" hreflang="en">colorado river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/north-platte-river" hreflang="en">north platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/rocky-mountains" hreflang="en">Rocky Mountains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-divide-colorado" hreflang="en">great divide in colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/continental-divide-trail" hreflang="en">continental divide trail</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Colorado Ski History, “<a href="http://www.coloradoskihistory.com/areahistory/monarch.html">Monarch</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Colorado Ski History, “<a href="http://www.coloradoskihistory.com/areahistory/wolfcreek.html">Wolf Creek Ski Area</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Continental Divide Trail Coalition, “<a href="https://continentaldividetrail.org/history-of-the-cdt/">History of the CDT</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Continental Divide Trail Society, “<a href="https://banksfamilylaw.com/colorado.htm">Where’s the Trail in Colorado?</a>” updated May 10, 2012.</p> <p>Mark A. Gonzalez, “<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117052801/https:/www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/NEWSLETTER/NLS03/pdf/Divide.pdf">Continental Divides in North Dakota and North America</a>,” North Dakota Geological Society Newsletter 30, no. 1 (2013).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/romo/planyourvisit/divide.htm">Continental Divide National Scenic Trail</a>,” n.d.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Liz Thomas, <em>Best Hikes on the Continental Divide Trail </em>(Golden: Colorado Mountain Club Press, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Wed, 15 Jan 2020 20:44:13 +0000 yongli 3112 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Fremont County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fremont County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2250--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2250.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/john-c-fremont"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Fremont-Media-5_0.jpg?itok=cHx5kixm" width="1000" height="1287" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/john-c-fremont" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">John C. Fremont</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Fremont County is named for John C. Fremont, an American explorer who led several expeditions in search of railroad routes through Colorado during the mid-nineteenth century.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2251--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2251.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/fremont-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/_Fremont_County_0.png?itok=rkT3GYqZ" width="1024" height="741" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/fremont-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Fremont County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Fremont County, named for the American explorer John C. Fremont, was established in 1861 as one of the original seventeen counties of the Colorado Territory.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2017-01-31T10:47:30-07:00" title="Tuesday, January 31, 2017 - 10:47" class="datetime">Tue, 01/31/2017 - 10:47</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-county" data-a2a-title="Fremont County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Ffremont-county&amp;title=Fremont%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Fremont County is located in south-central Colorado, bordered by <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/park-county"><strong>Park</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/teller-county"><strong>Teller</strong></a> Counties to the north, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-paso-county"><strong>El Paso County</strong></a> to the east, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county"><strong>Pueblo County</strong></a> to the southeast, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/custer-county"><strong>Custer County</strong></a> to the south, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/saguache-county"><strong>Saguache</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee</strong></a> Counties to the north. Fremont County comprises 1,533 square miles with an estimated population of 46,502. The county seat and largest city is <strong>Cañon City</strong>, located at the eastern mouth of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/royal-gorge"><strong>Royal Gorge</strong></a> of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a>.</p> <p>Fremont County was established in 1859 and named after western explorer and politician <a href="/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a>. While it shares with other Colorado counties a history of Native American habitation, agriculture, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/precious-metal-mining-colorado"><strong>mining</strong></a>, and railroads, Fremont County’s history of oil extraction and correctional facilities has uniquely shaped its past and present.</p> <h2>Dinosaur Discoveries</h2> <p>The first dinosaur bone discovered in Colorado was near Cañon City in late 1869 or early 1870. Over the next decade, scientists discovered many more dinosaur bones. In the 1880s Yale paleontologist <strong>Othniel C. Marsh</strong>, with the help of Cañon City resident Marshall P. Felch, discovered and named the <em>Stegosaurus stenops</em>, known commonly today as simply Stegosaurus. Since then many other paleontological discoveries of the Late Jurassic period (160 to 145 million years ago) have been made at the Garden Park Fossil Area near Cañon City.</p> <h2>Early History</h2> <p>Archaeological study has found that humans inhabited Colorado as early as 11,000 years ago. Ancient indigenous groups inhabited the plains and mountains regions throughout the state but largely abandoned the whole of Colorado by the mid-1400s. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche, Blackfoot, and Lakota (Sioux) tribes all inhabited the areas surrounding Fremont County at certain points in time, but the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> remained the dominant tribe in the region for many centuries and are the oldest residents of Colorado, likely arriving sometime around 1500.</p> <p>Of the seven Ute bands, the Muache band, occupied the area east of the Rocky Mountains, their territory extending from Denver to Trinidad and down to Santa Fe, New Mexico. Today the Muache and Capote bands comprise the federally recognized <strong>Southern Ute tribe</strong>, based in Ignacio, Colorado.</p> <p>Early Spanish expeditions in the 1500s and 1600s, such as the party of <strong>Francisco Vasquez de Coronado</strong>, may have crossed into parts of southern Colorado, but the Spanish could not find gold or silver and thus lost interest in the area for the next century. In 1803 the eastern part of Colorado became a US territory through the<strong> Louisiana Purchase</strong>, while the western part of the state was still under Spanish control. In 1806 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Montgomery Pike</strong></a> set out on a federally commissioned expedition to explore the region. He and his party led a grueling trek down the Arkansas River and camped at present-day Cañon City near the Royal Gorge.</p> <h2>County Formation</h2> <p>Tasked with conducting geographical survey of parts of the rural West, John C. Frémont first traveled through the Fremont County region in 1843, when he traveled up the Arkansas River to what is now Leadville. Between 1843 and 1852, Frémont conducted five expeditions that led him through land that would become Fremont County. He was supported by his guide, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, whom Frémont popularized through accounts of their adventures. Frémont’s reports portrayed Carson as a rugged mountain man, and his reputation grew throughout the country. Following his decade of expeditions, Frémont went on to serve as a politician and presidential candidate in the 1856 election.</p> <p>In the decades before the respective gold and silver rushes, Cañon City was an important supply center on the wagon roads leading to mountain mining camps.</p> <p>Prior to establishment of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, the Fremont County area was part of the Kansas Territory. In 1861, the Colorado Territory was established with seventeen original counties, including Fremont County. The county originally comprised parts of modern-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano</strong></a> and Custer Counties. The last change made to the Fremont County borders was in 1899, when Teller County was established and took part of northern Fremont County. In 1862 Cañon City was named the county seat.</p> <h2>Oil Industry</h2> <p>Trade and agriculture were the county’s primary industries until the 1860s, when the oil industry propelled the economy, and later during the 1870s and 1880s, when coal mining and railroads changed the face of the county. The names of several Fremont County communities, such as Coal Creek and Coaldale, reflect the role of the coal industry in the county’s development.</p> <p>The <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/oil-spring"><strong>Oil Spring</strong></a> site outside of Florence was the location of the first commercial production of oil in Colorado and the first oil well drilled in the state. Prospecting at the site led to the development of Colorado’s first oil company, G. Bowen &amp; Co., in 1860, though it was never a commercial operation. The Colorado Oil Company began drilling its first oil well in 1862, but production never advanced beyond one to three barrels per day, because oil at depth was not found. Oil production stalled at Oil Spring, but in 1881 promoter and businessman Alexander M. Cassiday and oil driller Isaac Canfield finally struck deep oil. The successful find led to the development of the Florence Oil Field, which was in operation until the 1960s.</p> <h2>Coal and CF&amp;I</h2> <p>Jesse Frazier discovered the first coal deposits in Fremont County near then-unincorporated <strong>Coal Creek</strong> in 1860. Frazier later sold his claim to Joseph T. Musser, who ran a small mining operation for just under a decade before selling it to the Colorado Coal Company, the predecessor of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel and Iron Company (CF&amp;I)</strong></a>. Mining would remain relatively small scale until the 1870s, when the introduction of the railroad changed the region’s industrial capabilities. In 1872, enticed by the potential of the region’s burgeoning coal industry, General <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a> extended his <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad </strong>(D&amp;RG) to Coal Creek. In 1874 the line was completed through Cañon City, which served as the western terminus of the D&amp;RG until the end of the Royal Gorge Railroad War.</p> <p>In the 1870s and 1880s other coal communities sprang up throughout the county, including Rockvale, Bear Gulch, Chandler, and later Prospect Heights. At one time there were nearly seventy coal mines in Fremont County, most of which were owned and operated by CF&amp;I, which went on to dominate Colorado’s coal and mining industries. In 1906, it was estimated that 10 percent of Coloradans depended on the company for employment.</p> <p>The early 1900s saw massive labor conflicts involving CF&amp;I throughout Colorado, including a gold miners’ strike in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cripple-creek"><strong>Cripple Creek</strong></a> in 1903–4 and the <strong>Colorado Coalfield War</strong> in the 1910s.</p> <h2>Royal Gorge Railroad War</h2> <p>Once called the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas River, the Royal Gorge is the county’s most notable natural feature, drawing tribal and European inhabitants for centuries. Scientists concur that the gorge is the result of erosion alone. The Royal Gorge is approximately ten miles long with granite walls 1,000 feet high. The Arkansas River, one of the longest in the country, runs through the gorge.</p> <p>In 1877, when silver was discovered in what would become Leadville, the D&amp;RG in Cañon City and the <strong>Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fe Railway</strong> in Pueblo began an aggressive competition to extend a rail line to Leadville through the narrow Royal Gorge, which had space for only one rail line. In 1879, after gunfights between the two railroad crews and a legal battle that ended at the US Supreme Court, the D&amp;RG was granted the primary right to build a line through the gorge. The D&amp;RG line through the gorge allowed for increased transportation between cities in Fremont County and the mining camps in the mountains.</p> <h2>Correctional Facilities</h2> <p>Fremont County has a long history with penitentiaries. On January 7, 1868, the Colorado Territorial Legislature established the <strong>Colorado Territorial Prison</strong> in Cañon City, which officially opened June 1, 1871. The prison was generally well received by the community, as lawlessness in the rural western region had become violent and difficult to manage. After Colorado became a state in 1876, the facility was given to the state and renamed Colorado State Prison. Today it’s known as the Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility or by its nickname, “Old Max.” The facility has housed many notorious criminals, including the cannibal<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alferd-packer"> </a><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/alferd-packer"><strong>Alferd Packard</strong></a>.</p> <p>Throughout the twentieth century the county became home to more than a dozen state and federal correctional facilities at every level of security. The Federal Correctional Complex in Florence has four separate prison facilities within it, including the Prison Camp, the Federal Correctional Institution, the United States Penitentiary, and the Administrative Maximum Penitentiary, also known as “Super Max” or ADX. ADX is the only exclusively supermaximum security facility in the nation, housing the most dangerous convicts in the federal prison system.</p> <p>In addition, Fremont County is the site of nine state correctional facilities, seven of which are within the East Cañon Correctional Complex just outside Cañon City. These include Skyline Correctional Center, Four Mile Correctional Center, Pre-Release Center, Arrowhead Correctional Center, Fremont Correctional Facility, Centennial Correctional Facility, and the Colorado State Penitentiary, which houses the state’s death row and execution chamber. The other two are the aforementioned Colorado State Prison and the <strong>Colorado Women’s Correctional Facility</strong>, located on the eastern edge of Cañon City. The original Colorado Women’s Prison operated from 1935 to 1968, but no longer houses inmates and is now the site of the Colorado Territorial Prison Museum.</p> <p>Today, Fremont County is the home of thirteen correctional facilities. More than half the jobs in the county stem from the prison industry, and 38 percent of the populations of Cañon City and Florence are inmates.</p> <h2>Twentieth-Century Developments</h2> <p>An extensive irrigation system built in the 1860s led to a flourishing agricultural industry that carried on into the twentieth century as orchards and dairy operations grew.</p> <p>Tourism also flourished as an industry in the twentieth century. The Royal Gorge had always attracted visitors, but the <strong>Royal Gorge Bridge</strong>, the United States’ highest suspension bridge, has brought thousands of visitors per year since its construction in 1929. The bridge was built to accommodate automobile travel but is used primarily as a pedestrian bridge.</p> <p>In the 1920s local Cañon City resident and Baptist reverend Fred Arnold was appointed the Grand Dragon of the Colorado Realm of the<strong> <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado">Ku Klux Klan</a></strong>. It is believed that the Klan’s rise in the Cañon City area grew out of anti-Catholic sentiment in response to the Holy Cross Abbey’s intent to build a church in Cañon City. At the time Colorado had the largest, most influential Knights of the Klan organization west of the Mississippi River. The Klan held political power in the region from 1924 to 1928, not only controlling the Cañon City government but also influencing Fremont County and the state government in Denver. The organization’s political control of Fremont County gradually subsided following the sudden death of Arnold in 1928.</p> <p>In the 1970s, Cañon City and other parts of Fremont County became popular destinations for film productions, particularly westerns. <em>The Cowboys</em>, starring John Wayne; <em>The Duchess and the Dirtywater Fox</em>, starring Goldie Hawn and George Segal; and <em>How the West Was Won</em>, starring James Arness and Bruce Boxleitner, were filmed in the surrounding area.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Today the Fremont County economy thrives on its correctional industry as well as on tourism. The Royal Gorge alone draws more than 200,000 annual visitors to the region. Cañon City and Florence maintain strong local historic preservation programs that have revitalized historic buildings in the communities to attract businesses and tourists.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-county" hreflang="en">Fremont County</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fremont-county-history" hreflang="en">fremont county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/coal" hreflang="en">coal</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dinosaur-fossils" hreflang="en">dinosaur fossils</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/canon-city" hreflang="en">Cañon City</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/royal-gorge" hreflang="en">royal gorge</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-railroad-war" hreflang="en">great railroad war</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-territorial-prison" hreflang="en">colorado territorial prison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-state-penitentiary" hreflang="en">colorado state penitentiary</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen J. Leonard, and Thomas J. Noel, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2005).</p> <p>Cañon City Chamber of Commerce, “History of Cañon City,” n.d.</p> <p>Carie Canterbury, “<a href="https://www.canoncitydailyrecord.com/2014/04/10/ku-klux-klan-once-a-fremont-county-political-powerhouse/">Ku Klux Klan Once a Fremont County Political Powerhouse</a>,” <em>Cañon City Daily Record</em>, April 10, 2014.</p> <p>Colorado State Archives, “<a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/archives/co-history-chronology">Colorado History Chronology</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Dinosaur Depot Museum, “<a href="https://www.dinosaurdepot.com/history_p1.htm">A Short History of Dinosaur Collecting: Garden Park Fossil Area, Cañon City, Colorado</a>,” 2013.</p> <p>Florence Chamber of Commerce, “<a href="http://finditinflorence.comcommunity-history">Community History</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Fremont County, “Colorado References Timeline,” 2016.</p> <p>Fremont County, “Fremont County History,” 2016.</p> <p>Garden Park Fossil Area, Marsh-Felch Quarry, “<a href="http://www.handsontheland.org/garden-park/marsh-felch-quarry.html">Marshall P. Felch and His Dinosaur Quarry</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>John M. Glionna, “<a href="https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-prison-valley-20150813-story.html">In Colorado’s Prison Valley, Corrections Are a Way of Life</a>,” <em>Los Angeles Times</em>, August 13, 2015.</p> <p>Beverly Kissell Harris, “<a href="https://www.canoncitydailyrecord.com/2013/08/01/the-coal-camps-of-rockvale-and-coal-creek/">The Coal Camps of Rockvale and Coal Creek</a>,” <em>Cañon City Daily Record</em>, August 1, 2013.</p> <p>History Colorado, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/oahp/fremont-county">Fremont County</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Howard R. Lamar, ed., <em>The New Encyclopedia of the American West </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).</p> <p>R. Laurie and Thomas H. Simmons, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/SHF_Survey_CanonCity2004-05.pdf">Historic Buildings Survey of Downtown Cañon City, Colorado: Final Survey Report</a>,” June 2005.The Royal Gorge Bridge, <a href="https://www.pikes-peak.com/attractions/royal-gorge-bridge-and-park/">Pikes Peak Country Attractions</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Royal Gorge Railroad, “<a href="https://www.royalgorgeroute.com/about-us/history/">Royal Gorge History: A History of Rivals Amid Scenic Splenor [sic]</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Judy Suchan, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2011-january/the-?war?-for-the-royal-gorge">The ‘War’ for the Royal Gorge</a>,” <em>Colorado Central Magazine,</em> January 3, 2011.</p> <p>Southern Ute Indian Tribe, “<a href="https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/">History of the Southern Ute</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Don Stanwyck, <a href="http://stanwyck.com/cogenweb/cocounties.html">Colorado County Evolution</a>, CoGenWeb Project, 2003.</p> <p>US Census Bureau, “<a href="http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/08/08043.html">Quick Facts: Fremont County, Colorado</a>,” updated 2015.</p> <p>The West Film Project and WETA, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-west/">Events in THE WEST</a>, 1840–1850, PBS.org, 2001.</p> <p>Sammy M. Wittmer, <a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/NRSR/5FN720.pdf">Cañon City Downtown Historic District</a>, National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form, September 7, 1983.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.canoncity.org/">Cañon City</a></p> <p><a href="https://fremontcountyco.gov/">Fremont County</a></p> <p>History.com, “<a href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fremont-begins-his-second-western-expedition">This Day in History, May 29, 1843: Fremont Begins His Second Western Expedition</a>.”</p> <p><a href="https://prisonmuseum.org/">Museum of Colorado Prisons</a></p> <p><a href="https://royalgorgebridge.com/">Royal Gorge Bridge and Park</a></p> <p>Royal Gorge Region, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/canon-city/travel-information-services/other-tourism-organizations/the-royal-gorge-region">Family Adventures in the Royal Gorge Region</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 31 Jan 2017 17:47:30 +0000 yongli 2248 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org El Pueblo http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2067--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2067.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-replica"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/EL%20Pueblo%20Media%201_0.jpg?itok=78OGOE2e" width="800" height="362" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-replica" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Replica</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the early 2000s, History Colorado constructed a replica of El Pueblo near the site of the original trading post. Located near the confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River, it consisted of a rough square of rooms arranged around a central courtyard.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2070--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2070.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/city-pueblo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El-Pueblo-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=XEjzqiAR" width="1000" height="727" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/city-pueblo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">City of Pueblo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>El Pueblo was largely abandoned after 1854. By 1860, the city of Pueblo was taking shape at the same site. Pueblo's development buried all evidence of El Pueblo in the 1880s.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2071--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2071.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-excavation"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El%20Pueblo%20Media%203_0.jpg?itok=rL_7VqSC" width="800" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-excavation" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Excavation</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In the late 1980s, William G. Buckles and students at the University of Southern Colorado (now CSU–Pueblo) successfully identified the site of the original El Pueblo and began to excavate the structure's ruins. The dig is now protected by the William G. Buckles Archaeological Pavilion.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2072--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2072.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/el-pueblo-museum-complex"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/El%20Pueblo%20Media%204_0.jpg?itok=nDjq7fUj" width="800" height="600" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/el-pueblo-museum-complex" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">El Pueblo Museum Complex</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The William G. Buckles Archaeological Pavilion (pictured) is part of the larger El Pueblo Museum complex built in the early 2000s, which includes the museum, the pavilion, and a replica of the original trading post.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-18T16:09:14-07:00" title="Friday, November 18, 2016 - 16:09" class="datetime">Fri, 11/18/2016 - 16:09</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo" data-a2a-title="El Pueblo"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fel-pueblo&amp;title=El%20Pueblo"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Established in 1842, El Pueblo (301 N Union Ave, Pueblo, CO 81003) was an independent adobe <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> that operated at the site of the present-day city of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a> and was used by a diverse, multi-ethnic group of trappers, traders, women, and mountain men. Largely abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes, the post gradually disappeared over the next three decades as the city was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, anthropology professor William G. Buckles and students at the University of Southern Colorado (now <strong>Colorado State University–Pueblo</strong>) discovered the site, which is now home to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/history-colorado-colorado-historical-society"><strong>History Colorado</strong></a>’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo grew out of shifts that occurred in the Western <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a> in the 1830s and 1840s, as established trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the annual rendezvous. In 1833 Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. built <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> east of what is now <strong>La Junta</strong>. It became an important trading post on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> between Missouri and New Mexico. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from nearby bands of <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> and sold the hides in St. Louis.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1841–42, Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. failed to deliver a shipment of hides, creating a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw that the shortage created an opportunity for him to establish a new trading post independent of a large company like Bent, St. Vrain, &amp; Co. Other traders who joined him at the new post probably included Francisco Conn, Mathew Kinkead, and Joseph Mantz as well as the Bent employees Joseph Doyle, Robert Fisher, and Alexander Barclay.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the summer of 1842, the group decided to build its independent post where the Arkansas River was joined by <strong>Fountain Creek</strong>, a spot about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort. At the time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico, and the post’s location would make it the closest US settlement to Taos. The location offered several additional advantages as a trading center. Trading routes such as the <strong>Cherokee Trail</strong> and the <strong>Taos (or Trappers) Trail</strong> ran along the nearby rivers, providing easy access to multiple markets and trading partners, and Native American groups often passed through the area to use a well-known crossing of the Arkansas. In addition, the valley where Fountain Creek joined the Arkansas was at a relatively low elevation with a temperate climate, and the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From about May to September 1842, Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River west of Fountain Creek. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown, but surviving accounts indicate that it was probably an adobe plaza similar in appearance to a New Mexico country house, with a series of rooms arranged in a rough square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza and had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Called <em>El Pueblo</em> (Spanish for “town” or “people”), the post was distinctive in that it was neither a military fort nor owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base of operations for a diverse group of traders with Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American roots. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents. Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as <a href="/article/kit-carson"><strong>Kit Carson</strong></a>, <strong>Richens Lacy Wootton</strong>, and <strong>James Beckwourth</strong> stayed there at times while the post was active. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval provided the essential infrastructure for the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. Each trader who stayed there had a few rooms for himself and his family and used the central plaza as a common trading area, with goods laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farming and ranching enterprises that developed in the area, many of them started by people who had first operated as traders at the post. They sold their produce at El Pueblo and marketed their livestock to wagon trains along the emigrant and trading trails. In 1846–47, a colony of several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo during the migration that eventually led them to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>The End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to decline. The <strong>Mexican-American War</strong> suppressed trade between the United States and Mexico. When the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848, it also transformed the trade dynamics of the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest, which now included El Pueblo. Meanwhile, the discovery of gold in California attracted fortune-seekers from across the continent. As a result of these changes, the population of El Pueblo dwindled, supplemented only by occasional wagon trains of migrants or traders passing through the area.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War, an influx of European Americans moving to and through the plains and Rocky Mountains began to place new pressures on Native Americans in the region. Hispanos from New Mexico started to establish permanent settlements in the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/san-luis-valley"><strong>San Luis Valley</strong></a> and the Arkansas River valley, while settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers in what is now southern Colorado. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Only about fifteen or twenty people were there at the time, and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. Over the next several years it was occasionally used by travelers and others in the area as a temporary shelter, but it never had any long-term occupants. As the adobe walls crumbled, a small town called Fountain City took shape on the opposite side of Fountain Creek during the gold rush of 1858–59. By 1860, a rival settlement was established on the west side of Fountain Creek near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures and adopted the name of Pueblo for their town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo soon overtook Fountain City and became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. The city succeeded for many of the same reasons that El Pueblo was originally established there, and it proved so successful that by the 1880s El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado) opened the El Pueblo History Museum, which included a full-scale replica of El Pueblo, in an old airplane hangar near the city’s Municipal Airport. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been a subject of debate for decades. The question was complicated by the movements of the Arkansas River, whose course through downtown Pueblo had shifted about one-quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado started a project to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of the adobe trading post helped them settle on a possible location under the Fariss Hotel, which was built in the early 1880s on Union Avenue south of First Street. In 1989 University of Southern Colorado anthropology professor William G. Buckles initiated a survey of the Fariss Hotel’s basement. The work yielded promising evidence, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for more extensive archaeological excavations. Buckles and his team discovered signs of the El Pueblo structure, as well as hundreds of related artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. The city and the Colorado Historical Society worked on a plan to bring the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the rediscovered El Pueblo site, and in 1992 the museum moved to a building on the same block. In 1996 the rediscovered El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>At the same time, Pueblo was developing the <strong>Historic Arkansas Riverwalk</strong> for its downtown area and included a new El Pueblo museum complex in the master plan. With the help of a gift from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the museum complex went forward and was completed in 2003. The complex occupies the block where El Pueblo was discovered and includes the El Pueblo History Museum, the William G. Buckles Archaeology Pavilion at the excavation site, and a reconstruction that resembles the original trading post.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort" hreflang="en">Bent’s Fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-posts" hreflang="en">trading posts</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/el-pueblo-museum" hreflang="en">El Pueblo Museum</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fort-pueblo" hreflang="en">Fort Pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-g-buckles" hreflang="en">William G. Buckles</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Edward Broadhead, <em>Fort Pueblo</em> (Pueblo, CO: Pueblo County Historical Society, 1981).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>William G. Buckles, “El Pueblo,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form (November 17, 1995).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Janet Lecompte, <em>Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn: The Upper Arkansas, 1832–1856</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Dianna Litvak, <em>El Pueblo History Museum: A Capsule History and Guide</em> (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 2006).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/museums/el-pueblo-history-museum">El Pueblo History Museum</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS_EL_PUEBLO.docx">El Pueblo Teacher Resource Set - Word</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="/sites/default/files/ARS_EL_PUEBLO.pdf">El Pueblo Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts">trading post</a>. It was started in 1842 where the town of Pueblo is today. Trappers, traders, mountain men, and pioneers used the trading post to exchange goods. El Pueblo was attacked by Native Americans in 1854. Then it was deserted. The city of Pueblo was built over the site. In the 1980s, anthropology students discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Trading posts were built along wagon trails in the 1830s. They were places for people to meet and exchange goods. Before trading posts were built, trappers and traders met at an annual rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail. Buffalo hides and other furs were popular items. Traders at the fort traded goods for buffalo hides from Native Americans and other trappers. They sold the hides to people in the east.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>George Simpson was a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort. In 1842 he and some friends decided to build another trading post. They chose a spot along the Arkansas River. It was seventy miles from Bent’s Fort. At that time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The location was a good one for a trading post. The Cherokee Trail and the Taos/Trappers Trail went by the post. Native American groups passed through the area. The weather in the valley was mild. The river provided water for the post.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 Hispano workers built the trading post. It was an adobe plaza, with rooms around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto a central plaza. It had no doors on the outside, so it was easier to defend. A large gate led into the central plaza.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The trading post was named El Pueblo. It means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was unusual. It was not a military fort and was not owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post. Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders all used the post. One hundred people could live at El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Many traders, trappers, and mountain men stayed at El Pueblo. Some included Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped with the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. Each trader had rooms at the post. The central plaza was used as the trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farming and ranching. Crops and animals were traded and sold. Wagon trains heading west needed supplies. In 1847 several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo on their way to Salt Lake City.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo was used less often. There was a war between Mexico and the United States. People were going to California for the Gold Rush in 1849. Fewer wagon trains were coming by El Pueblo. The population of El Pueblo declined.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The United States won the Mexican-American War in 1848. Settlers started moving to Colorado. Hispanos from New Mexico moved to the area. They started towns in the San Luis and Arkansas River Valleys. Anglo-Americans from the East streamed across the wagon trails heading west.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Native American peoples had lived on the land for centuries. They were angry about broken treaties and the number of settlers who were arriving. They began to fight the settlers. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. About twenty people were there at the time. Most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. The adobe walls crumbled. In 1860 a town was started near El Pueblo. Some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks were used to build the town. They named their new town “Pueblo.” Pueblo became the largest city along the Arkansas River. By the 1880s, El Pueblo had disappeared under the new city.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society opened the El Pueblo History Museum in Pueblo. It was located in an old airplane hangar. They named it El Pueblo to honor the trading post that once stood in the area. No one knew where the original El Pueblo was located.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at Colorado State University in Pueblo wanted to find the original site of El Pueblo. They found an old photo showing ruins of the trading post. They believed El Pueblo might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in the early 1880s. They dug into the basement of the hotel. They discovered the ruins of El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to find more of what remained of El Pueblo. The students and professors discovered parts of the El Pueblo trading post. They also found hundreds of related items like trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1992 the Colorado Historical Society moved the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the El Pueblo site. In 1996 the El Pueblo site was given a special honor. It was put on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The El Pueblo Museum moved one more time. The town of Pueblo was making the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk near the El Pueblo site. As part of the project, they built a new El Pueblo History Museum in 2003. The museum is next to the El Pueblo site. People can visit the El Pueblo History Museum and the El Pueblo site. The museum has rebuilt the original trading post so people can know what El Pueblo was like.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important trading post established in 1842. It was located where the city of Pueblo is today. The trading post was used by a diverse group of trappers, traders, and mountain men. El Pueblo was abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes. The post gradually disappeared and the city of Pueblo was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, students at Colorado State University-Pueblo discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Trading posts were built along wagon trails in the 1830s. They were established as places for people to meet and exchange goods. The trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the mountain man rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built on the Arkansas River. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail between Missouri and New Mexico. Buffalo hides and other furs were in great demand at the time. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from mountain men and Native Americans. The hides were sold to customers in the East.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 a failed delivery of buffalo hides created a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw an opportunity to establish a new trading post. Other traders joined him to build a trading post at El Pueblo.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 they decided to build this independent trading post where the Arkansas River joined Fountain Creek. The spot was about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort. At the time, the Arkansas River was the border between the United States and Mexico. The post’s location made it the closest US settlement to Taos, which was in Mexico.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The location had many advantages as a trading center. Trading routes such as the Cherokee Trail and the Taos (or Trappers) Trail ran by the site. These provided easy access to markets and trading partners. Native American groups often passed through the area as well. In addition, the valley was at a low elevation with a temperate climate, while the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown. Surviving accounts indicate that it was an adobe plaza similar to a New Mexico country house. It likely had a series of rooms arranged in a square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza. It had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The trading post was named El Pueblo, which means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was distinctive in that it was not a military fort or owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base for a diverse group of Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth stayed there. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped run the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. The traders who stayed there had a few rooms and used the central plaza as a common trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farms and ranches that developed in the area. These were started by people who had first worked as traders at the post. They sold their produce and marketed their livestock to wagon trains. In 1846–47, several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo while traveling to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to move on to other places. The Mexican-American War from 1846–48 stopped trade between the US and Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. The war transformed the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War ended, Anglo- and European Americans started moving to the plains and Rocky Mountains. Hispanos from New Mexico established permanent settlements in the San Luis and Arkansas valleys. Settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Native American people, who had lived on the land for centuries, were incensed by this influx of people. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Twenty people were there at the time and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned and the adobe walls crumbled. By 1860 a town was established near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures. They adopted the name of Pueblo for their town. Pueblo became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. The city was successful for the same reasons that El Pueblo had been successful. By 1880 El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society opened the El Pueblo History Museum. It was named El Pueblo to honor the trading post that once stood in the area. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been debated for decades. The question was complicated by changes in the course of the Arkansas River. The river through downtown Pueblo had shifted about a quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado (now Colorado State University-Pueblo) wanted to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of El Pueblo led them to believe it might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in downtown Pueblo in the early 1880s. Anthropology professor William G. Buckles surveyed the basement of the Fariss Hotel. The work appeared promising, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for an archaeological excavation. Buckles and his team discovered evidence of the El Pueblo structure. They found hundreds of artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. In 1992 the city and the Colorado Historical Society moved the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the El Pueblo site. In 1996 the El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The El Pueblo Museum moved one more time. The town of Pueblo was making the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk near the El Pueblo site. As part of the project, they built a new El Pueblo History museum in 2003. The museum is next to the El Pueblo site. People can visit the El Pueblo History Museum and the El Pueblo site. The museum has rebuilt of the original trading post so people can know what El Pueblo was like.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>El Pueblo was an important trading post established in 1842 at the site of the present-day city of Pueblo. The trading post was used by a diverse group of trappers, traders, and mountain men. El Pueblo was abandoned after an 1854 attack by Utes. The post gradually disappeared and the city of Pueblo was built over its ruins. In the 1980s, anthropology professor William G. Buckles and students at Colorado State University–Pueblo discovered the site. It is now home to History Colorado’s El Pueblo History Museum.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Trading on the Arkansas River</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>The establishment of trading posts put an end to the old fur-trading practice of the annual mountain man rendezvous. In 1833 Bent’s Fort was built on the Arkansas River east of what is now La Junta. It became an important trading post on the Santa Fé Trail between Missouri and New Mexico. Traders working at the fort acquired buffalo hides from mountain men and Cheyenne and Arapaho Native Americans. The hides were transported and sold in St. Louis.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Building an Independent Trading Post</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1842 a failed delivery of buffalo hides created a shortage in eastern markets. George Simpson, a trader who worked at Bent’s Fort, saw an opportunity to establish a new trading post. Other traders joined him to build a new trading post about seventy miles upriver from Bent’s Fort.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>They built their post where the Arkansas River joined Fountain Creek. At the time, the river was the border between the United States and Mexico. The post’s location made it the closest US settlement to Taos, Mexico. The location had many advantages as a trading center. The Cherokee Trail and the Taos (or Trappers) Trail ran by the site. These travel routes provided easy access to markets and trading partners. Native American groups often passed through the area as well. In addition, the valley was at a low elevation with a temperate climate, while the rivers promised plenty of water for agriculture.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>From May to September 1842, Hispano laborers built the trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas River. The exact shape, size, and appearance of the post are unknown. Surviving accounts indicate that it was likely an adobe plaza similar in appearance to a New Mexico country house. It likely had a series of rooms arranged in a rough square around a central courtyard. The rooms opened onto the interior plaza and had no entries on the outside, making the structure easier to defend. There was probably a large gate that allowed access to the central plaza from the side that faced the Arkansas River.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Life at El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>They named the trading post El Pueblo, which means “town” or “people” in Spanish. The post was distinctive in that it was neither a military fort nor owned by a trading company. Instead, it was an independent post that served as a base for a diverse group of Hispanic, French, Anglo, and Native American traders. It is unclear how many people lived at El Pueblo at any one time, but it could hold up to 100 residents.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Noted traders, trappers, and mountain men such as Kit Carson, Richens Wootton, and James Beckwourth stayed there while the post was active. Hispano women like Teresita Sandoval helped run the day-to-day operations of El Pueblo. The traders who stayed there had a few rooms and used the central plaza as a common trading area. The traders’ goods were laid out on blankets on the ground.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>El Pueblo became a center for farms and ranches that developed in the area. These were started by people who had first operated as traders at the post. They marketed their produce and livestock to wagon trains along the emigrant and trading trails. In 1846–47, several hundred Mormons camped near El Pueblo during the migration that eventually led them to Salt Lake City. At El Pueblo they acquired livestock and learned about irrigation and other techniques for farming in the arid West.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>End of El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In the late 1840s, El Pueblo’s resident traders began to move on to other places. The Mexican-American War from 1846–48 suppressed trade between the United States and Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. It also transformed the region by increasing US territory in the Southwest. Meanwhile, the discovery of gold in California attracted fortune-seekers from across the continent. As a result of these changes, trade declined at El Pueblo and its population dwindled.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Mexican-American War ended, European Americans started moving to the plains and Rocky Mountains. Hispanos from New Mexico established permanent settlements in the San Luis and Arkansas valleys. Settlers from the East streamed across a network of migration trails.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Native American people, who had lived on the land for centuries, were incensed by this influx of people. In 1854 Utes upset by broken treaties and poorly conducted negotiations began to skirmish with settlers in what is now southern Colorado. On Christmas Eve, 1854, the Ute chief Tierra Blanca led about fifty warriors in an attack on El Pueblo. Only about fifteen or twenty people were there at the time, and most of them were killed.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the attack, El Pueblo was abandoned. Over the next several years it was occasionally used by travelers as a temporary shelter. As the adobe walls crumbled, a small town called Fountain City took shape on the opposite side of Fountain Creek during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1858–59. By 1860 a rival settlement was established on the west side of Fountain Creek near the abandoned El Pueblo. Settlers used some of El Pueblo’s adobe bricks to build their own structures and adopted the name “Pueblo” for their town.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pueblo soon overtook Fountain City and became the dominant social and economic center along the Arkansas River. By 1880 El Pueblo had disappeared under new development.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rediscovering El Pueblo</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1959 the Colorado Historical Society (now History Colorado) opened the El Pueblo History Museum in an old airplane hangar near the city’s airport. At the time, the exact location of the original El Pueblo had been debated for decades. The question was complicated by changes in the course of the Arkansas River. The river through downtown Pueblo had shifted about a quarter mile south since the mid-1800s.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In the 1980s, students at the University of Southern Colorado (now Colorado State University-Pueblo) started a project to determine the site of El Pueblo. An 1873 photo showing the remains of El Pueblo led them to believe it might be under the Fariss Hotel. The hotel had been built in downtown Pueblo in the early 1880s. In 1989 anthropology professor William G. Buckles surveyed the basement of the Fariss Hotel. The work appeared promising, so in 1991 the city tore down the Fariss Hotel to allow for an archaeological excavation. Buckles and his team discovered evidence of the El Pueblo structures, as well as hundreds of artifacts such as trade goods, rifle balls, and stone tools.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The excavation helped spark a revival of downtown Pueblo. The city and the Colorado Historical Society worked on a plan to bring the El Pueblo History Museum closer to the rediscovered El Pueblo site. In 1992 the museum moved to a building near El Pueblo. In 1996 the rediscovered El Pueblo site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Later, Pueblo was developing the Historic Arkansas Riverwalk for its downtown area. It included a new El Pueblo museum complex in the master plan. With the help of a gift from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the museum complex was completed in 2003. The museum moved to the new site. It occupies the block where El Pueblo was discovered and includes the El Pueblo History Museum, the William G. Buckles Archaeology Pavilion at the excavation site, and a reconstruction that resembles the original trading post.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 18 Nov 2016 23:09:14 +0000 yongli 2068 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Pueblo County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG 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THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/pueblo-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Pueblo_County_0.png?itok=YjJU0FLG" width="1024" height="741" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/pueblo-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Pueblo County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Pueblo County, named for an early trading post called El Pueblo, was established in 1861 as one of the original seventeen counties of the Colorado Territory.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-15T10:03:28-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 15, 2016 - 10:03" class="datetime">Tue, 11/15/2016 - 10:03</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-county" data-a2a-title="Pueblo County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fpueblo-county&amp;title=Pueblo%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Pueblo County covers 2,398 square miles in southeast Colorado, from the southern <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> and <strong>Wet Mountains</strong> in the west to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley and <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> in the east. It is bordered by <a href="/article/el-paso-county"><strong>El Paso County</strong></a> to the north, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crowley-county"><strong>Crowley</strong></a> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero</strong></a> Counties to the east, <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/las-animas-county">Las Animas</a> </strong>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano</strong></a> Counties to the south, and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/custer-county"><strong>Custer</strong> </a>and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fremont-county"><strong>Fremont</strong></a> Counties to the west.</p> <p>Pueblo County has a population of 163,591. More than 106,000 people live in the county seat of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>—Spanish for “town” or “village”—at the confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River. <strong>Interstate 25</strong> bisects the county, running through Pueblo and <strong>Colorado City</strong> (pop. 2,193), and US Route 50 connects the farming communities of Vineland (pop. 251), <strong>Avondale</strong> (674), and Boone (339) on the Arkansas River east of Pueblo. To the southwest, at the foot of the Wet Mountains, is the community of Beulah Valley (556), and to the south lies the small town of <strong>Rye</strong> (202).</p> <p>The Pueblo County area was a Spanish possession from the sixteenth century until Mexican independence in 1821; it became one of the original seventeen counties of the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> in 1861. The city of Pueblo developed on the site of trading posts established in the 1830s and ’40s, and in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it became the industrial center of the American West.</p> <h2>Native Americans</h2> <p>Pueblo County’s earliest inhabitants included <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> peoples, as well as members of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/apishapa-phase"><strong>Apishapa</strong></a> culture, which dates from 1050 to 1450. By about 1500 the Pueblo County area was home to the Nuche or Ute people, hunter-gatherers who followed game into the high country during the summer and wintered in warmer pockets along the Front Range, such as the site of present-day Pueblo. By the mid-seventeenth century the Utes had obtained horses from the Spanish, allowing them to hunt <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> on the plains. The primary Ute bands that occupied the Pueblo County area were the Tabeguache—the people of “Tava,” or Sun Mountain (<a href="/article/pikes-peak"><strong>Pikes Peak</strong></a>)—and the Muache, the “cedar bark people.” To the east, along the Arkansas River, were villages of <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>, a semi-sedentary people who hunted&nbsp;bison and farmed corn, beans, squash, and other vegetables along the river and its tributaries.</p> <p>By the middle of the eighteenth century, the horse-mounted Comanche had driven through Colorado on their way to claiming the Arkansas River valley, which pressed up against the northern boundary of New Spain. The Utes and Comanche formed an alliance, raiding and trading in what is now southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. In 1779, somewhere between the present-day sites of Pueblo and Colorado City, <strong>Juan Bautista de Anza</strong>, the Spanish Governor of New Mexico, drove his troops into the Comanche heartland and killed the powerful Comanche leader <strong>Cuerno Verde</strong> (Greenhorn). <strong>Greenhorn Mountain</strong>, at the southwest corner of Pueblo County, is named for the fallen chief. Despite this loss, Native Americans continued to battle the Spanish as they encroached on indigenous land. The Comanche continued their march south, eventually claiming a huge swath of land in southeast Colorado, western Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.</p> <p>By the early nineteenth century, the Arapaho, another horse-mounted people who migrated from the Upper Midwest, laid claim to the present-day site of Pueblo and other lands along the foothills in what is now Pueblo County. They developed a fierce rivalry with the Nuche. Later, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> arrived on the Colorado plains and frequented the Pueblo County area.</p> <h2>Trade and Early Settlement</h2> <p>In 1806–7 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> led an American military expedition west to locate the headwaters of the Red and Arkansas Rivers. In November 1806 he reached the terminus of the Fountain River at the Arkansas, near present-day Pueblo. Before embarking on an unsuccessful climb of what is now known as Pikes Peak, Pike had his men build a log fortification just west of the confluence. About five feet tall on three sides, the breastwork was the first official American structure in what would become Colorado. The exact location of the breastwork remains unknown.</p> <p>After winning independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico opened trade relations with the United States along the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>. Threatened by the presence of the American<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong> trading post</strong></a> at <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a> farther down the Arkansas, the Mexican government issued several <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mexican-land-grants-colorado"><strong>land grants</strong></a> between 1832 and 1843 to encourage Mexican settlement of what is now southern Colorado. Two of these grants, the Nolan Grant and Vigil and St. Vrain Grant, included all the land south of the Arkansas River in present-day Pueblo County. However, Native Americans—predominantly Utes—fought against Mexican attempts to occupy these lands.</p> <p>In the 1830s and ‘40s, proximity to Bent’s Fort and Taos, New Mexico made the current site of Pueblo an attractive place for those involved in the Rocky Mountain <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. American trader and ex-military man John Gantt built Fort Cass on the site in 1833, pioneering the liquor trade in the Arkansas Valley. By 1841 Teresita Sandoval, a Mexican woman, was operating a bison farm in the area with Matthew Kinkead, an Anglo-American with whom she cohabitated until she married another Anglo man, Alexander Barclay, in 1844. In 1842 the American traders George Simpson and Robert Fisher established <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/el-pueblo"><strong>El Pueblo</strong></a>, a small trading camp dealing mostly in buffalo hides, at the present site of the city of Pueblo. The post got a boost that year when trader Charles Autobees introduced “Taos Lightning,” a popular kind of illegal liquor.</p> <p>Like other small settlements on the Arkansas at the time, El Pueblo was a preview of modern Pueblo’s cultural and ethnic diversity. Many of its approximately four dozen original residents were American men married to Mexican women, but it also attracted Utes, Arapaho, and other Native Americans. Men constantly came and went, journeying to Taos or Bent’s Fort for supplies, trading, or to repair weapons and equipment. Several large ranches, some owned by Mexicans and others by Americans, developed around the small trading nexus, and a cornfield was planted.</p> <p>American explorer <a href="/article/john-c-frémont"><strong>John C. Frémont</strong></a> stopped at El Pueblo to resupply on expeditions to the Rocky Mountains in 1843 and 1845. He returned to the Pueblo County area on another expedition in 1848, purchasing supplies farther up the Arkansas at Hardscrabble before continuing on to the Wet Mountains and Sangre de Cristos.</p> <p>South of El Pueblo, the Greenhorn settlement began in 1845 when El Pueblo co-founder John Brown set up a store near Greenhorn Creek. By January 1847 the settlement consisted of little more than a few Indian lodges and an adobe building. The 1849 California Gold Rush drew most of Greenhorn’s earliest inhabitants to the West Coast. Greenhorn was not resettled until 1870, after the establishment of the Colorado Territory and the removal of the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Ute.</p> <h2>American Era</h2> <p>In 1848 the United States acquired the Pueblo County area via the Mexican Cession at the end of the Mexican-American War. By that time the fur trade had all but ceased and the settlements in the Pueblo County area fell silent; only a few residents remained at Pueblo by the summer of 1849, the year <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> set fire to his fort farther down the Arkansas. After a brief period of resettlement in 1853, a Ute-Apache attack in 1854 killed most of the population at El Pueblo. After wiping out the inhabitants of the fort in December 1854 and making off with the settlement’s cattle and corn, a Ute party under the Muache leader Blanco was ambushed by Arapaho, reflecting the contested nature of the area.</p> <p>In response to the killings at Pueblo, the United States launched a military campaign against the Utes and their Apache allies in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. The campaign pressured the Utes into peace negotiations, and in 1855 they agreed to a treaty. Congress, however, did not ratify the agreement, and hostilities between the United States and Native Americans in the Pueblo area continued.</p> <p>Three years later, the <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> brought thousands of white fortune-seekers across the plains to the Rockies. The confluence of Fountain Creek and the Arkansas River was once again an important crossroads—this time its important connection was not south to Taos but north, via Fountain Creek, to gold diggings at <strong>Cherry Creek</strong>. A travelers’ camp called Independence sprang up on the east side of Fountain Creek, and members of the Josiah Smith prospecting party renamed it “Fountain City” when they arrived in September 1858.</p> <p>Pueblo County was established in 1861 as one of the original seventeen counties of the Colorado Territory. East of present-day Pueblo, Boone was first settled in the early 1860s, named for Colonel Albert G. Boone, owner of a local ranch and the caretaker of William Bent’s children at West Point. Boone was also known for negotiating treaties with various Indian tribes. It was also during the early 1860s that the Beulah Valley was settled by Anglo-American ranchers and farmers; at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, the valley was used as a secret gathering place for Confederate Army recruits from Colorado.</p> <p>After a period of violent encounters with whites during the gold rush and its aftermath, the Cheyenne and Arapaho were removed to Oklahoma via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge Treaty</strong></a> of 1867, and the Ute were removed to Colorado’s <a href="/article/western-slope"><strong>Western Slope</strong></a> via the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-treaty-1868"><strong>Treaty of 1868</strong></a>.</p> <p>In the wake of the destruction of the buffalo and removal of Native Americans, great cattle herds came to the Colorado plains during the 1870s. In 1869 rancher <strong>Charles Goodnight</strong>, who helped pioneer the Goodnight–Loving Trail from Texas, began grazing cattle in Pueblo County. He soon acquired a large piece of the Nolan Grant and established his ranch headquarters in Rock Canyon, west of present-day Pueblo.</p> <h2>Industrial Growth and County Development</h2> <p>The modern city of Pueblo took shape between 1872 and 1894 through the gradual merger of four separate towns: Pueblo, South Pueblo, Central Pueblo, and Bessemer. The town of Pueblo, at the site of the old trading post, was formally established in 1870. In 1872 visionary railroad builder <a href="/article/william-jackson-palmer"><strong>William Jackson Palmer</strong></a> established the town of South Pueblo along his <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad </strong>(D&amp;RG).</p> <p>Nearly every economic, cultural, and political development in Pueblo County after 1900 can be traced to one company—<a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-fuel-iron"><strong>Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron</strong></a> (CF&amp;I). To provide a steady supply of rails for the D&amp;RG, Palmer’s Colorado Coal &amp; Iron Company (CC&amp;I) built the nation’s first steel mill west of the Mississippi River in South Pueblo in 1881. Branch lines of the D&amp;RG soon sprawled west from Pueblo into the mountains, reaching all the way up the Arkansas Valley to mineral-rich <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/leadville"><strong>Leadville</strong></a>. Pueblo’s proximity to coal fields to the south, the markets of Colorado Springs and Denver to the north, and mines to the west quickly made it into a transportation hub. The Pueblo Smelting and Refining Company built the city’s first smelter in 1882, and by 1889 Pueblo had three smelters processing 400 railroad cars’ worth of gold, silver, and carbonate ore per day. By the turn of the century the city was the smelting capital of the world.</p> <p>In 1892 CC&amp;I merged with <strong>John C. Osgood</strong>’s Colorado Fuel Company to form Colorado Fuel &amp; Iron. By the time the Rockefeller family took the reins of CF&amp;I in 1904, Pueblo was well on its way to becoming the “Pittsburgh of the West.” While smoke-belching smelters converted ore from Colorado mines into thousands of ounces of gold and silver and thousands of tons of lead, the steel mill took in coal, iron ore, and limestone, pumping out rails, structural beams, nails, railroad spikes, iron castings, and other products. By 1909 CF&amp;I’s property in Pueblo was valued at a remarkable $40 million, and the company employed some 5,000 workers.</p> <p>CF&amp;I operated as a regional monopoly, exercising extraordinary power over its workforce. As a result, labor strife, whether in the city or across the state and nation, frequently disrupted its Pueblo operations. For instance, in 1903–4 Pueblo’s smelter workers joined others in Denver, <strong>Durango</strong>, and Colorado City in a statewide strike, demanding shorter work days, safer working conditions, and better pay; strikes among CF&amp;I’s coal miners elsewhere in Colorado interrupted operations again in 1913–14 and 1927.</p> <p>Beyond labor strife, Pueblo endured its share of ups and downs in the twentieth century. The city’s industrial output increased in 1917–18 to meet <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado-world-war-i"><strong>World War I </strong></a>metal demands, and some 16,000 local men went off to fight. In 1921 a <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood"><strong>devastating</strong> </a><strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood">flood</a> </strong>put some sections of Pueblo a dozen feet underwater, inundated a smelter, wrecked 600 homes, and killed hundreds of people and scores of livestock. Some 3,000 refugees had to live in tent colonies in the aftermath, but three years later the city had recovered. The Depression of the 1930s brought a lull in industrial production, but demand for metals quickly skyrocketed at the onset of World War II. With most of the city’s male population in the military, women took over many positions in the steelworks, from clerical work to manufacturing, and helped push the complex to 104 percent operating capacity. In 1942 the US government built an ordnance facility in Pueblo to receive, store, and distribute ammunition. Overall, Pueblo County’s industrial production increased from $41 million worth of materials in 1940 to more than $72 million in 1954.</p> <p>The steelworks remained busy throughout the rest of the twentieth century, although its status as the region’s most important economic engine declined with the rise of the retail trade and the collapse of the national steel industry in 1979. In 1983 the plant laid off 60 percent of its workforce, and CF&amp;I went bankrupt in 1990. Today the scaled-down steelworks are operated by Evraz Corporation as the Rocky Mountain Steel Mills.</p> <h2>Cultural Diversity</h2> <p>Pueblo’s industrial prowess in the twentieth century relied on the labor of immigrants from Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia, and Slovenia, as well as New Mexican and black workers from the United States. Among those who came from Eastern Europe were Jews fleeing the Russian pogroms of the 1880s and early twentieth century.</p> <p>With so many countries and religions represented in the same city, Pueblo became a rich cultural mosaic in the early decades of the twentieth century. But relations between and even among Pueblo’s diverse communities were not always amicable. Pueblo’s Jewish population endured a schism in the 1890s, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ku-klux-klan-colorado"><strong>Ku Klux Klan</strong></a> organized against the city’s many Catholic residents during the 1920s. By 1923 the Klan counted nearly 1,000 local members, including Pueblo County Sheriff Samuel Thomas, who took fellow Klansmen with him on liquor raids.</p> <h2>Agriculture</h2> <p>In addition to providing water for residential and industrial developments, the Arkansas River also allowed Pueblo County to develop a strong agricultural economy, bolstered by demand from Pueblo, Denver, and other cities. Agricultural production exploded between 1910 and 1920, with crop acreage expanding from 630,114 acres to 993,226 acres and livestock value rising from $1.5 million to over $4.5 million. But such huge gains in production saturated the market with agricultural products, so the value of crops fell from $4.1 million in 1920 to $2.6 million by 1930. The value of agricultural products again dropped sharply during the Great Depression.</p> <p>By 1950 ranching had surpassed farming in the county, with livestock valued at $5.2 million compared to just over $3 million for crops. In 1975 Pueblo County agriculture—as well as industry and municipal development—received a boost with the completion of the <a href="/article/bureau-reclamation-colorado"><strong>Bureau of Reclamation</strong></a>’s Fryingpan-Arkansas Project, which dammed the Fryingpan River north of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/aspen"><strong>Aspen</strong></a> and sent its water over the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/continental-divide"><strong>Continental<span style="color:#3366cc;"> <span style="background-color:#FFFFFF;">Divide</span></span></strong></a><span style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"> </span>to Pueblo County via the Arkansas River.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Agriculture remains an important part of the Pueblo County economy today. The county ranks in the top third of Colorado’s sixty-four counties in the value of its farm products; leading crops include the famous Pueblo <strong>chili&nbsp;peppers</strong>, dry edible beans, melons, potatoes, and other vegetables. About 33,000 cattle and several thousand horses, goats, and sheep are raised on county ranches. In 2015 Pueblo County officials and chile farmers began a marketing campaign to brand and promote the local peppers. The campaign met with immediate success when Colorado Whole Foods Markets announced that the company’s Colorado locations would be replacing New Mexico Hatch chiles with 125,000 Pueblo green chiles in August 2015. <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cannabis-marijuana"><strong>Cannabis</strong></a> has also become an important crop in Pueblo County, which allows the cultivation of both drug cannabis (marijuana) and hemp on agricultural and industrial properties. The county also leases water rights to cannabis producers.</p> <p>While the county’s agrarian legacy is strong among ranchers and farmers on the Arkansas, cultural diversity remains a hallmark of the city of Pueblo. About 49 percent of the city’s current residents are Latino, 2.5 percent are African American, 2.2 percent are American Indian, and another 4.1 percent are of two or more races. Between 41 and 45 percent of the population identifies as non-Hispanic whites.</p> <p>The city also continues to grapple with its industrial legacy. The defunct smelter, for instance, deposited waste rock (called slag) in a ravine between Santa Fe Avenue and the D&amp;RG tracks. These slag piles, which contain heavy concentrations of lead, remain today and pose a threat to public and environmental health. As a result, in 2014 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) declared the smelter waste area as part of a Superfund Site and began investigations to determine the contamination of the site and begin cleaning up the slag.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-county" hreflang="en">pueblo county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-history" hreflang="en">pueblo history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/city-pueblo" hreflang="en">city of pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo" hreflang="en">pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-fuel-iron" hreflang="en">colorado fuel &amp; iron</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-steelworks" hreflang="en">pueblo steelworks</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/pueblo-steel-mill" hreflang="en">pueblo steel mill</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/steelworks-center-west" hreflang="en">Steelworks Center of the West</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/beulah-valley" hreflang="en">beulah valley</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/1921-pueblo-flood" hreflang="en">1921 pueblo flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river-flood-1921" hreflang="en">arkansas river flood 1921</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/el-pueblo" hreflang="en">el pueblo</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bojon-town" hreflang="en">bojon town</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-jackson-palmer" hreflang="en">william jackson palmer</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/avondale" hreflang="en">avondale</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boone" hreflang="en">boone</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Carl Abbott, Stephen Leonard, and David McComb, <em>Colorado: A History of the Centennial State</em>, 3rd ed. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1994).</p> <p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing For Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War </em>(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p> <p>Beulah Historical Society, <em>From Mace’s Hole, the Way it Was, to Beulah, the Way it Is: A Comprehensive History of Beulah, Colorado </em>(Colorado Springs, CO: Century One Press, 1979).</p> <p>Wade Broadhead, “<a href="https://county.pueblo.org/">History of Pueblo</a>,” Pueblo County, n.d.</p> <p>James Brooke, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/29/us/pittsburgh-of-the-west-is-made-of-more-than-steel.html">Pittsburgh of the West Is Made of More Than Steel</a>,” <em>New York Times</em>, December 29, 1997.</p> <p>City of Pueblo, “<a href="http://www.pueblo.us/DocumentCenter/View/3218">Ethnicity Map</a>,” 2010.</p> <p>Joanne W. Dodds and Edwin L. Dodds, <em>They All Came to Pueblo: A Social History </em>(Virginia Beach, VA: Donning Co., 1994).</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>Cheryl Johnson Huban, “<a href="https://www.greenhornvalleyview.com/index.asp?linkID=63&amp;amp;itemID=9320">Before Colorado City</a>,” Greenhorn Valley View, July 28, 2014.</p> <p>Cheryl Johnson Huban, “<a href="https://www.greenhornvalleyview.com/index.asp?linkID=63&amp;amp;itemID=7212">George Sears and the Greenhorn Settlement</a>,” Greenhorn Valley View, January 23, 2012.</p> <p>Janet Lecompte, <em>Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn </em>(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978).</p> <p>Anthony A. Mestas, “<a href="https://www.chieftain.com/special/marijuana/4613593-120/pueblo-county-marijuana-measure/">Petition seeks ballot measure to ban retail pot in Pueblo County</a>,” <em>Pueblo Chieftain</em>, April 1 2016.</p> <p>Colleen O’Connor, “<a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2015/08/13/colorados-chile-farmers-promote-pueblo-green-chiles/">Colorado’s chile farmers promote Pueblo green chiles</a>,” <em>The Denver Post</em>, August 14, 2015.</p> <p>Barry Pritzker, <em>A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples </em>(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).</p> <p>Pueblo County, “<a href="https://pueblochile.org/">The Pueblo Chile</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Ed Quillen, “<a href="https://www.csindy.com/coloradosprings/welcome-to-kolorado-klan-kountry/content/?oid=1119033">Welcome to Kolorado, Klan Kountry</a>,” <em>Colorado Springs Independent</em>, May 22, 2003.</p> <p>Martha Quillen, “<a href="https://www.cozine.com:8443/2001-december/mexican-land-grants-in-colorado">Mexican Land Grants in Colorado</a>,” <em>Colorado Central Magazine</em>, December 1, 2001.</p> <p>David A. Sandoval, <em>Spanish/Mexican Legacy of Latinos in Pueblo County </em>(Pueblo, CO: Pueblo City-Council Library District, 2012).</p> <p>Jared Orsi, <em>Citizen Explorer: The Life of Zebulon Pike </em>(New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).</p> <p>Phillip Merle Sarver, “Historical Influences on the Economy of Pueblo, Colorado” (PhD Dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1973).</p> <p>Pueblo County, “<a href="https://county.pueblo.org/government/county/department/city-county-health-department/colorado-smelter">Lead Program</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>Virginia McConnell Simmons, <em>The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico</em> (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).</p> <p>Steve Segin and Jennifer Cordova, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/NRSR/5PE5346.pdf">Squirrel Creek Recreational Unit</a>,” US Department of the Interior, National Park Service Form 10-900 (Denver: History Colorado, 2004).</p> <p>Kelly Sommariva, “<a href="https://www.9news.com/article/story/news/2014/06/02/june-3-1921-pueblo-flood/9873227/">This week in 1921: The flood that nearly sank Pueblo</a>,” 9News, June 2, 2014.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/the-colorado-fuel-and-iron-company/cfi-timeline">CF&amp;I Timeline</a>,” updated March 16, 2016.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/immigrant-employees-of-the-cfi/chapter-1">The Mines of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company</a>,” updated July 1, 2015.</p> <p>Steelworks Center of the West, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/the-colorado-fuel-and-iron-company/index-1">Women of WWII</a>,” updated April 25, 2016.</p> <p>Jim Trotter, “<a href="https://aeronauticsonline.com/">Destruction of Mustard gas Weapons in Pueblo is Said to Be Underway</a>,” <em>Rocky Mountain PBS</em>, March 23, 2015.</p> <p>US Bureau of Reclamation, “<a href="http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Fryingpan-Arkansas+Project#Group468530">Fryingpan-Arkansas Project</a>,” updated April 4, 2013.</p> <p>US Census, “<a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/RHI725214/0862000,08101">Quickfacts: Pueblo city</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Pueblo County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p> <p>US Environmental Protection Agency, “<a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0802700">EPA Superfund Program: Colorado Smelter, Pueblo, CO</a>,” updated April 20, 2016.</p> <p>Joel Warner, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/47.14/the-silicon-valley-of-marijuana">The Silicon Valley of Marijuana</a>,” <em>High Country News</em>, August 17, 2015.</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="http://www.pueblo.us/">City of Pueblo</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="http://riversofsteel.com/education/csu-pueblo-student-projects/">CSU Pueblo and Steelworks Center of the West Digital Humanities Projects</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey DeHerrera and Charlene Garcia-Sims, “<a href="https://www.pueblolibrary.org/EastsideHistoryWall">Pueblo’s East Side History</a>,” Pueblo City-County Library, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jeffrey DeHerrera and Adam Thomas, “<a href="https://www.historycolorado.org/sites/default/files/files/OAHP/Programs/CLG_Survey_PuebloEastSide2009.pdf">A Place Set Apart: The History and Architecture of Pueblo’s East Side Neighborhood</a>,” Historitecture, 2009.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jordan Everhart, Gary Dixon, Stephanie Armijo, and Thomas Sloan, “<a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/1921-the-great-flood/home">1921: The Great Pueblo Flood</a>,” Steelworks Center of the West, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://county.pueblo.org/">Pueblo County</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p><a href="https://riversofsteel.com/">Steelworks Center of the West</a></p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Nov 2016 17:03:28 +0000 yongli 2055 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Prowers County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prowers-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2052--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2052.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prowers-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prowers_County_0.png?itok=vBp1nSCW" width="1024" height="741" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prowers-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Prowers County, named for one of Colorado's prominent early ranchers, is located along the Arkansas River in southeast Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2674--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2674.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/prowers-county-google-map"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Prowers_County_Google_Map_0.jpg?itok=ubPmMEzf" width="1000" height="1068" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/prowers-county-google-map" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Prowers County Google Map</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p><span style="color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.87); font-family:roboto,arial,sans-serif">Prowers County is one of the 64 counties in the U.S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,551. The county seat is Lamar.</span></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-15T08:57:22-07:00" title="Tuesday, November 15, 2016 - 08:57" class="datetime">Tue, 11/15/2016 - 08:57</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/prowers-county" data-a2a-title="Prowers County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fprowers-county&amp;title=Prowers%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Prowers County covers 1,644 square miles of the <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and <a href="/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> valley in southeastern Colorado. The rectangular county is bordered to the north by <a href="/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a>, to the east by the state of Kansas, to the south by <a href="/article/baca-county"><strong>Baca County</strong></a>, and to the west by <a href="/search/google/bent%20county"><strong>Bent County</strong></a>. Prowers County has a population of 11,954. More than 7,800 live in the county seat of <strong>Lamar</strong>, in western Prowers County on the south bank of the Arkansas, at the intersection of US Highways 50 and 385. Other communities include <strong>Holly</strong> (pop. 1,048), <strong>Granada</strong> (640), <strong>Wiley</strong> (405), and <strong>Hartman</strong> (110), as well as the smaller unincorporated communities of Bristol, Carlton, and Kornman. In eastern Prowers County, US Highways 50, 400, and 385 converge in Granada, while State Highway 89 runs south from Holly.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prowers County was formed in 1889 and named after <strong>John W. Prowers</strong>, an early rancher in the area. Once the hunting and wintering grounds of many nomadic indigenous peoples, the Prowers County area officially became part of the United States in 1803. In the late nineteenth century, the arrival of railroads led to the development of agriculture and towns. In the twentieth century the county became an important center of the<strong> <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry">sugar beet industry</a></strong>, centered on the factory in Holly. During World War II the county was the site of Granada Relocation Center, also known as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Amache</strong></a>, one of ten internment camps that held Japanese American citizens for the duration of the war. Today, Prowers County is one of the most productive agricultural counties in the state.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Native Americans</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado’s lower Arkansas River valley has a long history of human occupation. The river became the aquatic anchor for nomadic <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a>, <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>-period peoples who followed the massive <strong>bison</strong> herds across the plains. Limited agriculture along the river began during the Formative period (1000 BC–AD 1450) and continued through the arrival of the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> in the seventeenth century. The Jicarilla, or Plains Apache, were a semi-sedentary people who cultivated gardens of corn, beans, and squash along the river banks. <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-1590%E2%80%931790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> trekked into what is now southeastern Colorado in the sixteenth century, but they only made it as far as the Purgatoire River, an Arkansas tributary that meets the main river west of Prowers County.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the 1720s the <strong>Comanche</strong> used the power of the horse to drive the semi-sedentary Plains Apache from the Arkansas River valley. At this time the Prowers County area was in the heart of an expanding Comanche territory that ran north and south between the Arkansas and <strong>Cimarron</strong> Rivers, and stretched from the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Mountains</strong> in the west to what is today south-central Kansas in the east. The Comanche built their empire, known as <em>Comanchería</em>, on the backs of massive horse herds. They hunted bison and raided or traded with other Indian peoples and the Spanish for grains, weapons, and other supplies. In 1739 two French <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur traders</strong></a>, the brothers Pierre and Paul Mallet, camped in the dense <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/cottonwood-trees"><strong>cottonwood</strong></a> stand near present-day Lamar known as <strong>Big Timbers</strong>. The brothers did some trading with Indians (possibly Jicarilla Apache or Comanche) and spent several days in the area before moving on toward Santa Fé.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Comanche occasionally clashed with the <strong>Arapaho</strong>, another nomadic plains people who arrived north of the Arkansas in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Other native peoples in the Prowers County area by the nineteenth century included the <strong>Kiowa </strong>and <strong>Cheyenne</strong>. In 1803, while still under Comanche control, the area was claimed by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Early American Era</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1806 the American explorer <a href="/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> traversed the Prowers County area as he followed the Arkansas River to the site of modern-day <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>. After 1821 the area was part of the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a>, a trade route that linked New Mexico and Missouri. In 1833 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> established a fur–<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> along the trail, about fifty miles west of the current Prowers County line. <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, as the post was known, turned the Arkansas Valley into the hub of the nineteenth-century <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. At Bent’s Fort, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and later Comanche Indians swapped bison hides for weapons and other supplies. The regional fur trade prospered until the mid-1840s, when epidemics and droughts wracked native communities and the buffalo herds began to dwindle. William Bent demolished his fort in 1849 and moved it farther down the Arkansas, where he hoped to continue trading with Native Americans.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of white Americans to the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, leading to the development of supply towns such as <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and <strong>Old</strong> <strong>Colorado City</strong>. In 1861 the US government established the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a>, in which the current area of Prowers County was included as part of a larger <a href="/article/huerfano-county"><strong>Huerfano County</strong></a>. That same year the government also brokered the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>, which sought to confine the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a small reservation in eastern Colorado. The reservation included parts of present-day Prowers County. In 1862 the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> offered the Indians’ land to white settlers, who began setting up farms and ranches near the territory’s young cities and along the stagecoach lines that guided immigrants across the plains. In 1867 the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge</strong> <strong>Treaty</strong></a> led to the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to present-day Oklahoma.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1868 John Prowers, a former employee of William Bent, set up a farm in <a href="/article/boggsville"><strong>Boggsville</strong></a>, in present-day Bent County. Prowers went on to serve in the territorial legislature and, after Colorado became a state in 1876, the state legislature. Owing to his commitment to breeding quality cattle stock, Prowers became one of the most successful ranchers in southeast Colorado. In 1861 Prowers married <strong>Amache</strong>, the daughter of the Cheyenne chief <strong>Ochinee</strong>. He began acquiring cattle in 1862, and by 1881 his herd numbered more than 10,000. Prowers expanded his ranch by buying prime grazing land along the Arkansas from the half-Indian children of prominent local whites; the children were awarded the land after the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek Massacre</strong> </a>in 1864. Prowers died in 1884, but his son, John Jr., continued the family’s ranching business.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Prowers was far from the only cattleman in the area. <strong>Hiram S. Holly</strong>, owner of several quartz mills in the Rocky Mountains, bought 1,300 cattle and set up his ranch in what is now eastern Prowers County in 1871. To get around the Homestead Act’s 160-acre limit, Holly made deals with cowboys to file for claims on the surrounding land and turn them over to him. By 1881 Holly had thirty miles of waterfront land on the Arkansas and 15,000 head of cattle. The Holly Ranch became a headquarters for employees and local trading, and a community developed around it that would eventually become the town of Holly.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Settlement and Development</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>In 1873—as the herds of Prowers, Holly, and other ranchers roamed the Arkansas Valley—the <strong>Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé Railroad </strong>(AT&amp;SF) arrived in what is now Prowers County. That year the railroad established Granada, east of the town’s current site, and after a few weeks its population had grown to nearly 375.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The arrival of the railroad brought an end to the days of the cattle drive, as cattle could now be freighted across the country. By the mid-1880s the Arkansas Valley Land Company had acquired the Holly Ranch and expanded it to 2.5 million acres. But huge cattle losses during intense blizzards in the winters of 1885–86 and 1886–87 nearly wiped out the entire cattle industry in southeast Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the railroad had initiated a land rush in the Arkansas Valley, as homesteaders and town builders sought to carve out their piece of what was expected to be a highly productive area. The AT&amp;SF had hoped that Granada would host a land office for the boom, but when Granada’s developers rejected their proposal, the railroad and its partners turned to successful Kansas real estate promoter I. R. Holmes. In 1885 Holmes identified a site for a new land office on the south bank of the Arkansas River, along the AT&amp;SF tracks and between the sprawling Prowers Ranch and the A. R. Black Ranch.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Holmes named the site Lamar, after then-Secretary of the Interior L.Q.C. Lamar. The site’s only problem was that the nearest train station was located on Amos R. Black’s ranch four miles away, and Black would neither allow the station to be moved nor sell the land around it. Holmes and his partners remedied this by tricking Black into boarding a train to Pueblo on the afternoon of May 22, 1886. While Black was gone, a work crew arrived at his station overnight, detached the building from its foundation stones, hauled it back to Lamar, and reinstalled it there. When Black returned, his train stopped at the newly relocated station, and the infuriated rancher had to make his own way home.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By the end of its first week of development, Lamar had a general store and lumber yard, as well as several saloons and land offices. After two months it had more than 100 residences, a restaurant, and a newspaper, the <em>Bent County Register </em>(later renamed the <em>Lamar Register </em>in 1889).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The year 1886 was a busy one for what would become Prowers County. As Lamar developed, the towns of Carlton and New Granada—on the site of present Granada—were founded, and the Wild Horse Creek community, a group of homesteads, was established near present-day Holly. The small community of Bristol built up on a homestead established by George Stabe in 1887. Families also began to develop the land around Lamar. The Wiley area, for example, began as a collection of homesteads north of Lamar in the late 1880s and grew consistently throughout the 1890s. The post office there went through several names, including Martynia and Empire Valley, before it became Wiley in 1907.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>With the development of Lamar and other towns in southeastern Colorado, it soon became necessary to break up Bent County into smaller counties. In 1889 the state legislature shrank Bent County to its current size, dividing the rest of the land into Prowers, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero</strong></a>, and Kiowa Counties, as well as parts of present <a href="/article/cheyenne-county"><strong>Cheyenne</strong></a> and <a href="/article/lincoln-county"><strong>Lincoln</strong></a> Counties.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The Lamar Board of Trade sought to ease any concerns about farming in the county in its 1892 pamphlet “Prowers County, Colorado: Its Advantages and Attractions.” Like other booster literature of the day, the pamphlet described its subject in Edenic terms, calling Prowers County’s segment of the Arkansas “the most fertile valley in America” and “the great American garden.” For any reader anxious about finding quality land without adequate water, the pamphlet reassuringly stated that “in this country nearly all the lands have water rights attached.” It also provided a brief overview of the county’s many <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> ditches, including Lamar’s Bed Rock canal, the Amity canal, and others.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>It is not known whether Salvation Army officials read the Lamar Board of Trade’s pamphlet, but the organization nevertheless had a similarly rosy outlook for Prowers County. As part of its plan to fight poverty by organizing farm colonies for the urban poor, the Salvation Army established Fort Amity, six miles west of Holly, in 1898. Between thirty and thirty-five families made up the colony’s initial residents, and the population expanded over the next decade to include Mexican, Japanese, and Mormon families, as well as several dozen orphans brought from New Jersey in 1901. Eventually, however, the small size of its family farms, along with salty soil caused by improper drainage, brought an end to the colony in 1910.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Meanwhile, the Holly Sugar Corporation was formed in 1905 and built a beet processing factory on the west end of Holly later that year. The Holly factory, one of several built along the Arkansas in the early twentieth century, helped catapult the valley into the booming <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry">sugar beet industry</a>. Holly’s factory got off to a bit of a rough start, as disgruntled Japanese workers dynamited the building in 1906 a day after they were fired; surprisingly, no injuries were reported, and the company quickly repaired the factory and resumed operation. Initially, Japanese and German-Russian laborers worked the beet fields. As those workers transitioned into farm owners, beet farmers began employing migrant Mexican workers, some of whom made permanent homes in the county.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>By 1910 Prowers County had grown to a population of more than 9,500, and local farmers and ranchers had erased any doubts about the county’s agricultural promise. Nearly 1,000 farms covered more than a million acres, including 5,520 acres of sugar beets, the area’s newest cash crop. The county’s farm property had a cumulative value of more than $13 million. While war and economic troubles loomed ahead, Prowers County residents had built a solid foundation that they hoped would endure throughout the next century and beyond.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Twentieth-Century Changes</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>For most people in eastern Colorado, the 1920s was a prosperous decade, a bountiful run-up to the hardship of the market crash in 1929 and the ensuing <strong>Great Depression</strong>. But for many in southeastern Colorado, the hard times began with a cloudburst in early June 1921. Inundated by heavy rains in the Pueblo area from June 2–5, the Arkansas River surged out of its banks in one of the most devastating <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado"><strong>floods</strong></a> in Colorado history. While the city of Pueblo bore the brunt of the flood, the deluge continued downriver. The river in Lamar began to rise about 4 am on June 5, destroying buildings, bridges, and farmland. Altogether, the flood killed hundreds of people and caused more than $25 million in damage from Pueblo to the Kansas state line. Rebuilding began almost immediately; by July 1, workers had already repaired the railroad bridge at Lamar, and crews were busy rebuilding the town’s other bridges.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The flood devastated agriculture in the county, as the number of farms dropped from 1,469 in 1920 to 1,194 in 1925. Then, Prowers County was hit hard by the Great Depression and <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> of the 1930s. The number of farms reporting crop failure skyrocketed from just 178 in 1929 to 1,133 in 1934. As banks and farms failed, many residents left to make a new start elsewhere. More than 2,400 people left the county between 1930 and 1940, most of them looking to make a new start elsewhere.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the US government began relocating Japanese Americans, especially those on the West Coast, to inland concentration camps. One of these facilities, the <a href="/article/granada-war-relocation-center-amache"><strong>Granada Relocation Center</strong></a>, was built just southwest of Granada in June 1942. The 10,500-acre facility held a peak population of more than 7,500 Japanese American citizens. Initially, detainees’ mail arrived through the Granada post office, but there was so much mail that the center had to create its own post office and name. It was named Amache, after John Prowers’s Cheyenne wife.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Amache residents lived in military-style barracks with rudimentary furnishings and ate together in cafeterias. The camp featured a hospital, schools, churches, men’s and women’s clubs, a movie theater, and other amenities, and detainees were allowed to run their own cooperative businesses that served the camp as well as residents from local communities. In January 1945 the detainment order expired, and most detainees left the facility by October. Amache officially closed on January 27, 1946, after its buildings were auctioned off. The Amache site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 18, 1994. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on February 10, 2006.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>While the internment of loyal Japanese American citizens demonstrated an ugly side of the World War II era, the revived demand for agricultural products allowed the Prowers County economy to rebound after two dismal decades. The value of all crops grown in the county rose from just over $1 million in 1940 to more than $5.3 million by 1945, and the county population reached an all-time high of 14,836 by 1950.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The decades following World War II saw innovations in agriculture, including machinery and chemicals that allowed for larger yields. Combines, fertilizers, pesticides, and other new farm inputs allowed for larger farms, but they also encouraged the consolidation of farmland by those who could afford those inputs. This trend is reflected in Prowers County, where between 1950 and 1970 the number of farms dropped from 1,126 to 669, and the average farm size increased from 887 acres to 1,379 acres.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Economics and politics were not the only forces to re-shape the Prowers County landscape after World War II. On June 18, 1965, the Arkansas flooded again; this time, instead of Pueblo County, Prowers County was the hardest hit, as the deluge killed 6 people, injured 150, and damaged more than 1,300 structures. The National Guard was called in to help rebuild and relieve dislocated families. Afterward, the towns of Holly, Grenada, and Lamar worked with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to upgrade levees on the Arkansas, in hopes of avoiding a similar catastrophe.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In June 2015 the Prowers County Historical Society hosted a Fiftieth Anniversary observance of the 1965 flood, in which survivors shared memories of waking up to torrents of water in homes, crowding into surviving buildings, and watching the currents carry away cars, propane tanks, feed bunkers, and other elements of their livelihood.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Today</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Today, Prowers County remains one of Colorado’s most productive agricultural counties. Its herd of more than 102,500 cattle is the sixth-largest out of all counties in the state, and the county is one of the top ten producers of sorghum, poultry and eggs, hogs and pigs, and vegetables (including melons and potatoes). The agricultural trends that began after World War II are still unfolding in Prowers County, as the average farm size increased by 200 acres between 2007 and 2012.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>The county also remains prone to natural disasters, including floods, droughts, and damaging storms. The most destructive weather event in recent decades came in March 2007, when a tornado ripped a two-mile swath of destruction through Holly. The storm killed two people, injured eight, and leveled forty-eight buildings.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Though it is the most important industry, agriculture is not the only job provider in Prowers County. The healthcare and social assistance industry, anchored by Prowers Medical Center in Lamar, provides more than 800 jobs, and the county’s retail industry adds another 650–700.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prowers-county" hreflang="en">prowers county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/prowers-county-history" hreflang="en">prowers county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/lamar" hreflang="en">Lamar</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southeastern-colorado" hreflang="en">southeastern colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/holly" hreflang="en">Holly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/granada" hreflang="en">granada</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/amache" hreflang="en">amache</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/john-w-prowers-0" hreflang="en">john w prowers</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/hiram-holly" hreflang="en">hiram holly</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-beet-industry" hreflang="en">sugar beet industry</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p><a href="https://amache.org/amache-preservation-society/">Amache Preservation Society</a></p>&#13; &#13; <p>Russ Baldwin, “<a href="https://archives.theprowersjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/BOW-and-Yard-Sale-Combined-7-1-15.pdf">Survivors Recap 1965 Flood at Historical Society Meeting</a>,” <em>The Prowers Journal</em> 5, no. 20 (July 1, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ava Betz, <em>A Prowers County History </em>(Lamar, CO: Big Timbers Museum, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Charles W. Bowman, “<a href="http://www.coloradoplains.com/otero/history/bent1881_bio39.htm">Hon. John W. Prowers</a>,” Otero County Genealogy and History, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Colorado Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, “<a href="https://www.dhsem.state.co.us:443/sites/default/files/After%20Action%20Report%20Holly%20Tornado%20March%202007.pdf">After Action Report, Holly Tornado</a>,” 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Data USA, “<a href="https://datausa.io/profile/geo/prowers-county-co/">Prowers County, CO</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Edward E. Jones, “<a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0487/report.pdf">The Arkansas River Flood of June 3-5, 1921</a>,” US Geological Survey (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Lamar Board of Trade, “Prowers County, Colorado: Its Advantages and Attractions” (Lamar, CO: Lamar Board of Trade, 1892).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tommy Schemp, “<a href="https://digarch.unco.edu/islandora/object/cogru%3A1334">Fort Amity: An Experiment in Domiculture</a>” (Master’s thesis, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Prowers County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/censusParts.do?year=1890">Colorado, Contd.</a>,” US Census of Agriculture (1890).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Reports by states with statistics for counties California – D.C.</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 6, Part 1 (1910).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="http://agcensus.mannlib.cornell.edu/AgCensus/getVolumeOnePart.do?year=1925&amp;part_id=827&amp;number=41&amp;title=Colorado">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1925).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1934).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41 (1945).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Statistics for the State &amp; Statistics for Counties-Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 29: Wyoming and Colorado (1950).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41, Chapter 2 (1969).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=KCP19210701.2.6&amp;srpos=4&amp;e=--1921---1923--en-20--1--txt-txIN-lamar+flood-------0-">Working on River Bridge at Lamar</a>,” <em>Kiowa County Press</em>, July 1, 1921.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Frederic J. Athearn, <em>Land of Contrast: A History of Southeast Colorado </em>(Denver: Bureau of Land Management, 1985).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Rocky Mountain PBS, <a href="https://video.rmpbs.org/video/2365030024/">"Amache 1-Hour Special,"</a> <em>Colorado Experience</em>, June 20, 2013.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/cgi-bin/colorado?a=d&amp;d=YPI19021219.2.41">The Salvation Army in Southeastern Colorado</a>,” <em>Yuma Pioneer</em>, December 19, 1902.</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Tue, 15 Nov 2016 15:57:22 +0000 yongli 2053 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Crowley County http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crowley-county <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Crowley County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--2030--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--2030.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/crowley-county"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Crowley%20County%20Media%202_0.jpg?itok=6XXn14Rn" width="640" height="463" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/crowley-county" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Crowley County</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Crowley County, located along the Arkansas River in southeast Colorado, was established in 1890.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-11-04T16:15:33-06:00" title="Friday, November 4, 2016 - 16:15" class="datetime">Fri, 11/04/2016 - 16:15</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/crowley-county" data-a2a-title="Crowley County"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fcrowley-county&amp;title=Crowley%20County"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Formed in 1911, Crowley County covers 800 square miles on Colorado’s southeastern <a href="/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> near the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a>. It is bordered to the north by <a href="/article/lincoln-county"><strong>Lincoln County</strong></a>, to the east by <a href="/article/kiowa-county"><strong>Kiowa County</strong></a>, to the south by <a href="/article/otero-county"><strong>Otero County</strong></a>, and to the west by <a href="/article/pueblo-county"><strong>Pueblo County</strong></a>. A heavily agricultural county, Crowley County has a population of 5,823. More than 1,000 live in the county seat of <strong>Ordway</strong>, at the intersection of State Highways 71 and 96. Other communities include <strong>Sugar City</strong>, <strong>Crowley</strong>, and <strong>Olney Springs</strong>.</p> <p>Crowley County was formed in 1890 out of a need for an administrative center that would serve residents of then-Otero County who lived north of the Arkansas. The county area was once the hunting and wintering ground of many native peoples, including the <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Cheyenne</strong>, and <strong>Arapaho</strong>. After the removal of these peoples in the late 1860s, white ranchers arrived, and town builders followed with the railroads that were built through the Arkansas Valley in the 1880s. Crowley County became a significant producer of melons, <a href="/article/sugar-beet-industry"><strong>sugar beets</strong></a>, and other crops during the twentieth century, and today it is one of Colorado’s top producers of cattle and sorghum.</p> <h2>Native Americans</h2> <p>Colorado’s lower Arkansas River valley has a long history of human habitation. The river became the aquatic anchor for nomadic <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a>, <a href="/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a>, and <a href="/article/formative-period-prehistory"><strong>Formative</strong></a>-period peoples who followed the massive <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> herds across the plains. Limited agriculture along the river began during the formative period (1000 BC–AD 1450) and continued through the arrival of the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong> in the seventeenth century. The Jicarilla, or Plains Apache, were a semi-sedentary people who cultivated gardens of corn, beans, and squash along the river bank. <a href="/article/spanish-exploration-southeastern-colorado-1590%E2%80%931790"><strong>Spanish explorers</strong></a> trekked into what is now southeastern Colorado in the sixteenth century, but they only made it as far as the Purgatoire River, a tributary of the Arkansas just southeast of today’s Crowley County.</p> <p>By the 1720s the <strong>Comanche</strong> drove the semi-sedentary Plains Apache from the Arkansas River valley. At this time the Crowley County area was in the heart of an expanding Comanche territory that ran north and south between the Arkansas and <strong>Cimarron</strong> Rivers, and stretched from the <strong>Sangre de Cristo Mountains</strong> in the west to what is today south-central Kansas in the east. The Comanche built their empire, known as <em>Comanchería</em>, on the backs of horse herds. They hunted bison and raided or traded with other Indian peoples and the Spanish for grains, weapons, and other supplies. The Comanche occasionally clashed with the Arapaho, another nomadic plains people who arrived north of the Arkansas in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Other native peoples frequenting the Crowley County area by the nineteenth century included the Kiowa<strong> </strong>and Cheyenne. In 1803, while still under Comanche control, the area was claimed by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase.</p> <h2>From Fur Traders to Ranchers</h2> <p>In 1806 the American explorer <a href="/article/zebulon-montgomery-pike"><strong>Zebulon Pike</strong></a> traversed the Crowley County area as he followed the Arkansas River to modern-day <a href="/article/pueblo"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>. In 1833 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> established a fur-<a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading post</strong></a> on the Arkansas near present-day <strong>La Junta</strong>, southeast of what is now Crowley County. <a href="/article/bents-forts"><strong>Bent’s Fort</strong></a>, as the post was known, lay along the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a> and turned the Arkansas Valley into the hub of the nineteenth-century <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. At Bent’s Fort, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and later Comanche Indians swapped bison hides for weapons and other supplies. The regional fur trade prospered until the mid-1840s, when epidemics and drought wracked native communities and caused the buffalo herds to dwindle. William Bent demolished his fort in 1849 and moved it farther up the Arkansas, where he hoped to continue trading with Native Americans.</p> <p>The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush</strong></a> of 1858–59 brought thousands of white Americans to the <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>, leading to the development of supply towns such as <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> and <strong>Old</strong> <strong>Colorado City</strong>. In 1861 the US government established the <a href="/article/colorado-territory"><strong>Colorado Territory</strong></a> and brokered the <a href="/article/treaty-fort-wise"><strong>Treaty of Fort Wise</strong></a>, which sought to confine the Cheyenne and Arapaho to a small reservation in eastern Colorado. In 1862 the <a href="/article/homestead"><strong>Homestead Act</strong></a> offered the Indians’ former land to whites, who began setting up farms and ranches near the territory’s young cities and along the stagecoach lines that guided immigrants across the plains. In 1867 the <a href="/article/medicine-lodge-treaties"><strong>Medicine Lodge</strong> <strong>Treaty</strong></a> led to the removal of the Cheyenne and Arapaho to present-day Oklahoma.</p> <p>These events set the stage for the development of ranching in present-day Crowley County. In 1875–76, around the time Colorado became a state, a stagecoach stop named Spring Bottom Station operated near present-day Olney Springs. The station was named for a natural spring that flowed out of a nearby bluff. Ranchers such as John Cowden and George Dennis grazed herds near the station, driving them north to market in Denver. Ranching continued into the 1880s, when the railroads arrived and spurred the development of what would become Otero and Crowley Counties.</p> <h2>Development</h2> <p>The Missouri Pacific Railroad (MP), formerly the Pueblo &amp; State Line Railroad, laid track through present-day Crowley County in 1887 on its way to Pueblo. The railroad set up a water tank near the spring that supplied the old Spring Bottom Station, and the town of Olney Springs developed around the tank in 1887. In 1889 the fledgling town became part of the newly established Otero County. The town of Ordway, named after local homesteader and Denver businessman George N. Ordway, was established in 1890.</p> <p>In 1889 <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/irrigation-colorado"><strong>irrigation</strong></a> investor <strong>Theodore C. Henry</strong> began construction on the Colorado Canal, a ditch that diverted <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a> from Bob Creek, a tributary of the Arkansas, to farmland in what is now southern Crowley County. Henry quickly sold the canal to the Colorado Land and Water Company, which set up its headquarters in Ordway. By 1892 former ranchers and new homesteaders were setting up farms on newly irrigated land. Early crops included melons, alfalfa, and sugar beets. The Colorado Canal eventually irrigated some 56,000 acres in what is now southern Crowley County.</p> <p>The irrigated farmland around Ordway made the town into a commercial hub, and it incorporated in 1900. By then the town featured a grain mill and elevator, a Methodist Episcopal church, a saloon and pool hall, and a lumberyard. The First National Bank of Ordway and a newspaper, the<em> Ordway New Era</em>, opened for business in 1902. One of the largest farms near Ordway was the Boston Farm, a 5,400-acre operation that featured a twenty-five room farmhouse built with eastern capital. The farm was the first mail stop in the Ordway area, and many of the horses raised there were shipped to South Africa, where they served the British Army. After 1910, the Boston Farm began to be broken up and sold as smaller farms.</p> <p>In 1899 the National Beet Sugar Company established Sugar City as the site for its new beet processing factory. The factory was completed in 1900, and in June of that year Sugar City incorporated. By October it was the fastest-growing town in Otero County, featuring two hotels, five general stores, two brothels, five saloons, a casino, a pool hall, ping pong parlor, a race track, and a newspaper, the <em>Saccharine Gazette</em>.</p> <p>As the beet factory hummed in Sugar City and Ordway served a growing number of farmers and ranchers, the formation of a separate county became an increasingly logical proposition. The increase in commercial activity north of the Arkansas necessitated more trips to the Otero County offices in La Junta, but a lack of bridges turned those routine business trips into arduous, time-consuming journeys. The state legislature rejected the formation of a new county in 1909, but in 1911, with the help of state senator John H. Crowley of <strong>Rocky Ford</strong>, the legislature established Crowley County. After a bitter fight with Sugar City, Ordway was named county seat. The county’s first courthouse was built in 1915.</p> <p>Meanwhile, the Colorado Farm and Livestock Company had staked out a town about five miles west of Ordway around 1910. The town was named Bradbury until January 1913, when it was officially renamed Crowley in honor of the senator. Crowley became another agricultural hub—by 1919 it featured a hay mill, canning factory, beet dump, stockyard, and three storage sheds for the local melon crop. The community of Numa, which boomed along with the railroad in the early twentieth century, played a similar role, hosting a beet dump and melon storage sheds. Near the railroad siding at King Center, about a mile east of Olney Springs, apple orchards thrived until blight wiped them out in the 1930s. By 1930 Crowley County had 328,000 acres, or 63.5 percent of its land, under cultivation. This included more than 14,000 acres of alfalfa, 10,000 apple trees, 9,000 acres of corn, 5,700 acres of sugar beets, and 3,000 acres of melons.</p> <h2>Twentieth-Century Changes</h2> <p>Like many other counties in eastern Colorado, Crowley County saw a number of significant changes over the course of the twentieth century. The rise of automobile use ended the boom era of the locomotive; agricultural development began to outpace the water supply; a <strong>Great Depression</strong> and <a href="/article/dust-bowl"><strong>Dust Bowl</strong></a> dealt severe blows to the county economy; the sugar beet factory closed; and ongoing modernization of agriculture made it more difficult for small- and medium-sized farms to stay afloat.</p> <p>The town of Crowley incorporated in 1921, just as it attained peak relevancy. The town had two grocery stores, two general stores, and two pool halls, as well as a two-story hotel, bank, and a movie house. The town thrived for about another decade or so, until the Great Depression and Dust Bowl hit in the 1930s. As they did to so many other counties, both events hit Crowley County hard. The number of farms reporting crop failure jumped from 242 in 1929 to 474 in 1934, and the Colorado Canal often ran dry.</p> <p>However, as early as 1931—before the worst effects of the drought and the Dust Bowl—it was clear that agricultural development in Crowley County had outpaced the local water supply. In 1935 the Twin Lakes Reservoir and Canal Company completed a $2 million trans-mountain diversion system that carried water from the west side of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/great-divide"><strong>Continental Divide</strong></a>, near the town of Twin Lakes<strong>,</strong> to the Arkansas River. The new water source kept Crowley County farms producing until the 1970s.</p> <p>During World War II, German POWs helped harvest the Crowley County beet crop, and Japanese families that had been relocated from California moved in with friends or relatives in the county. A plaque at the Heritage Center in Crowley pays tribute to the county’s sheltering of Japanese families, who were viewed with suspicion during the war years.</p> <p>The county economy took another hit in 1966, when the Sugar City beet factory closed. Meanwhile, the agricultural industry was in transition, not only in Crowley County but across the nation. The decades following World War II saw innovations in agriculture, including machinery and chemicals that allowed for larger yields. Combines, fertilizers, pesticides, and other new farm inputs allowed for larger farms, but they also encouraged the consolidation of farmland by those who could afford those inputs. This trend is reflected in Crowley County, where between 1950 and 1970 the number of farms dropped from 490 to 309, and the average farm size increased from 858 acres to more than 1,400 acres.</p> <p>In the 1970s, Crowley County farmers sold their Twin Lakes Reservoir water rights to the Crowley County Land and Development Company, which then sold the rights to Pueblo, Colorado Springs, Pueblo West, and Aurora—all growing cities along the Front Range. The water rights were sold on the condition that the municipalities plant native prairie grasses on the de-irrigated Crowley County land, but contractors botched the seeding effort, so much of Crowley County remains barren today.</p> <p>The loss of the sugar factory and water rights in the 1960s and 1970s took a heavy toll on the Crowley County economy. By 1978 the town of Crowley—once a thriving agricultural hub—had just three businesses.</p> <h2>Today</h2> <p>Crowley County’s diminished agricultural potential in the late twentieth century necessitated a shift back to ranching, the area’s earliest enterprise. Today, Crowley County raises a total of 91,193 cattle and calves, the seventh-largest herd in the state. It also has the eighth-largest sorghum crop in the state at 998 acres. Most of the county’s jobs are in the public administration and healthcare/social services sector.</p> <p>Culturally, the Crowley Heritage Center was able to get the town’s <a href="/article/crowley-school"><strong>1914 school</strong></a> building listed on the Colorado State Register of Historic Properties in 1993. Today the building serves as a community center, hosting weddings, reunions, and other events.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/county-history" hreflang="en">county history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ordway" hreflang="en">ordway</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-city" hreflang="en">sugar city</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/great-plains" hreflang="en">Great Plains</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dust-bowl" hreflang="en">dust bowl</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/southeast-colorado" hreflang="en">southeast colorado</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/sugar-beet" hreflang="en">sugar beet</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/twin-lakes-reservoir" hreflang="en">twin lakes reservoir</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/olney-springs" hreflang="en">olney springs</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/missouri-pacific-railroad" hreflang="en">missouri pacific railroad</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p><strong>References</strong></p> <p>Frances Bollacker Keck, <em>Conquistadors to the Twenty-First Century: A History of Otero and Crowley Counties Colorado</em> (La Junta, CO: Otero Press, 1999).</p> <p>Crowley County Heritage Society, <em>The History of Crowley County </em>(Dallas, TX: Taylor Publishing, 1980).</p> <p>Data USA, “<a href="https://datausa.io/profile/geo/crowley-county-co/">Crowley County, CO,</a>” n.d.</p> <p>Marianne Goodland, “<a href="https://www.coloradoindependent.com/2015/07/09/buying-and-drying-water-lessons-from-crowley-county/">Buying and drying: water lessons from Crowley County</a>,” <em>Colorado Independent</em>, July 9, 2015.</p> <p>Pekka Hämäläinen, <em>The Comanche Empire </em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).</p> <p>The Heritage Center, Crowley, Colorado, “<a href="https://www.crowleyheritagecenter.com/index.php/crowley-county/history">History of Crowley County</a>,” n.d.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/County_Profiles/">2012 Census of Agriculture County Profile: Crowley County Colorado</a>,” National Agricultural Statistics Service.</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado-Arizona</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 2, Part 3 (1930).</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Statistics for the State &amp; Statistics for Counties-Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 29: Wyoming and Colorado (1950).</p> <p>US Department of Agriculture, “<a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/">Colorado</a>,” US Census of Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 41, Chapter 2 (1969).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/crowleycounty/crowley">Crowley</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/crowleycounty">Crowley County</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.coloradoplains.com/crowley/index.htm">Crowley County Genealogy and History</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.crowleyheritagecenter.com/">Crowley County Heritage Center</a></p> <p><a href="http://www.townofordway.com">Ordway</a></p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 04 Nov 2016 22:15:33 +0000 yongli 2029 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Flooding in Colorado http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Flooding in Colorado</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1695--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1695.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/damaging-deluge"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=sLDDh68y" width="1000" height="775" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/damaging-deluge" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Damaging Deluge </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Floodwaters and accumulated debris on the South Platte River undercut a bridge.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1697--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1697.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/flash-flood-big-thompson-river"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=jxlegcLr" width="1000" height="1481" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/flash-flood-big-thompson-river" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Flash Flood, Big Thompson River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The 1976 Big Thompson Flood overran inhabitants and infrastructure within the Big Thompson Canyon.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1699--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1699.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/lawn-lake-dam-failure-1982"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Flooding-in-Colorado-Media-3_0.jpg?itok=S3R1upbp" width="1000" height="685" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/lawn-lake-dam-failure-1982" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Lawn Lake Dam Failure, 1982.</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The breached Lawn Lake Dam after the 1982 Fall River Flood.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/yongli" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">yongli</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-08-15T16:19:54-06:00" title="Monday, August 15, 2016 - 16:19" class="datetime">Mon, 08/15/2016 - 16:19</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/flooding-colorado" data-a2a-title="Flooding in Colorado"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fflooding-colorado&amp;title=Flooding%20in%20Colorado"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>Coloradans have maintained a complex relationship with the natural process of flooding. On one hand, inhabitants of the arid West—from early indigenous communities to current metropolitan populations—have been attracted to the many resources floodplains provide. On the other hand, periodic inundations have taken significant tolls on both human lives and property. Examining Colorado floods over time reveals the complicated linkages between people and <a href="/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a>.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rivers as Lifeways</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>When the rivers of Colorado overflow their banks, settlement patterns and density have often determined the extent of human risk. As enormous, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/glaciers"><strong>glacier</strong></a>-melt floods molded the foothills of the <a href="/article/front-range"><strong>Front Range</strong></a> during the end of the last Ice Age, the first <a href="/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> groups arrived in what would become Colorado. Thereafter, Native Americans used various river floodplains for seasonal sustenance. For example, the <strong>Cheyenne </strong>and <strong>Arapaho</strong> foraged and hunted game and, perhaps of equal importance, grazed horses near the river bottoms of the <a href="/article/south-platte-river"><strong>South Platte</strong></a> and <strong><a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river">Arkansas</a> </strong>Rivers in the winter. Frequent inundations delivered nutrient-rich alluvial soils to support a wide array of flora and fauna, which in turn nourished members of Native American societies. The nomadic existence of the Indigenous nations on the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/colorado%E2%80%99s-great-plains"><strong>Great Plains</strong></a> and <a href="/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a> meant that they were not particularly vulnerable to flooding.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Anglo-Americans were also attracted to <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/wetlands-and-riparian-areas"><strong>riparian areas</strong></a>. The <a href="/article/colorado-gold-rush"><strong>Colorado Gold Rush (1858–59)</strong></a> resulted in white settlement along Colorado’s rivers: first, as prospectors in search of gold nuggets; second, as farmers to support the burgeoning mining population. They encountered floods as well. These inundations typically arrived as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/snow"><strong>snow</strong></a>melt in the late spring or early summer. In June 1864, for instance, the Sprague family (which included a young <strong>Abner Sprague</strong>, who would later develop early tourism in <a href="/article/rocky-mountain-national-park"><strong>Rocky Mountain National Park</strong></a>) moved from Illinois to obtain a squatter’s claim and grow crops near the <strong>Big Thompson River</strong>. Upon arrival, neighbors remarked that the stream had flooded a month earlier and wiped out numerous homesteads in the valley. Since then, the Big Thompson River has produced thirteen large floods—including deluges in 1894, 1919, 1938, 1951, 1976, and 2013—and many other smaller floods. These torrents became more hazardous to humans with the permanent occupation of floodplains.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Taming the Rivers</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>As Colorado’s population swelled over the turn of the century—from nearly 195,000 in 1880 to over 935,000 by 1920—it became more vulnerable to catastrophic floods. Storm clouds regularly formed precisely where most Coloradans had settled: at the eastern base of the Rockies. These moisture-laden weather cells frequently ruptured into heavy downpours when pushed over the mountains, a phenomenon known as a cloudburst. In early June 1921, for example, cloudburst conditions developed near the foothills of Cañon City, eventually dumping rain over tributaries of the Arkansas River. The waters quickly surged far above usual levels once they hit the primary channel, producing the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/1921-pueblo-flood"><strong>1921 Arkansas River flood</strong></a> that ravaged the city of <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/pueblo-0"><strong>Pueblo</strong></a>. With more than 43,000 residents, the industrial boomtown featured one of the state’s largest urban populations at the time of the flood. After floodwaters receded, the torrent had killed 78 people, wiped out 510 dwellings, and caused $19 million in property losses (or .25 billion in 2015 dollars). Moreover, the railroad depots of the <strong>Denver &amp; Rio Grande</strong> and the Missouri Pacific suffered the biggest financial setbacks, as more than 2,000 railcars were damaged in the deluge. For the “Pittsburgh of the West,” more human infrastructure on the river floodplain led to increased vulnerability.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>During the twentieth century, Coloradans increasingly relied on dams and channel modifications for flood protection and water storage. As <a href="/article/denver"><strong>Denver</strong></a> grew, municipal planners lobbied for measures to shield the burgeoning metropolis from inundations. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, for instance, the Works Progress Administration funded the construction of <strong>Englewood Dam</strong> on Dry Creek, a tributary of the South Platte River. Apart from this <a href="/article/new-deal-colorado"><strong>New Deal</strong></a> project, the US Army Corps of Engineers erected <strong>Cherry Creek Dam</strong> between 1948 and 1950 for flood prevention. The reservoir served as a catchment basin for excess water—up to 13,960 acre-feet—to be stored near the confluence of Cherry and Cottonwood creeks in <strong>Aurora</strong>.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Despite these engineering schemes, the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/south-platte-flood-1965"><strong>1965 South Platte River flood</strong></a> overwhelmed the Denver metropolitan area. From June 14 to June 20, a series of weather systems hit the Front Range. The South Platte and Arkansas river basins flooded from <a href="/article/fort-collins"><strong>Fort Collins</strong></a> to Pueblo. While the downpour inundated many areas, Denver suffered the worst damage because more than 60 percent of the city lay within the flood zone. In all, the Mile High City accrued $378 million in property losses (the equivalent of almost $3 billion in 2015), making it the most damaging torrent in Colorado’s history. In response, the Corps of Engineers built two more structures for flood control: the <strong>Chatfield Dam </strong>on Plum Creek, from 1967 to 1975, and the <strong>Bear Creek Dam </strong>at the convergence of Bear and Turkey creeks, from 1968 to 1982.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Rivers Strike Back</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>Often, human actions contributed to the devastating effects of flooding. The <strong>1976 Big Thompson River flood</strong> offers an example. In the 1930s, the Colorado State Highway Department used New Deal money to construct a modern highway in Big Thompson Canyon. The road infrastructure, while easing automobile travel to <strong>Estes Park</strong> and Rocky Mountain National Park, required realigning and channeling the river in numerous places, thus amplifying the river’s hydraulic power. After World War II, promotional materials capitalized on the explosion in postwar vacationing by highlighting the natural wonders—and downplaying the natural hazards—of Big Thompson Canyon. These idealized places, in turn, led to an upsurge in riverine population as more permanent residents and seasonal tourists occupied the floodplain. On the evening of July 31, 1976—at the peak of vacation season—a thunderstorm dropped between eight and fourteen inches of water in an area of seventy square miles between Estes Park and Drake. The downpour almost matched the region’s yearly average in total rainfall. In addition to destroying homes, roads, and businesses, 144 people died, making the 1976 flash flood the most lethal deluge in Colorado history.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>In other instances, human actions contributed to the flood itself. The <strong>1982 Fall River (Lawn Lake) flood</strong> offers a pertinent example. Lawn Lake was a body of water located in the high mountains of what would eventually become Rocky Mountain National Park. In 1903, and again in 1931, the Farmer’s Irrigation Ditch &amp; Reservoir Company built retaining walls around the lake to augment its water storage in order to support irrigated agriculture near <strong>Loveland</strong>. Over time, though, water suppliers ignored the dam. Maintenance required a six-mile hike to the site, and no automobiles or heavy equipment could reach the area. After years of neglect, a leaky outlet pipe destabilized the earthen structure, and on the morning of July 15, 1982, the Lawn Lake Dam collapsed. The water churned down the Roaring River, then roiled along the Fall River, destroying campgrounds and killing two people in the park before it reached the Big Thompson River. The booming river then swamped the resort town of Estes Park, which incurred most of the property damages, until the <strong>Olympus Dam </strong>finally contained the floodwaters.</p>&#13; &#13; <h2>Resiliency and Vulnerability</h2>&#13; &#13; <p>During the transition to the twenty-first century, Coloradans have in some ways adapted to floods while also exposing themselves to new challenges. Like most cities along the Front Range’s urban corridor, Fort Collins experienced a population boom over the second half of the twentieth century, surpassing 100,000 people by 1995. With rising density, the amount of impervious surfaces associated with development—from rooftops to roadways—covered many areas that previously absorbed storm runoff. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, emergency planners counteracted this trend by deciding on more flexible approaches to flooding. The city of Fort Collins purchased commercial and residential properties within the floodplain and established green space to supplant these formerly developed areas. The <a href="/article/spring-creek-flood-1997"><strong>Spring Creek flood</strong></a> struck on July 28, 1997, when about twelve inches of rain fell over Fort Collins. Although a devastating event—most notably, at the campus of <strong>Colorado State University</strong>—flood mitigation efforts saved an estimated ninety-eight lives and prevented approximately $5 million in property damage. In the aftermath of the 1997 flood, the city developed more of its storm-water detection and management systems, which turned out to be a sound choice sixteen years later.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>For a week in September 2013, heavy showers pounded the parched landscape of northern Colorado—nearly seventeen total inches in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/boulder"><strong>Boulder</strong></a>, nine in Estes Park, six in Loveland, and six in Fort Collins. Most streams of the South Platte River watershed swelled in their channels, overtopped their banks, and inundated surrounding areas. In seventeen counties, the floods washed out roadways, demolished bridges, damaged some 26,000 dwellings, razed more than 2,000 homes, and caused an estimated $2 billion in property losses. Eight people were killed, with thousands more endangered and dispossessed. Scientific evidence for human-induced climate change suggests that extreme events like the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/september-2013-floods"><strong>2013 northern Colorado floods</strong></a> have become more frequent and more intense since about 1950. Heavy rainfall events, while varying from region to region, have generally increased in severity and number because a warmer atmosphere possesses the overall potential to carry more moisture and—it follows—dump more water. As a result, Coloradans may expect larger and more numerous floods into the foreseeable future. Although Coloradans have acted to improve resiliency, they remain vulnerable to flooding.</p>&#13; </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/wright-will" hreflang="und">Wright, Will</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/floods" hreflang="en">floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-floods" hreflang="en">colorado floods</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/colorado-flood-history" hreflang="en">colorado flood history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/spring-creek-flood" hreflang="en">spring creek flood</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/boulder-flood-1894" hreflang="en">Boulder Flood of 1894</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/telluride-flood-1914" hreflang="en">Telluride Flood 1914</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/irrigation" hreflang="en">irrigation</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/dam" hreflang="en">dam</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/water" hreflang="en">water</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/front-range-floods-2013" hreflang="en">front range floods 2013</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cloudburst" hreflang="en">cloudburst</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/big-thompson-river" hreflang="en">big thompson river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cache-la-poudre-river" hreflang="en">cache la poudre river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/south-platte-river" hreflang="en">south platte river</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/estes-park" hreflang="en">Estes Park</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Ruth M. Alexander, “2013 Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Project: Final Report” (Fort Collins: Northern Colorado Flood Oral History Collection, Water Resources Archive, Colorado State University Libraries, 2015).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Thomas G. Andrews, <em>Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War </em>(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Tim P. Barnett et al. “Human-Induced Changes in the Hydrology of the Western United States,” <em>Science </em>319 (February 2008).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>City of Fort Collins, “<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/finder/gustav">Gustav Swanson Natural Area</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Terri Cook, “<a href="https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/disaster-strikes-along-colorados-front-range">Disaster strikes along Colorado’s Front Range</a>,” <em>EARTH Magazine</em>, January 20, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Edward E. Jones, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0487/report.pdf"><em>The Arkansas River Flood of June 3–5, 1921</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 487 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert Follansbee and Leon R. Sawyer, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/0997/report.pdf"><em>Floods in Colorado</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 997 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1948).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="http://www.assessment.ucar.edu/flood/flood_summaries/07_28_1997.html">Fort Collins—July 28, 1997</a>,” Weather and Climate Impact Assessment Science Program, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P. Frich et al., “Observed coherent changes in climatic extremes during the second half of the twentieth century,” <em>Climate Research </em>19 (January 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Neil S. Grigg et al., “Fort Collins Flood 1997: Comprehensive View of an Extreme Event,” <em>Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management</em> 125 (September/October 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>“<a href="https://www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/finder/gustav">Gustav Swanson Natural Area</a>,” City of Fort Collins, n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Sarah Hines, “<a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/science-application-integration/docs/science-you-can-use/2014-03.pdf">Our Relationship with a Dynamic Landscape: Understanding the 2013 Northern Colorado Flood</a>,” <em>Science You Can Use Bulletin</em> (March/April 2014).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Robert D. Jarrett and John E. Costa, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1369/report.pdf"><em>Hydrology, Geomorphology, and Dam-Break Modeling of the July 15, 1982 Lawn Lake Dame and Cascade Lake Dam Failures, Larimer County, Colorado</em>,</a> US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1369 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1986).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kenneth Jessen, “<a href="https://www.reporterherald.com/2015/03/12/lawn-lake-dam-break-inundated-estes-park/">Lawn Lake dam break inundated Estes Park</a>,” <em>Loveland Reporter-Herald</em>, March 14, 2014.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Knox, “Large increase in flood magnitude in response to modest changes in climate,” <em>Nature </em>361 (February 1993).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>James C. Knox, “Sensitivity of modern and Holocene floods to climate change,” <em>Quaternary Science Reviews </em>19, no. 1 (2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>H. F. Matthai, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1850b/report.pdf"><em>Floods of June 1965 in South Platte River Basin, Colorado</em></a>, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1850-B (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1969).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>David G. McComb, <em>Big Thompson: Profile of a Natural Disaster</em> (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1980).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Gerald A. Meehl et al., “Understanding future patterns of increased precipitation intensity in climate model simulations,” <em>Geophysical Research Letters </em>32 (September 2005).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>P.C.D. Milly et al., “Increasing risk of great floods in a changing climate,” <em>Nature </em>415 (January 2002).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Seung-Ki Min et al., “Human contribution to more-intense precipitation extremes,” <em>Nature </em>470 (February 2011).</p>&#13; &#13; <p> “<a href="http://www.assessment.ucar.edu/flood/flood_summaries/06_14_1965.html">South Platte &amp; Arkansas Basins: June 14–20, 1965</a>,” Weather and Climate Impact Assessment Science Program, 2007.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “My First Visit to Estes Park,” Manuscript Collection 597, Stephen H. Hart Library and Research Center, History Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “Pioneering on the Big Thompson and in Estes Park,” <em>Colorado Magazine </em>12 (May 1935).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>A. E. Sprague, “Transportation,” Manuscript Collection 597, Stephen H. Hart Library and Research Collection, History Colorado.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Abner E. Sprague, <em>My Pioneer Life: The Memoirs of Abner E. Sprague</em> (Estes Park, CO: Rocky Mountain Nature Association, 1999).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Claudia Tebaldi et al., “Going to the Extremes: An Intercomparison of Model-Simulated Historical and Future Change in Extreme Events,” <em>Climatic Change</em> 79 (2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Kevin E. Trenberth et al., “Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change,” in <em>Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis</em>, Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S.D. Solomon et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corp of Engineers, <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a368527.pdf"><em>Report on the Floods of June 1965—South Platte River Basin, Colorado and Nebraska</em></a> (Omaha: US Army Engineer District, 1967).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Bear-Creek-Dam/">Bear Creek Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Chatfield-Dam/">Chatfield Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Army Corps of Engineers, “<a href="https://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/Missions/Dam-and-Lake-Projects/Tri-Lakes-Projects/Cherry-Creek-Dam/">Cherry Creek Dam and Lake</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>US Census Bureau, “<a href="https://www.census.gov/dmd/www/resapport/states/colorado.pdf">Colorado – Resident Population and Apportionment of US Representatives</a>,” n.d.</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Maarten K. Van Aalst, “The impacts of climate change on the risk of natural disasters,” <em>Disasters 30</em>, no. 1 (2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado</em> (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Will Wright, “Accelerating Waters: An Anthropocene History of Colorado’s 1976 Big Thompson Flood,” (Master’s thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 2016).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Karen M. O’Neill, <em>Rivers by Design: State Power and the Origins of US Flood Control</em> (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Jared Orsi, <em>Hazardous Metropolis: Flooding and Urban Ecology in Los</em> Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Ted Steinberg, <em>Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).</p>&#13; &#13; <p>Will Wright, "Geophysical Agency in the Anthropocene: Engineering a Road and River to Rocky Mountain National Park," <em>Environmental History </em>22, no. 4 (October 2017).</p>&#13; </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Mon, 15 Aug 2016 22:19:54 +0000 yongli 1694 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Bent's Forts http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s Forts</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1329--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1329.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bents-old-fort"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7748.jpg?itok=xO9-0jcV" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bents-old-fort" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s Old Fort</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Inside Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1330--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1330.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/IMG_7711.jpg?itok=7_mqN0MH" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/plaza-bents-old-fort-historic-site" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Plaza, Bent&#039;s Old Fort Historic Site</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>View of the plaza within Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site. In the 1830s and '40s, Native Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanos met in the plaza to conduct trade.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1331--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1331.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/bents-new-fort-plan"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Bents%20New%20Fort%20sketch%20mapwkey_0.jpg?itok=lU1dbetW" width="1090" height="1152" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/bents-new-fort-plan" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Bent&#039;s New Fort Plan</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>In 1849 a decline in the bison hide trade forced William Bent to close his original trading post and open a new one farther down the Arkansas River. This sketch by archaeologist Michelle A. Slaughter outlines the layout of the new fort (click for larger image).</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1328--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1328.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/richard-carrillo"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/RichardCarrillo%20%281%29.jpg?itok=sUUHSBnl" width="1090" height="818" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/richard-carrillo" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Richard Carrillo</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Richard Carrillo explains excavation results at Bent’s New Fort. At the time of his death in 2014, Carrillo was the preeminent Southeastern Colorado archaeologist and historian and was working on a project at Bent’s New Fort.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button class="carousel-control-prev" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="prev"> <span class="carousel-control-prev-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous</span> </button> <button class="carousel-control-next" type="button" data-bs-target="#carouselEncyclopediaArticle" data-bs-slide="next"> <span class="carousel-control-next-icon" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Next</span> </button> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <span lang="" about="/users/nick-johnson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Nick Johnson</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-05-06T10:52:40-06:00" title="Friday, May 6, 2016 - 10:52" class="datetime">Fri, 05/06/2016 - 10:52</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bents-forts" data-a2a-title="Bent&#039;s Forts"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbents-forts&amp;title=Bent%27s%20Forts"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century, when the western United States was in a seemingly unending state of flux as people competed for dominance over the land and its resources, three men moved to what would eventually become southeastern Colorado and there established a trading and commercial empire. The Bents—brothers William, Charles, and <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>—arrived in the area in the late 1820s, and established two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> that were essential in the eventual establishment of permanent communities in the region.</p> <p>The Bents’ empire mixed the American influence of St. Louis and Westport, Missouri, with the existing Spanish and French Canadian influences and traditions in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and Nuche (<a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> people) also controlled territory in southeastern Colorado and influenced the region’s cultural medley. As the Bents increased their economic domain, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> peoples made increasing inroads into the plains bounded by the Rockies on the west, the Platte Rivers to the north, and the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> to the south.</p> <p>Perhaps anticipating the value of the small, but competitive tribes who came to the region to capitalize on the wild horse trade, in 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the esteemed Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman bore four children: Mary, Robert, George, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William continued with Cheyenne tradition and married her sister Yellow Woman, who gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. At some point Yellow Woman left, so William married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men and voyageurs was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire with the construction of Bent’s Old Fort (Fort William), 1832–34. They pioneered the <a href="/article/bison"><strong>bison</strong></a> hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>, and by the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of bison hides, along with other animal hides, for consumption in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a pivotal point on the border of US Territory and the Mexican nation, which gained independence from Spain in 1821.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a focal point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a haven for local trappers and traders until it was misused by General Stephen Watts Kearny’s Army of the West during the Mexican-American War in 1846. Kearny intended Bent’s Fort as a rallying point for preparation of the invasion of New Mexico, northern Mexico, and the expedition to California in support of Americans already living there. This did not sit well with William Bent, and in 1849 it is debated whether or not Bent actually blew up or destroyed his old fort before abandoning it. Being a consummate businessman, Bent would hardly have expended the many barrels of black powder necessary to raze the thick-walled adobe fort. Perhaps he only planted explosives enough to ruin fireplaces, cooking rooms, the well, the blacksmith’s shop, and anything else that might be of value to the federal government. A second theory is that the cholera epidemic that year may have also influenced Bent’s decision to abandon the fort.</p> <p>In 1853, photographer Solomon Nunes Carvalho mentions that “all the material saved from the fort was removed to Mr. Bent’s house, on Big Timber.” In the 1860s, a portion of the fort was renovated by the Missouri Stage Company and served as a stage stop for various companies, including Barlow and Sanderson, until the 1880s.</p> <p>In 1853, William again took to building a so-called New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas River. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, which was situated near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly, according to early travelers and diarists. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to frequent the area as well. Some estimated that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. The New Fort established a place for negotiation and resupply for the government and its agents. It established a destination for the building of the cut-off military road from the Smoky Hill River to the Arkansas River in 1853–56. It saw the tribes gather for their annual<a href="/article/indian-annuities"> <strong>annuities</strong></a> and saw many major and minor councils held between the tribes and with the government representatives.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans rise from Sumner’s Solomon River expedition against the Cheyennes to Chivington’s atrocious attack at <a href="/article/sand-creek-massacre"><strong>Sand Creek</strong></a>. It also found itself as a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. On the other hand, it served as a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/carrillo-richard" hreflang="und">Carrillo, Richard</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/slaughter-michelle" hreflang="und">Slaughter, Michelle A.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort-0" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/william-bent" hreflang="en">william bent</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-old-fort" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s old fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-new-fort" hreflang="en">Bent&#039;s New Fort</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bents-fort-history" hreflang="en">bent&#039;s fort history</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/owl-woman" hreflang="en">Owl Woman</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/mistanta" hreflang="en">mistanta</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/ceran-st-vrain" hreflang="en">Ceran St. Vrain</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/fur-trade" hreflang="en">fur trade</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bison" hreflang="en">bison</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/cheyenne" hreflang="en">cheyenne</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arapaho" hreflang="en">arapaho</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/trading-post" hreflang="en">trading post</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/otero-county" hreflang="en">otero county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/la-junta" hreflang="en">La Junta</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Richard F. Carrillo, <em>The Results of the University of Colorado–Colorado Springs 1994 and 1995 Historical Archaeology Field Schools at Boggsville Historic Site (5BN363): An Early 1860s Village in Southeastern Colorado, Bent County, Colorado</em>, ed. Thomas J. Wynn, prepared for the Pioneer Historical Society of Bent County, Las Animas, Colorado and the State Historical Fund, Colorado Historical Society, Denver (Denver: History Colorado, 1997).</p> <p>Solomon Nunes Carvalho, <em>Incidents of Travel and Adventure in the Far West with Colonel Frémont’s Last Expedition</em> (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2004).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>George E. Hyde, <em>Life of George Bent</em>, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968).</p> <p>David Lavender, <em>Bent’s Fort</em> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1954).</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/beol/index.htm">Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site</a>,” last modified November 18, 2015.</p> <p>National Park Service, “<a href="https://www.nps.gov/safe/learn/historyculture/bents-new-fort.htm">Bent’s New Fort</a>,” last modified November 27, 2015.</p> <p>State Historical Society of Colorado, <em>Bent’s Old Fort</em> (Denver: State Historical Society of Colorado, 1979).</p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-teacher-resources--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-teacher-resources.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-teacher-resources.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-teacher-resources field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-teacher-resources"><p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Bents_Old_Fort.docx">Bent's Forts Teacher Resource Set - Word&nbsp;</a></p> <p><a href="/sites/default/files/TRS_Bents_Old_Fort.pdf">Bent's Forts Teacher Resource Set - PDF</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-4th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-4th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-4th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-4th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-4th-grade"><p>In the late 1820s, three brothers, William, Charles, and George Bent, built two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a>. These posts were located near what is today <strong>La Junta</strong>, Colorado. American, French Canadian, Spanish, and American Indian cultures mixed together in this southeastern Colorado region. The trading posts were important in starting lasting communities in this region.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> joined the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), the daughter of White Thunder. Owl Woman had four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died, William married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie.</p> <p>By the early 1830s, the trading business of the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, was growing. They built Bent’s Old Fort, also called Fort William from 1832 to 1834. By the mid-1840s the Bents were trading many thousands of buffalo and other hides to people living in the eastern United States. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>. </strong>It was a major trade route on the border of the US and Mexico. Bent’s Old Fort was a main point on the Santa Fé Trail for sixteen years before it was destroyed.</p> <p>In 1853, William built a New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” area of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there. It was located near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who visited the fort often.</p> <p>From 1853 to 1867, those living at Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans grow. But, it also was a place for military and civilians who tried to keep the peace between the government and the tribes. Bent’s two forts played an important part in developing southeastern Colorado.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-8th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-8th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-8th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-8th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-8th-grade"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century three brothers moved to what would become southeastern Colorado.&nbsp; There, they created a trading and commercial empire. William, Charles, and George Bent built two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> in southeastern Colorado that were key in the beginnings of permanent communities in the region. The Bents’ empire mixed Americans with the existing Spanish and French-Canadian influences and traditions in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> also controlled territory in the region and helped shape the southeastern Colorado’s cultural mixture.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the respected Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman had four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William, in keeping with Cheyenne tradition, married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. William then married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire. They built Bent’s Old Fort, also called Fort William, from 1832 to 1834. They started the buffalo hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>. By the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of buffalo hides, along with other animal hides, to people living in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a key point on the border of the United States and Mexico.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a central point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a shelter for local trappers and traders until General <strong>Stephen Watts </strong><strong>Kearny</strong>’s Army of the West tried&nbsp; to use it as a base during the Mexican-American War in 1846. The fur trade was in decline by this time, and in 1849 the fort was destroyed. There are several theories about the destruction of the fort, but it is not known for sure what happened.</p> <p>In 1853, William again started building a so-called Bent’s New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, located near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to visit the area as well. Some thought it likely that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. Bent’s New Fort became a place for compromise and resupply for the government and its agents.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the conflict between whites and Native Americans increase. It served as a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. But it also became a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-10th-grade--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-10th-grade.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-10th-grade.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-10th-grade field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-field-10th-grade"><p>In the early and mid-nineteenth century, three men moved to what would eventually become southeastern Colorado and established a trading and commercial empire. The Bents—brothers William, Charles, and George—arrived in the area in the late 1820s, and established two <a href="/article/nineteenth-century-trading-posts"><strong>trading posts</strong></a> that were essential in the eventual establishment of permanent communities in the region.</p> <p>The Bents’ empire mixed the American influence of St. Louis and Westport, Missouri, with the existing Spanish and French Canadian influences in the region. The <strong>Kiowa</strong>, <strong>Comanche</strong>, Plains <strong>Apache</strong>, and <a href="/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> also controlled territory in southeastern Colorado and influenced the region’s cultural mix. As the Bents increased their economic power, the <strong>Cheyenne</strong> and <strong>Arapaho</strong> peoples made increasing inroads into the plains bounded by the Rockies on the west, the Platte Rivers to the north, and the <strong>Arkansas River</strong> to the south.</p> <p>In 1838 <a href="/article/william-bent"><strong>William Bent</strong></a> (sometimes called “Colonel,” “Little White Man,” and “Gray Beard”) joined the Cheyenne tribe by marrying <a href="/article/mistanta-owl-woman"><strong>Owl Woman</strong></a> (Mistanta), daughter of White Thunder, the esteemed Keeper of the Arrows. Owl Woman bore four children: Mary, Robert, <a href="/article/george-bent"><strong>George</strong></a>, and Julia. When Owl Woman died at the birth of Julia, William, in keeping with Cheyenne tradition, married her sister Yellow Woman. She gave birth to his fifth and last child, Charlie. At some point Yellow Woman left, so William married his third and last wife, Island, another sister of Owl Woman.</p> <p>Even though the beaver-trapping era of the mountain men was coming to an end in the early 1830s, the Bents and their partners, the St. Vrains, were expanding their trade empire with the construction of Bent’s Old Fort (Fort William), 1832–34. They pioneered the buffalo hide version of the <a href="/article/fur-trade-colorado"><strong>fur trade</strong></a>, and by the mid-1840s the Bents were trading tens of thousands of buffalo hides, along with other animal hides, for consumption in the East. Bent’s Old Fort was located on the <a href="/article/santa-f%C3%A9-trail-0"><strong>Santa Fé Trail</strong></a><strong>,</strong> and this major trade route put William Bent at a pivotal point on the border between the United States and Mexico.</p> <p>Bent’s Old Fort was a focal point on the Santa Fé Trail, and had served for at least sixteen years as a haven for local trappers and traders until General <strong>Stephen Watts </strong><strong>Kearny</strong>’s Army of the West misused it during the Mexican-American War in 1846. Kearny intended Bent’s Fort as a rallying point for preparation of the invasion of New Mexico (northern Mexico) and the expedition to California in support of Americans already living there. This did not sit well with William Bent, who was a lifelong friend of the Indians. The fur trade was in decline by that time, and in 1849 it was debated whether or not Bent actually blew up his old fort before abandoning it. A second theory is that the cholera epidemic that year may have also influenced Bent’s decision to abandon the fort.</p> <p>In 1853 photographer Solomon Nunes Carvalho mentioned that “all the material saved from the fort was removed to Mr. Bent’s house, on Big Timber.” In the 1860s, a portion of the fort was renovated by the Missouri Stage Company and served as a stage stop for various companies, including Barlow and Sanderson, until the 1880s.</p> <p>In 1853, William again took to building a so-called New Fort at the “<strong>Big Timbers</strong>” section of the Arkansas Valley. He chose a bluff overlooking the river valley and began a new trading post there, which was situated near the camping grounds of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who came there regularly, according to early travelers and diarists. Comanche and some <strong>Pawnee</strong> were known to frequent the area as well. Some estimated that at any one time, there could be thousands camped in the vicinity. The New Fort established a place for negotiation and resupply for the government and its agents. It established a destination for the building of the cut-off military road from the Smoky Hill River to the Arkansas River in 1853–56.</p> <p>In its short active life, 1853–67, Bent’s New Fort saw the rising conflict between whites and Native Americans from Sumner’s Solomon River expedition against the Cheyenne to Chivington’s atrocious attack at <strong>Sand Creek</strong>. It was also a jumping-off point for soldiers in campaigns against Plains Indians in the Red River War. On the other hand, it served as a destination for military and civilians who tried to maintain peaceful relations between the government and the tribes. There is no denying the key role that Bent’s two forts played in the commerce and development of southeastern Colorado.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 06 May 2016 16:52:40 +0000 Nick Johnson 1327 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org Browns Canyon National Monument http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/browns-canyon-national-monument <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--encyclopedia-article.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Browns Canyon National Monument</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-article-image.html.twig * field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-article-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--field-article-image--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div id="carouselEncyclopediaArticle" class="carousel slide" data-bs-ride="true"> <div class="carousel-inner"> <div class="carousel-item active"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1198--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1198.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/arkansas-river-sawatch-range"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Browns-Media-1_0.jpg?itok=YMi8giAX" width="1000" height="718" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/arkansas-river-sawatch-range" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Arkansas River from Sawatch Range</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The famous American photographer, W.G. Chamberlain, took this photo of the southern Arkansas River, a large portion of which flows through Browns Canyon National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> <div class="carousel-item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * node--1201--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--1201.html.twig x node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig * node--image.html.twig * node--article-detail-image.html.twig * node.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image--image.html.twig * field--node--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--field-encyclopedia-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-encyclopedia-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/image/rafting-arkansas-river"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/wide/public/Browns-Media-2_0.jpg?itok=3PaFA8fR" width="1000" height="642" alt="" typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-wide" /> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field.html.twig' --> <div class="carousel-caption d-none d-md-block"> <h5><a href="/image/rafting-arkansas-river" rel="bookmark"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--image.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">Rafting the Arkansas River</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> </a></h5> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--image.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--image.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item"><p>&nbsp;White-water rafters haul their boat down a series of steps at the Fisherman’s Bridge put-in on the Arkansas River.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/content/node--image--article-detail-image.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <button 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'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'time' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> <time datetime="2016-03-11T11:06:24-07:00" title="Friday, March 11, 2016 - 11:06" class="datetime">Fri, 03/11/2016 - 11:06</time> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/time.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'addtoany_standard' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * addtoany-standard--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * addtoany-standard--node.html.twig x addtoany-standard.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <span class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_32 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="http://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/browns-canyon-national-monument" data-a2a-title="Browns Canyon National Monument"><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=http%3A%2F%2Fcoloradoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle%2Fbrowns-canyon-national-monument&amp;title=Browns%20Canyon%20National%20Monument"></a><a class="a2a_button_facebook"></a><a class="a2a_button_twitter"></a><a class="a2a_button_email"></a></span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'modules/contrib/addtoany/templates/addtoany-standard.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--body.html.twig * field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field__item" id="id-body"><p>On February 19, 2015, President Obama designated 21,586 acres of scenic canyons, rivers, and backcountry forest in <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/chaffee-county"><strong>Chaffee County</strong></a>, Colorado, as the Browns Canyon National Monument. Browns Canyon is the eighth <strong>national monument</strong> designation within the state of Colorado. It provides visitors with varied recreational opportunities, from hiking to kayaking and white-water rafting and fishing, and has ensured the continued preservation of habitat important to ecologically sensitive species such as the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/bighorn-sheep"><strong>bighorn sheep</strong></a><strong> </strong>and <strong>pine marten</strong>.</p><h2>A Wild Landscape</h2><p>Stretching between the communities of <strong>Buena Vista</strong> and <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/salida"><strong>Salida</strong></a> in Chaffee County, the Browns Canyon area’s elevation ranges from 7,300 feet to 10,000 feet, offering stunning views of the Upper <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/arkansas-river"><strong>Arkansas River</strong></a> Valley and the <strong>Sawatch Range</strong> of the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountains"><strong>Rocky Mountains</strong></a>. The granite walls of the canyon stand like a series of a natural cathedral <a href="https://medium.com/@solar-power-systems/solar-companies-in-louisiana-b5f6a72726e2">spires</a> that change hues as daylight wanes. The range, formed more than 70 million years ago, is home to some of the highest peaks in the region, towering above 14,000 feet in elevation. The distinctive environmental features consist of mountains, glacial canyons, giant moraines (ridges of glacial debris), and gulches. Drainages interlace the canyon and empty in to the Arkansas River.</p><p>Browns Canyon provides clean <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/water-colorado"><strong>water</strong></a>, habitat for wildlife, biological diversity, outdoor recreational opportunities, and scenic beauty, as well as grazing and other permitted uses. The main natural resource of the monument is the Arkansas River, which provides such recreational activities as rafting, kayaking, biking, horseback riding, hiking, photography, and stargazing. The river is recognized as a gold-medal river for its world-class wild trout fishing. The Arkansas River has long been considered one of America’s most popular whitewater rafting destinations and features rapids with names like Canyon Doors, Zoom Flume, and Seidel’s Suckhole.</p><p>The land managed by the <a href="/article/us-forest-service-colorado"><strong>United States Forest Service</strong></a><strong> </strong>(USFS) within the monument is remote and primitive, with rugged terrain and limited development.&nbsp;There are no developed camping sites and few roads, and dispersed camping opportunities are limited to locations reached by hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding. There are about four miles of nonmotorized trails on the San Isabel National Forest portion of the monument that provide access for those activities.</p><p>Browns Canyon is also home to some of Colorado’s most emblematic animal species. It is winter range for big game such as <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/rocky-mountain-elk"><strong>elk</strong></a> and <a href="/article/mule-deer"><strong>mule deer</strong></a>. A herd of bighorn sheep, first introduced to Chaffee County in the 1980s, continues to thrive in the area. Other wildlife includes the American <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/black-bear"><strong>black bear</strong></a>, bobcat, <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/mountain-lion"><strong>mountain lion</strong></a>, coyote, red fox, and American pine marten. The USFS considers the bighorn sheep and pine marten as “sensitive species,” those that are neither threatened nor endangered but whose population viability is a concern; thus, the agency accords these species significant protection through management decisions. The area’s designation as a national monument has provided even further protection for these sensitive species.</p><p>Surveys of the area date the presence of Native Americans for at least 13,000 years. Numerous archaeological sites, some containing stone artifacts, have been documented by archaeologists in the area. The archaeologists have attributed these early sites to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/paleo-indian-period"><strong>Paleo-Indian</strong></a> and early <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/archaic-period-colorado"><strong>Archaic</strong></a> periods. The general area is traditionally significant to the <a href="https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/search/google/ute"><strong>Ute</strong></a> as well as to the <strong>Jicarilla Apache</strong>. Evidence of modern humans is shown through the visits of early explorers and, by the late 1800s, of miners prospecting in the area. Cabins and other historically significant structures are generally located outside of the monument area.</p><h2>Debate Over Management</h2><p>Browns Canyon includes 11,836 acres of the San Isabel National Forest and 9,750 acres of <strong>Bureau of Land Management </strong>(BLM) land. The USFS and the BLM jointly manage the monument. Browns Canyon National Monument is the ninth monument managed by the USFS and the twenty-first managed by the BLM. The fact that Browns Canyon is technically part of the <strong>National Park Service</strong> (NPS) system but is being cooperatively managed by the USFS and BLM has drawn criticism.</p><p>The 1916 National Park Service Organic Act, which created the NPS, states that the “service thus established shall promote and regulate the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations … which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.”</p><p>While the monument is partly managed by the National Park Service, effectively withdrawing Browns Canyon from future mineral leases and setting strict conservation priorities, critics fear that multiagency management jeopardizes conservation of the monument. The USFS and BLM have multiple-use mandates that include mineral development, logging, and road building. Critics believe that the NPS alone, with its conservation and recreation priorities, is best equipped to manage the monument.</p><p><strong>Adapted from US Forest Service, “</strong><a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/visit/browns-canyon-national-monument"><strong>President Designates Browns Canyon National Monument in Colorado’s Vibrant Upper Arkansas River valley</strong></a><strong>,” US Department of Agriculture, 2015.</strong></p></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-author--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-author.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-author.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-author field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-author"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-author">Author</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-author"><a href="/author/encyclopedia-staff" hreflang="und">Encyclopedia Staff</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-keyword--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-keyword.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-keyword.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-keyword field--type-entity-reference field--label-above" id="id-field-keyword"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-keyword">Keywords</div> <div class='field__items'> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/browns-canyon" hreflang="en">browns canyon</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/browns-canyon-national-monument" hreflang="en">browns canyon national monument</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/chaffee-county" hreflang="en">chaffee county</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/arkansas-river" hreflang="en">Arkansas River</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/us-forest-service-0" hreflang="en">US forest service</a></div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-keyword"><a href="/keyword/bureau-land-management" hreflang="en">Bureau of Land Management</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * links--node.html.twig x links--inline.html.twig * links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/contrib/bootstrap_barrio/templates/navigation/links--inline.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-references-html--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-references-html.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-references-html.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-references-html field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-references-html"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-references-html">References</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-references-html"><p>Alex Carr Johnson, “<a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/national-monument-designation-browns-canyon/">How Many More Monuments Will Obama Create?</a>” <em>High Country News</em>, March 5, 2015, web exclusive. .</p><p>“The National Park Service Organic Act of 1906,” Public Law 91-190, 64th Cong., 1st sess. (January 1, 1970).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-additional-information-htm--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--node--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig x field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig * field--field-additional-information-htm.html.twig * field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-additional-information-htm field--type-text-long field--label-above" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"> <div class="field__label" id="id-field-additional-information-htm">Additional Information</div> <div class="field__item" id="id-field-additional-information-htm"><p>Colorado.com Staff, "<a href="https://www.colorado.com/articles/plan-your-visit-browns-canyon-national-monument">Plan Your Visit to Browns Canyon National Monument</a>," Colorado Tourism, 2017.</p><p>Horace Albright and Marian Albright Schenck, <em>Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Years</em> (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999).</p><p>Denise D. Meringolo, <em>Museums, Monuments, and National Parks: Toward a New Genealogy of Public History</em> (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2012).</p><p>Gerald W. Williams, <em>The Forest Service: Fighting for Our Public Lands</em>, Understanding Our Government Series, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007).</p></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/custom/encyclopedia/templates/field/field--node--encyclopedia-article.html.twig' --> Fri, 11 Mar 2016 18:06:24 +0000 yongli 1197 at http://coloradoencyclopedia.org